Balancing Water Scarcity and Quality For Sustainable Irrigated Agriculture

RESEARCH ARTICLE Balancing water scarcity and quality for sustainable irrigated
10.1002/2015WR017071
agriculture
Special Section: Published online 8 MAY 2015
The 50th Anniversary of Water Shmuel Assouline1, David Russo1, Avner Silber2, and Dani Or3
Resources Research 1 Department of Environmental Physics, Institute of Soil, Water, and Environmental Sciences, A.R.O.—Volcani Center, Bet
Dagan, Israel, 2Northern R&D, Rosh Pina, Israel, 3Department of Environmental Systems Science (D-USYS), Swiss Federal
Key Points:
Institute of Technology (ETH), Zurich, Switzerland
Irrigation with treated effluent has
adverse impacts on soil properties
Irrigation with desalinated water
improves yields and save water
Quantitative models are used to Abstract The challenge of meeting the projected doubling of global demand for food by 2050 is
delineate trends monumental. It is further exacerbated by the limited prospects for land expansion and rapidly dwindling water
1. Introduction
The human population is estimated to exceed 9 billion by 2050, representing a 30% increase of the current
global population [Roberts, 2011; Tilman et al., 2011; Foley et al., 2011]. The increase in population and changes
in income and diets are expected to increase the demand for food by 70–100% from current levels [Tilman et
al., 2011; World Bank, 2008; Evans, 2009; Kearney, 2010, Gregory and George, 2011]. At the same time, the
prospects for substantial agricultural land expansion to meet the increased demand for food by a larger and
more affluent population are limited. While the extent of convertible land area to agricultural use remains a
subject of debate [Smith et al., 2010; Rockstrom et al€ ., 2009; Running, 2012], the expansion of agricultural
land would contribute only 20% of the required increase in crop production [Foley et al. 2011; Smith et al., 2010;
Fritz et al., 2013]. The primary contribution to meet the expected rise in demand for food must come from
increasing crop yields and food distribution efficiency rather than from land expansion [Barnosky et al., 2012;
Godfray et al., 2010]. Considering that most of the agriculture in the world is rainfed [Rost et al., 2008], an
important strategy is to enhance the role of efficient irrigated agriculture, thereby increasing crop yield per unit
land. A transition from rainfed to irrigated agriculture under water scarce conditions could increase crop yields
by a factor of 3 on average [Howell, 2001].
Limited water resources in regions where increased crop production is most needed presents a major constraint
to the expansion of irrigated agriculture. Irrigation presently amounts to nearly 70% of fresh water (FW)
withdrawals (rivers, lakes, aquifers), yet accounts for only 10% of global agricultural water use (the balance is
‘‘green water,’’ the amount of water used by rainfed agriculture). The pressure on the global fresh-
water resources is steadily increasing, and will be amplified in countries chronically short of water where the
VC 2015. American Geophysical Union.
All Rights Reserved. population is projected to increase from half to four billion people by 2050 [Evans, 2009; Taikan and
Correspondence to: resources. A promising strategy for increasing crop yields per unit land requires the expansion of irrigated
S. Assouline,
agriculture and the harnessing of water sources previously considered ‘‘marginal’’ (saline, treated effluent,
vwshmuel@agri.gov.il
and desalinated water). Such an expansion, however, must carefully consider potential long-term risks on soil
Citation:
hydroecological functioning. The study provides critical analyses of use of marginal water and management
Assouline, S., D. Russo, A. Silber, and D. approaches to map out potential risks. Long-term application of treated effluent (TE) for irrigation has shown
Or (2015), Balancing water scarcity and adverse impacts on soil transport properties, and introduces certain health risks due to the persistent
quality for sustainable irrigated
exposure of soil biota to anthropogenic compounds (e.g., promoting antibiotic resistance). The availability of
agriculture, Water Resour. Res., 51,
3419–3436, doi:10.1002/ desalinated water (DS) for irrigation expands management options and improves yields while reducing
2015WR017071. irrigation amounts and salt loading into the soil. Quantitative models are used to delineate trends associated
with long-term use of TE and DS considering agricultural, hydrological, and environmental aspects. The
Received 10 FEB 2015 primary challenges to the sustainability of agroecosystems lies with the hazards of saline and sodic conditions,
Accepted 17 APR 2015 and the unintended consequences on soil hydroecological functioning. Multidisciplinary approaches that
Accepted article online 21 APR 2015
ASSOULINE ET AL. BALANCING WATER SCARCITY AND QUALITY FOR IRRIGATION 3419
WaterResourcesResearch 10.1002/2015WR017071
combine new scientific are required to ensure safe and sustainable use of water resources of different qualities. The new scientific
knowhow with legislative, knowhow should provide quantitative models for integrating key biophysical processes with ecological
economic, and societal tools interactions at appropriate spatial and temporal scales.
