International Journal of Advanced Research and Publications

ISSN: 2456-9992

Floor-Type Characterization, Temperature And

Humidity Tolerance For Tunga Penetrans
Infestation In Igbokoda, Ondo State, Nigeria.
Victor. N Enwemiwe
Delta State University, Department of Animal and Environmental Biology,
Abraka, Delta State, Nigeria. PH-2347031882676
enwemiwevictor@gmail.com

Abstract: Tunga penetrans, the jigger flea is causal agent of the skin inflammatory disease so-called tungiasis which is considered common
with unhygienic, poor and indigent residents of communities in the world. This study illustrates the various floor type characteristics and
designated key environmental factors that buoy up infestations in endemic foci. Sand fleas were sampled using a clean white cloth laid on
floors of house and verandas and environmental variables determined using EOSUN electronic device for temperature cum relative
humidity measures. Result divulge that majority of the fleas were obtained from inside house of Zion (36 fleas) and verandas of Kofawe (29
fleas). Inside the house of the various locations, unpaved floor types accounted for 52.8% and 70% of the sampled fleas in Zion and Kofawe
respectively and 50% of the sampled in both paved and paved floors with cracks in Laranda while in verandas, 36.7% and 62.1% of the
sampled fleas were from unpaved floor types in Zion and Kofawe and 54.2% of the fleas recorded in paved floors with cracks in Laranda.
Temperature ranges of 28.00C-35.60C and relative humidity ranges of 50.0%-88% were reported for this study. Since the various floor-type
characteristics and selected environmental conditions are optimum for flea population growth, targeting the temperature and relative
humidity tolerance level through manipulation for species and paving the unpaved and amending the paved with cracks floor types is
recommended to discourage infestations.

Keywords: Floor-type characterization, temperature, humidity tolerance, Tunga penetrans and Igbokoda

1. Introduction
Tungiasis is an ectodermal skin membrane parasitosis
common within the scope of exposed bodily parts in contact
with infected soil. Infected soil could be in unpaved houses,
paved houses with cracks, and even untarred streets where
residents move with unprotected feet. The penetration of
female sand flea into the exposed skin cause the disease
tungiasis. The attack of Tunga penetrans has long been
known to cause many pathognomonic problems among
residents of poor and indigent territories rendering them
disable and even visiting tourists to endemic areas are
infested though with a mild-moderate case. In Italy alone, an
approximate of about 50 cases have been reported from
tourist attacks of T. penetrans in recent decades not to lay
emphasis on the other 20 cases reported in past decades
(Veraldi & Valsecchi, 2007). The disease history was dated
back to Fernandez de Oviedo Gonzalez who in 1525 reported
that Spanish armies in the native indigenous populations
from Haiti frequently suffered from the sand flea disease
(Heukelbach et al., 2001). Early references were reported in
Africa during the first half of the 18th century, probably with
the first case appearing in Senegal and subsequently in
Gabon, Angola and many African countries were they are
considered endemic presently (Hoeppli, 1963). The sand flea
is cogitated the smallest organism in the world with a length
range of below 1mm -10mm and lacking defined compound
eyes (Bitam et al., 2010). This sight deficiency cause them to
attack only body parts at proximities to their habitation. The
lacinia and epipharynx of the female are developed due to
the characteristics of neosomy, tachygenesis, and burrowing
into host to complete their life cycle (Nagy et al., 2007;
Bitam et al., 2010). During dry periods of peak reproduction,
fertilized eggs are expelled into the environment only after
female sand flea penetrates host and copulation with male in
situ. Host identification strategies and penetration
mechanisms are unknown. On a general basis, blood meal is
a requirement for female flea completion of ovarian cycle
and once completed, eggs are released prolifically through
uncovered keratin by evacuated stools on the host epidermal
surface which slides down the surrounding when contacted
with soil (Bitam et al., 2010; Pampiglione et al., 2009;
Veraldi et al., 2013). Animals that bath and bask during
warm periods especially chickens pigs, dogs, goats and cats
are at high risk of infestation serving as animal reservoir of
T. penetrans infestations but pigs were reported and
confirmed the major animal reservoir hosts of the infection
(Mutebi et al., 2015; Ugbomoiko et al., 2008). The world
prevalence of the disease have been reported to be between
15.7 and 54.8% (Ade-Serrano and Ejezie. 1981, Chadee
1994, Heukelbach et al., 2001, Wilcke et al., 2002, Carvalho
et al., 2003, Ehrenberg and Ault. 2005). This disease is
considered neglected due to the attitude of medical
practitioners towards the infestation and cannot be neglected
as blood loss observed in severely infested individuals could
lead to death if precautions are neglected. Life-threatening
sequels commonly associated with this debilitating and
severe re-occurring morbidity in endemic areas includes
acute and chronic inflammation of toes and heels,
deformation and loss of nail on toes, ulceration and
abscesses, painful fissures and lymphoedema (Matias. 1989,
Heukelbach et al., 2001; Wilcke et al., 2002; Feldmeier et al.,
2003; Joseph et al., 2006; Ugbomoiko et al., 2007; Kehr et
al., 2007; Feldmeier and Keysers. 2013). Although, super-
infection by bacteria is ever present in non-vaccinated
individuals causing inflammation to increase, tetanus and
gangrene, leading to intense pain, difficulty in walking and
death in rare cases (Obengui. 1989; Tonge. 1989; Litvoc et
al., 1991; Mashek et al., 1997; Heukelbach et al., 2001;
Feldmeier et al., 2002; Feldmeier et al., 2004; Feldmeier et
al., 2006; Ugbomoiko et al., 2007; Feldmeier et al., 2009). A
variety of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria have also been