Kanae, 2006]. Hence, despite the typically high efficiency of irrigation (supporting 30% of crop production with
10% of total water used for agriculture), the real potential of irrigation in closing the food production gap would
vary significantly among geographical regions (most significantly in arid and semiarid regions). Even in scenarios
where irrigation expansion is possible, the growing competition for FW resources for domestic use must be
considered [Falkenmark and Rockstrom€ , 2006]. Consequently, alternative water resources for irrigation must
be developed and supported by advanced and environmentally sustainable irrigation water management
schemes [Gleick, 2000; Tal, 2006; Grant et al., 2012].
In addition to issues related to water quantity, the quality of irrigation water plays an important role in the
sustainability of irrigated lands, especially in the context of salinity buildup that could adversely impact
agricultural crop productivity [Maas and Hoffman, 1977; Bresler et al., 1982; Lauchli and Epstein€ , 1990; Pitman
and Lauchli€ , 2002]. By some estimates, about 20%–50% of the global irrigated land is salt-affected to some
extent [Ghassemi et al., 1995; Flowers, 1999; Tanji, 2002; Pitman and Lauchli€ , 2002]. Application of saline
water containing high concentrations of sodium affects soil hydraulic properties and reduces soil permeability
[Bresler et al., 1982; Shainberg and Letey, 1984; Russo, 2005]. Presently, the adverse impacts of salinity on
agricultural land degradation and loss of productivity are estimated at $12 billion per year, with more land
expected to be affected due to deteriorating water quality [Ghassemi et al., 1995].
The projected intensification and expansion of irrigated agriculture would invariably enhance the risk of
salinization due to the growing reliance on marginal sources of water available in the arid regions with high
population growth and where irrigation expansion is most needed. Adverse effects of irrigation with low water
quality could be enhanced by modern practices that incorporate copious amounts of fertilizers with irrigation
water. Traditional salinity management schemes rely on root zone leaching (the concept of leaching fraction)
that, in turn, may discharge salts to groundwater and surface water resources [Ayers and Westcot, 1985;
Ghassemi et al., 1995] leading to a vicious cycle with the gradual increase in water demand for irrigation.
Irrigation-induced salinity buildup and ultimate collapse of agricultural production are among the earliest man-
made ecological disasters responsible for the demise of the civilizations of Mesopotamia and the Indus valley
[Hillel, 1991; van Schilfgaarde, 1994; Ghassemi et al., 1995].
A rapidly expanding alternative source for water irrigation in regions with limited freshwater resources is treated
effluents (TE) [Hamilton et al., 2007; Qadir et al., 2007; Pedrero et al., 2010]. The volumes of available TE are
proportional to the steadily increasing demand for freshwater (FW) for domestic use worldwide, with 80% of
the urban ‘‘blue water’’ becoming TE in the developed world, at a rate of 100 m3/yr per household. The
ecological footprint of untreated effluent is unsustainable even in regions where water is plentiful (e.g., South
East Asia) due to alternation of nutrient loads in rivers and coastal regions and health hazards. At the other
extreme, the increased reliance on treated effluent for irrigation in arid regions is often practiced with little
consideration of long-term impact on soil, hydrology, and ecology of the producing area. The benefits of TE for
irrigation, and conservation of local natural water resources [Murray and Ray, 2010] are not without certain
drawbacks. Recent studies have shown that long-term effects of TE irrigation resulted in a significant
degradation of soil structure and hydraulic properties due to increased exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP)
[Coppola et al., 2004; Lado et al., 2005; Levy and Assouline, 2011; Assouline and Narkis, 2011; 2013]. Evidence
from other studies have shown other negative effects related to chemical aspects [Xiong et al., 2001; Wallach
et al., 2005; Lado et al., 2012], and human health and other ecological risks associated with introduction of
pathogenic microorganisms, heavy metals, and toxic organic compounds into the soil and crop [Aiello et al.,
2007; Toze, 2006; Pedrero et al., 2010; Scheierling et al., 2010; del Mar Alguacil et al., 2012]. Hence, the
sustainability of a coupled agro-urban hydrological cycle where TE is used for irrigation hinges on proper
management to mitigate adverse impacts of long-term TE application to avoid potential collapse of soil
ecological functions.
Along with the expansion of TE for irrigation, the use of desalinated sea and brackish water at large-scale for
irrigation [Grant et al., 2012] is rapidly becoming feasible with advances in desalination techniques and dramatic
reduction in desalination costs [Beltran et al., 2006; Tal, 2006; Elimelech and Phillip, 2011]. Desalinated water
(DS) is becoming a competitive source of water for irrigation, especially for high cash crops. Spain ranks first in
the world in terms of use of DS in agriculture, where a significant part (25%) of the total production of DS is
allocated to irrigation [Medina, 2006; Veza, 2006]. In Israel, due to fluctuations in domestic water demand, DS
is sporadically allocated to agriculture, revealing the need to adapt special fertilization protocols to this mineral-
free water [Yermiyahu et al., 2007; Ben Gal et al., 2009]. Beside the evident, positive impact of water
desalination on water resources and environment, such as increasing good-quality water availability and
recycling poor-quality water, it presents also several negative impacts for the environment, mainly: brine
disposal from desalination process, chemical additives used for antifouling, and anticorrosivity; and high
consumption of energy that may increase emission of greenhouse gases.
The projected intensification of agriculture with expansion of irrigated areas and application of marginal water
will undoubtedly affect an already fragile environment and could threaten the sustainability and functionality
of such agroecosystems. The challenge is thus to devise strategies for increasing food production while
preserving soil ecological functionality, minimizing human health risks, and ensuring sustainable land and water
resources for agricultural use. Among the scientific tools necessary for efficient guidance of future management
scenarios are advanced models capable of simulating the complex interactions between physical, chemical, and
biological processes taking place in the soil that would enable hypothesis and scenario testing to provide reliable
predictions of outcomes. Such tools should contribute to improved understanding of conditions associated with
salinization and contamination hazard, and help design of efficient ways to control and minimize damage to
agricultural production and environment quality. The development of such tools that bridge basic research,
management, policy, and societal needs would require a monumental interdisciplinary effort by experts from
many fields (it is certainly beyond the scope of this or any single study). We thus limit our study to identification
of the water-related risks of irrigated agriculture in a changing world, and some of the most critical knowledge
gaps, that must be addressed for sustainable and environmentally responsible intensive (irrigated) agriculture.
These gaps are of several types: (1) knowledge gaps that represent practices that enhance direct risks to public
health (antibiotic resistance induced by wastewater use), or to the ecological functioning of the soil system; (2)
areas that are poorly studied and not well understood (interactions of marginal water with biological and
ecological components); (3) unknown impacts of future forcing such as climate extremes on agroecosystem
sustainability. Naturally, the emphasis of certain knowledge or technological gaps over others, reflect our best
present understanding on the areas with most risk or most promise.
The main objective of this study is to provide a systematic evaluation of the scope and potential risks associated
with the projected expansion of irrigated agriculture in arid and semiarid regions, focusing on challenges
associated with increased use of marginal water (saline water, treated effluent, and desalinized water) with
respect to sustainability and soil function.
The study is organized as follows: following this introduction, we review the strategy associated with the use of
saline water for irrigation. We then discuss the issue of allocating TE for irrigation, and present experimental
evidences for adverse impacts resulting from long-term exposure to TE. We introduce DS irrigation and describe
its benefits based on field data from a recent experiment is Israel. We finally conclude with an outlook on
expansion of irrigation with marginal water sources, considering several issues affecting sustainability, such as
the role of irrigation methods, extreme climatic events, soil ecology, and the accelerated agro-urban water
cycle.
2. Agricultural, Hydrological, and Environmental Impacts of Irrigation WithMarginal

Water
2.1. The Use of Saline Water for Irrigation
2.1.1. Overview of the Impact of Water Salinity in Agriculture
Globally, about 33% of the potentially arable land area is salt-affected, with 950 million ha in arid and semiarid
regions. About 20% of the global irrigated land (450,000 km2) is salt-affected and every day 2000 ha of farm
land is lost to salt-induced degradation [Nellemann et al., 2009; Qadir et al., 2014]. Some of the most severely
salt-degraded regions include the Aral Sea Basin, Central Asia; Indo-Gangetic Basin, India; Indus Basin, Pakistan;
Yellow River Basin, China; Euphrates Basin, Syria and Iraq; Murray-Darling Basin in Australia, and the San Joaquin
Valley in California. The inflation-adjusted cost of salt-induced land degradation in 2013 was estimated at $440
per hectare, yielding an estimate of global economic losses in excess of $27 billion per year [Qadir et al., 2014].