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 International Journal of Advanced Research and Publications
ISSN: 2456-9992
isolated from embedded sand fleas (Fischer et al., 2002,
Heukelbach et al., 2004). Environment factors such as
temperature and humidity are reported to encourage egg
hatches into cracks in floors of house dwellings or in nests
and beddings at about two to twelve days (Bitam et al.,
2010). The temperature and humidity tolerance ranges were
not reported and are considered lacking for flea infestations
in endemic areas. Apart from the confirmed DNA sequence
data available for the discrimination of non-neosomic T.
penetrans and T. trimamillata (Luchetti et al., 2005) and
genetic variability of T. penetrans (Siphonaptera, Tungidae)
sand fleas across South America and Africa (Luchetti et al.,
2005), detailed DNA information on genetic diversity and
composition are lacking. Hence more scientific interventions
are needed for the infestation. But first the habitat structure,
temperature and humidity tolerance is needed to justify the
biology of the vector agent.
2. Methodology
2.0. Experimental area and population
The study was performed in three communities, Zion,
Laranda and Kofawe Igbokoda, Ondo State, Nigeria. The
villages are traditional fishing communities and were
relatively sequestered until recently with Laranda being
50meter apart from Zion and 50km apart from Kofawe. The
communities are inhabited by an approximately 125 families
each with an estimated total population of 820 each with a
little fluctuations. Houses are located in large sandy
compounds with thatched fences in some and lacking in
others. Only a single dilapidated health care center is
available in Zion and lacking in the other two sites.
2.1. Study design
The randomized field sampling of sand fleas and
environmental factor measurement from the three sites were
carried out between 8th of March and 8th June, 2017 which
coincides with the dry season when infestations of sand fleas
were ranked at peak. A total of 30 houses were randomly
selected to determine floor type characteristics of resident
and sampled for the presence of flea in the three mapped
locations. At least 6 – 10 houses were sampled weekly either
those classified as paved, paved with cracks or unpaved
houses. Fleas were sampled by laying a clean white cloth
half-way the floor of rooms in each paved or paved houses
with cracks and using a broom to sweep towards the white
cloth. The white cloth was observed carefully for the
presence of flea, present fleas were recorded for both
sampled rooms and verandas. The unpaved houses were
sampled by first over wetting the sandy floors and a shovel
scoop of sand emptied into a bucket of water half-filled with
water and the floating fleas were collected, viewed and
counted. Prior to house sampling, head of household
consented to the study. Houses were also swept weekly in
the mornings and evenings to obtain sands in house and
veranda. Sands were placed in a dark cellophane bag
containing 10ml of 10% formaldehyde flea. During
sweeping, sands on floor of houses were crushed repeatedly
to inactivate the flea before sands were gathered to avoid
penetration of researcher. Gathered sand were transported to
the Department of Biological Sciences laboratory, Osustech,
to be viewed under a microscope, counted and recorded for
both inside rooms and verandas. Temperature and relative
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humidity were measured using E-OSUN temperature-relative
humidity digital device. Temperature and relative humidity
was taken at early hours of the day bi-weekly for the 12
weeks.
2.2. Data analysis
Data was entered in an Ms Excel package 2013, checked for
errors and a single factor ANOVA was used to determine
significant difference for fleas inside house and verandas of
the classified floor types. Similar for temperature and
humidity tolerance.
3.0. Results
Flea sampling in relations to floor type, with temperature and
relative humidity tolerance level for flea infestations was
determined within all the sampled site for 12 weeks. Floor
types were characterized as paved for cemented floors,
unpaved for sandy, muddy or dusty floors, and paved with
cracks for cemented floors with mild, moderate or severe
cracks to harbour fleas.
3.1. Floor type and fleas
3.1.1. Floor type and fleas inside the house
In total, 36 fleas in Zion, 8 fleas in Laranda and 10 fleas in
Kofawe was recorded inside the houses comprising of 19, 0
and 7 fleas sampled from within the unpaved floor type, 4, 4
and 3 fleas recorded in paved floors with cracks and a total
of 13, 4 and 0 fleas sampled from paved floor types in Zion,
Laranda and Kofawe respectively (Table 3.1.1). Within Zion,
52.8% of the sampled fleas were from unpaved floor types
while 11.1% of fleas were obtained from paved floor type
with crack. The range of fleas encountered for Zion was 7
with a maximum of 7 fleas encountered in a floor type and in
a null flea in others. There was a high significant difference
(F(2,29)=12.23, P<0.05) between sand fleas sampled inside
house in Zion. Equal flea percentage were recorded in both
paved and paved floors with cracks in Laranda. The sampled
fleas is at the range of 2 and the maximum fleas sampled is 2
for the floor types. There was no significant difference
(F(3,29)=1.89, P>0.05) between sand fleas sampled inside
houses. A greater percent (70%) of sampled fleas were
encountered in unpaved floor type and none in paved floors.
A very high significant difference (F(2,29)=16.68, P<0.05)
exist for fleas sampled in rooms of Kofawe. Majority of the
houses in Zion were not paved compared to those in Laranda
and Kofawe as shown in figure 3.1.1 below. In contrast,
greater percent of the inside house of Laranda and Kofawe
were paved compared to those recorded in Zion. However,
paved floors with cracks were common in Laranda than in
Zion and Kofawe.
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 International Journal of Advanced Research and Publications
ISSN: 2456-9992

Table 3.1.1. Show the summary of total flea number sampled inside the house in the sampled site (n= 30 houses each)

Zion Laranda Kofawe

Floor type
Total (%) M±SD R (m-M) Total (%) M±SD R (m-M) Total (%) M±SD R (m-M)
Paved 13 (36.1%) 0.57±0.99 4 (0-4) 4 (50%) 0.17±0.49 2 (0-2) 0 (0%) 0.00±0.00 0 (0-0)
Paved with cracks 4 (11.1%) 4.00±0.00 0 (0-4) 4 (50%) 0.80±0.84 2 (0-2) 3 (30%) 1.50±0.71 1 (1-2)
Unpaved 19 (52.8%) 3.17±2.14 6 (1-7) 0 (0%) 0.00±0.00 0 (0-0) 7 (70%) 1.40±1.14 3 (0-3)
Total 36 (100%) 1.20±1.71 7 (0-7) 8 (100%) 0.27±0.58 2 (0-2) 10 (100%) 0.33±0.76 3 (0-3)
N.B: M±SD implies Mean± Standard deviation and R (m-M) implies range of values (minimum-maximum values)

Fig. 3.1.1. Show percentage occurrence of floor types inside the house in the sampled site

3.1.2. Floor type and fleas in veranda of sampled
houses
In the veranda of houses sample, a total of 24 sand fleas in
Zion, 24 fleas in Laranda and 29 fleas in Kofawe was
recorded in veranda outside the houses comprising of 11, 9
and 18 fleas sampled from unpaved floor type, 7, 13 and 10
fleas recorded in paved floors with cracks and a total of 6, 2
and 1 flea sampled from paved floor types in Zion, Laranda
and Kofawe respectively (Table 3.1.2). Within Zion, a
greater percent (36.7%) of the sampled fleas were from
unpaved floor types while the least (25.0%) of fleas was
obtained from paved floor type. Flea sampled range at 6 with
a maximum of 6 fleas encountered in a floor type and in a
null flea in others. There was a high significant difference
(F(2,23)=5.27, P<0.05) between sand fleas sampled in veranda
outside house in Zion. In Laranda, a greater percent (54.2%)
of the fleas were recorded in paved floors with cracks and a
least percent (8.3%) in paved floor type. The sampled fleas is
at the range of 3 and the maximum fleas sampled is 3 for the
floor types. There was a very high significant difference
(F(2,28)=10.46, P<0.05) between sand fleas sampled in the
veranda of houses. A greater percent (62.1%) of sampled
fleas were encountered in unpaved floor type and a least
(3.5%) in paved floors. A very high significant difference
(F(2,25)=16.29, P<0.05) exist for fleas sampled in veranda
outside houses in Kofawe. More than 50% of verandas in
Zion were paved compared to other locations sampled for
sand fleas. Verandas in Kofawe sampled were often not
paved compared to tother two locations as shown in figure
3.1.2 below while cracked verandas were common in also to
Laranda than in Zion and Kofawe.

Table 3.1.2. Show the summary of total flea number sampled in verandas of house in the sampled site (n= 30 houses each)

Zion Laranda Kofawe

Floor type
Total (%) M±SD R (m-M) Total (%) M±SD R (m-M) Total (%) M±SD R (m-M)
Paved 6 (25.0%) 0.46±0.97 3 (0-3) 2 (8.3%) 0.18±0.41 1 (0-1) 1 (3.5%) 0.11±0.33 1 (0-1)
Paved with cracks 7 (29.2%) 3.50±3.54 5 (1-6) 13 (54.2%) 1.08±0.79 3 (0-3) 10 (34.5%) 1.40±1.14 3 (0-3)
Unpaved 11 (36.7%) 1.22±1.09 3 (0-3) 9 (37.5%) 1.50±0.55 1 (0-1) 18 (62.1%) 1.80±0.63 2 (1-3)
Total 24 (100%) 0.80±1.38 6 (0-6) 24 (100%) 0.80±0.81 3 (0-3) 29 (100%) 0.97±1.00 3 (0-3)
N.B: M±SD implies Mean± Standard deviation and R (m-M) implies range of values (minimum-maximum values)

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Fig. 3.2. Show percentage occurrence of veranda outside house in the sampled site

3.2. Temperature determination for fleas
Floor temperature ranges in total were highest in Laranda
(32.90C) with a little low fluctuations in Zion and Kofawe
(32.6 and 32.30C) respectively. Within Zion community,
paved floor type has the lowest temperature (32.40C) in
comparison to paved floors with cracks (34.50C) (Table 3.2).
There was no significant difference (F(2,29)=0.63, P>0.05) in
the temperature recorded in the various floor types in Zion.
The highest mean temperatures was recorded in floors with
cracks (33.10C) compared to those recorded in paved and
unpaved floor types (32.90C) respectively. There was no
significant difference (F(2,29)=0.36, P>0.05) in the
temperature recorded in the various floor types in Laranda.
The highest mean temperature was reported in unpaved
floors (33.50C) compared to the little fluctuations in paved
and paved floor types with cracks. There was no significant
difference (F(2,29)=1.71, P>0.05) in the temperature recorded
in the various floor types in Kofawe.

Table 3.2. Temperature values in houses sampled in the various sites (n= 30 houses each)

Zion Laranda Kofawe

Temperature
M±SD R (m-M) M±SD R (m-M) M±SD R (m-M)
Paved 32.4±1.81 6.6 (29.0-35.6) 32.9±1.29 5.6 (29-34.6) 32.0±1.76 5.5 (29-34.5)
Paved with cracks 34.5±0.00 0 (34.5-34.5) 33.1±0.74 2 (31.9-33.9) 33.2±0.07 0.1 (33.1-33.2)
Unpaved 32.8±2.40 6.3 (28-34.3) 32.9±4.38 6.2 (29-35.2) 33.5±1.60 4.3 (30.8-35.1)
Total 32.6±1.91 7.6 (28-35.6) 32.9±1.43 6.2 (29-35.2) 32.3±1.75 6.1 (29.0-35.1)
N.B: M±SD implies Mean± Standard deviation and R (m-M) implies range of values (minimum-maximum values)