Crop response to the spatial and the temporal distributions of soil water content and soil salinity is complex and
not fully understood. Soil water content and soil salinity interact and the partitioning of their respective effects
on crop response is difficult to separate. As water evaporates from the soil or transpires through the plant, salts
are left in the soil and gradually increase osmotic effects that directly affect plant ability to take up water. The
effects of osmotic and capillary components of the soil solution pressure head on plant transpiration could be
considered either additive [Childs and Hanks, 1975; Bresler and Hoffman, 1986; Bresler, 1987; Bras and Seo,
1987; van der Zee et al., 2014] or multiplicative [van Genuchten, 1987; Simunek et al, 1999; Hanson et al., 2008].
Under daily drip irrigation where the most active soil volume remains wet, there was practically no difference
between the two approaches to accounting for these two components of the water potential [Russo et al.,
2009]. Regardless, the combined effect of the osmotic and capillary components of the soil solution water
potential limits plant water uptake and transpiration, hence, reduces crop yields. Data on salinity sensitivity of
many crops provide specific thresholds for concentration of solutes in the soil solution, c T, that could be
tolerated by each crop without impacting yields significantly, and values for the expected decrease in crop yield
when the soil salinity exceeds cT [Maas and Hoffman, 1977; Ayers and Wetscot, 1985; Maas, 1990].
Some of the strategies allowing the use of saline water (SW) for irrigation while limiting yield losses include
mixing water of different qualities, selection of salt-tolerant crops, and avoidance of overly sensitive soils.
Another strategy (under debate) advocates compensating for high salinity water by increasing the irrigation
dosage above plant transpiration demand [Russo and Bakker, 1987; Shani and Dudley, 2001; Shani et al., 2007;
Dudley et al., 2008]. Technically, this means that an additional amount of water beyond estimated plant needs
is allocated to leach the salinity buildup in the root zone, this additional amount being larger as irrigation water
salinity increases. This approach where the drainage fraction, or leaching fraction LF, is adjusted with irrigation
water salinity has considerable implications in terms of environmental quality, since the solutes leached below
the root zone may increase substantially the salt load toward groundwater resources. Consequently, this
approach may intensify salinization problems and contribute to reduce available freshwater resources at the
regional scale [Assouline and Shavit, 2004; Schoups et al., 2005; Shani et al., 2005].
The appropriate irrigation management implementing the concept of water quantity compensating for water
quality is based on a simple solute mass balance approach in the root zone (applied typically for an irrigation
season):
cII 1 cPP 5 cDD 1cSWDW (1)
where I, P, and D are the rates of irrigation, rainfall, and drainage, respectively; c I, cP, and cD, their respective
solute concentrations; and DW, the change in the water content in the root zone with the corresponding
concentration of solutes in the soil solution, cSW. The basic idea is to apply irrigation in an amount that exceeds
the water needs of the crop (or the estimated potential evapotranspiration) such that a fraction of the water
will flow downward past the root zone and carry with it excess salts. Otherwise, salts accumulate in the root
zone in direct proportion to the crop water uptake and their concentration in the soil solution.
The leaching fraction (LF) for steady state conditions is calculated therefore as:
ECI
LF 5 D 5 cI (2) I cD ECD
where ECI and ECD are the electrical conductivity of the irrigation (I) and drainage (D) waters. It states that if, for
example, the maximum allowable electrical conductivity in drainage water is five times that of the irrigation
water, then 1/5 of the irrigation water must drain below the root zone. For a linear plant root water uptake with
depth (z), the steady state salinity concentration profile in soil water c(z) for a root zone with depth L is simply:
cI
c zð Þ5 (3)
11ð12 LFÞ z=L
The leaching fraction LF could be defined as the ratio between the solute concentration in the irrigation water,
cI, and the solute concentration at the bottom of the root zone, cL, [Skaggs et al., 2014a]:
LF5cI=cL ECI=ECL (4)
where ECL is the electrical conductivity of the soil solution at the bottom of the root zone. The leaching
requirement, LR, is the minimum LF that maintains a salinity threshold, ECT, tolerated at the bottom of the
root zone by the crop with only a minor reduction in yield.