3.3. Humidity determination for fleas
The mean relative humidity ranges was generally high in
Kofawe (70.0%) with a little low fluctuations in Zion and
Laranda (68.6% and 68.9%) respectively. In Zion
community, houses with cracking paved floor type has the
highest humidity (73.0%) in comparison to paved and
unpaved floors (68.9 % and 69.2%) (Table 3.3). There was
no significant difference (F(2,29)=0.063, P>0.05) in the
humidity recorded in the house sampled with various floor
types in Zion. The highest mean humidity was recorded in
houses with unpaved floors (74.5%) compared to those
recorded in paved and paved floor types with cracks (68.6
and 68.0%) respectively. There was no significant difference
(F(2,29)=0.53, P>0.05) in the humidity recorded in the various
houses with floor types in Laranda. The highest mean
humidity was reported in houses with paved floors (70.9%)
compared to the little fluctuations in houses with unpaved
and paved floor types with cracks. There was no significant
difference (F(2,29)=1.93, P>0.05) in the humidity recorded in
the various houses with floor types in Kofawe.

Table 3.3. Show the different humidity values recorded in the sampled site (n= 30 houses each)

Zion Laranda Kofawe

Humidity
M±SD R (m-M) M±SD R (m-M) M±SD R (m-M)
Paved 68.9±11.85 38 (50.0-88.0) 68.6±7.52 30 (54.0-84.0) 70.9±10.69 34 (54.0-88.0)
Paved with cracks 73.0±0.00 0 (73.0-73.0) 68.0±9.43 24 (59.0-83.0) 57.0±4.24 6 (54.0-60.0)
Unpaved 69.2±9.43 25 (59.0-84.0) 74.5±13.44 19 (65.0-84.0) 64.8±13.22 33 (55.0-88.0)
Total 68.6±10.89 38 (50.0-88.0) 68.9±27.61 152 (54.0-84.0) 70.0±11.28 34 (54.0-88.0)
N.B: M±SD implies Mean± Standard deviation and R (m-M) implies range of values (minimum-maximum values)

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 International Journal of Advanced Research and Publications
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4. Discussion
This study recorded high flea population in Zion Igbokoda
with 52.8% of the sampled fleas from unpaved floor types
while 11.1% of fleas obtained from paved floor type with
crack. This flea population sampled from Zion is linked to
the fact that 76% of the houses sampled were unpaved and
remain sandy for the sampled location compared to the
other two sampled locations. Although, the different
paved floor types with cracks may serve mainly as
suitable hideouts for adult sand fleas, development nest of
immature stages that slide and glides off host infested sites
and even a reservoir area for re-infestation during dry
periods when the infestation is reported to peak in
individuals inhabiting houses with suitable loose, dry,
sandy soil. Even in Laranda and Kofawe, greater flea
percentage were recorded in paved floors with cracks and
unpaved floor type than in paved floors. Flea occurrence
in paved floors may be a probability occurrence from
those species that cling to hairs, furs and every other
separable materials for flea transport into houses with
paved floors. There was high significant differences in the
flea populations sampled from Zion and Kofawe may be
due to the greater percentage of the unpaved floor type
were must have encouraged the habitation of fleas and
developmental stages. The development of female sand
flea from eggs which hatch into legless and eyeless larvae,
pupating into matured dark-brown adult with biting and
sucking mouth parts is within 1–2 weeks (Linardi et al.,
2014; Pampiglione et al., 2009). The considerable flea
population recorded in verandas of the house sampled
from the different locations is linked to floor types as
greater percentage of verandas in Kofawe were not paved
as well as a 20-35% of the verandas in kofawe and Zion.
Even with floors of verandas, a greater percent (36.7%
and 62.1%) of sampled fleas were encountered in unpaved
floor type in Zion and Kofawe while a greater percent
(54.2%) of the fleas were recorded in paved floors with
cracks in Laranda. The life cycle assessment of sand fleas
is hinged on varying environmental factors such as
temperature and relative humidity along with floor type
characteristics to act as bed for development when all
environmental conditions are tolerable. In this study,
paved floor type has the lowest temperature (32.40C) in
comparison to paved floors with cracks (34.50C) in Zion,
highest mean temperatures was recorded in floors with
cracks (33.10C) compared to those recorded in paved and
unpaved floor types (32.90C) respectively in Laranda and
in Kofawe, highest mean temperature was reported in
unpaved floors (33.50C) compared to the little fluctuations
in paved and paved floor types with cracks. There was no
significant differences (P> 0.05) in temperature ranges for
floor types in the different locations sampled. In contrast,
mean relative humidity ranges was generally high in
Kofawe (70.0%) with a little low fluctuations in Zion and
Laranda respectively. Zion sampled houses with cracking
paved floor type has the highest humidity (73.0%), highest
mean humidity was recorded in Laranda houses with
unpaved floors (74.5%), and highest mean humidity was
reported in houses with paved floors (70.9) in Kofawe.
Also there was no significant difference (P> 0.05) in the
relative humidity reported in the various sampled
locations. The temperature and relative humidity reported
in this study is equal to those reported to be optimum for
insect survival, fecundity and growth. This may be the
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case in some other regions where temperature is suitable
for the growth in flea population. 250C-350C and 65-75%
of moisture level are reported optimum for insect survival.
Researches on jigger infestations has not addressed the
biological cause of flea spread. The presence of vulnerable
host who do not take precautions amongst those listed for
environmental conditions are among factors aiding the
reproduction and spread of the causal agents. When these
temperatures are increased through high-temperature-fume
sprays or when floor of houses are cleaned for paved or
constantly watered by thorough sprinkling, the flea
population off host may be targeted. While as authors
have addressed, the use of personal protective equipment
and insecticide sprays on the other hand would and use of
repellent-based extracts would target on-host species that
may act as reservoir to spread of fleas in an area. Organic
matter availability in litters and waste dumps close to
house have been linked to sand flea abundance (Bitam et
al., 2010). Since the larvae of sand fleas have been tagged
free living organic feeders as feeding on human fecal
waste is reportedly common in some species (Krasnov,
2008). Even rearing birds close to residential area can lead
to a great abundance in flea population due to high
accumulates of organic matter. On a general note, flea
development from eggs to larvae is dependent on
environmental factors (Dobler and Pfeffer 2011) and the
manipulation of temperature and relative humidity from
those optimal for development will create a tool for
population control. It is reported that seasonal fluctuations
influences the sand flea infestation rate and frequent
occurrence as high jigger prevalence is during the dry
season (Heukelbach, 2005). The significant decrease
infestation rate during rainy periods may be linked to
lower temperature and rise in moisture level tolerance for
jigger development. It was noticed in the semi-arid
Northeast Brazil that flea infestation decrease as soon as
the rainy season begins and increased again in drier
conditions (Winter et al., 2009). Seasonal variation of
infestation rates is determined by sandy or muddy nature
of the soil which is the environmental determinant of off-
host propagation patterns and development of sand flea
(Linardi et al., 2010). The nature of floor of abode of these
endemic populations provide a suitable habitat condition
for T. penetrans development. The floor types in endemic
foci could take the predictably form of being unpaved,
muddy, dirty or possessing a fractured solid floor or even
ground covered with broken tiles. In an urban slum,
residential areas, roads and streets not paved with waste
dumps around area were reported to encourage flea
habitation (Feldmeier and Heukelbach 2009). Haven
identified that floor type and environmental conditions can
raise the risk and chances of flea growth, the proper
pavement of sandy or clayey floors in a severely affected
communities would reduce in-house infestation and re-
infestation. However, cementing floors of severely
affected community in western Nigeria was reported to
reduce transmission rates and prevalence of tungiasis by
almost 75% (Ugbomoiko et al., 2006). Conclusively, it is
known that floor type and environmental tolerance levels
can encourage flea populations in endemic foci.
Controlling sand flea population apart from the use of
insecticide sprays and surgical manipulation of infested
feet is possible by targeting the temperature and relative
humidity tolerance level for species or mending floor
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ISSN: 2456-9992
types reported to encourage infestations. More studies are
therefore needed on aerial sprays of high temperature
moist fumes on infected soils to target fleas than the
conventional use of insecticide that would in time develop
resistance and present a difficult state in controlling the
species.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to residents of the community who allowed
me sample their houses of fleas and Pastor Eniomodun,
Proprietor of Achievers’ Academy, Igbokoda for
assistance rendered.
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