Based on experimental data [Rhoades and Loveday, 1990;
Marcar et al., 2011], the empirical relationship for the
case of conventional irrigation is:
LR530:86 ðECI=ECT Þ1:7 (5)
where LR is in percent. This relationship for ECT51.5 dS/m

is illustrated in Figure 1. The LR for a specific crop,
therefore, results from the combination of the crop
sensitivity to salinity and the irrigation water salinity, but
also from a priori knowledge of the thickness of the root
zone and the solute concentration of the soil solution in
Figure 1. Leaching requirement, LR, as a function of the ratio the root zone, which in turn both depend upon the
between the electrical conductivity of the irrigation water, specific climatic (rainfall and evapotranspiration) and
ECI, and a prescribed threshold electrical conductivity
irrigation conditions (irrigation type, rate, and frequency).
characterizing the crop, ECT51.5 dS/m for conventional
irrigation following Rhoades and Loveday [1990] [Marcar et Most steady
al., 2011]. The colored dots illustrate the LR for the
representative salinity of the different water qualities (TE,
FW, and DS).
state models assume a constant value of transpiration irrespective of controllable variables, i.e., irrigation water
salinity, ECI, and quantity, I, [van Schilfgaarde et al., 1974; Ayers and Westcot, 1985], although such assumption
is not valid in the case where salinity limits plant transpiration [Suarez, 2012]. Although true steady state
conditions are rarely attained in irrigation systems, the basic steady state approach presented above, with some
variations, may provide in some cases reasonable estimates when compared to experimental data [Letey et al.,
1985; Shani et al., 2007; Skaggs et al., 2014a]. Skaggs et al. [2014a], for example, abandon the ‘‘leaching
requirement’’ concept and instead present irrigation decision making in terms of the ‘‘irrigation requirement’’
needed to obtain a targeted yield.
Another approach applies transient numerical models [Russo, 1988a, 1988b; Suarez and Simunek, 1997; Pang
and Letey, 1998; Russo et al., 2004; van Dam et al., 2008; Russo et al., 2009; Simunek et al., 2013; Russo, 2013].
Such models are much more detailed and can account for soil, water, crop, and climatic variables. The latter
approach should theoretically provide more reliable quantitative estimates leading to better irrigation
management [Letey et al., 2011; Oster et al., 2012]. However, these models are highly parameterized and their
calibration and validation against limited appropriate field data is often challenging [Rhoades, 1999; Skaggs et
al., 2014b].
The LR concept described above focuses on aspects of salt balance often ignoring the complexity of soilplant-
water-salt interactions or the resulting temporal and spatial distribution of the salt concentrations within the
root zone [Meiri et al., 1977; Corwin et al., 2007; Russo et al., 2009]. For example, it ignores possible root-zone
internal compensation mechanisms allowing plants to control their uptake and by-pass areas in the root zone
with unfavorable conditions [Simunek and Hopmans, 2009; Kuhlmann et al., 2012]. Consequently, this
management approach may fail to predict actual yield reductions for a given LR [Bresler and Hoffman, 1986,
Ben-Gal et al., 2008] or recommend more irrigation than is necessary [Hoffman, 1985; Letey et al., 1985].
A crucial aspect linked with salinity hazard is soil sodicity. Variations in soil sodicity are related to the
accumulation of monovalent sodium cations (Na1) in the soil solution, that gradually dominate the soil Cation
Exchange Capacity (CEC) by displacing bivalent cations such as calcium (Ca21) and magnesium (Mg21). The level
of soil sodicity is expressed by the Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP):
ESP5100½Naex=CEC (6)
where [Naex] represent the exchangeable sodium and is expressed like the CEC in (meq/100 g) [Bresler et al.,
1982]. In clayey soils with large values of ESP irrigated with water of low salinity or by rainfall (low EC I), severe
soil structural degradation may ensue due to dispersion of clay particles and soil swelling. Such processes may
significantly reduce the soil saturated hydraulic conductivity, eliminate large pores, and shift the water retention
curve toward smaller pores [Russo and Bresler, 1977a, 1977b; Bresler et al., 1982; Shainberg and Letey, 1984;
Russo, 2005]. All these effects on porosity and hydraulic functions should be accounted simultaneously.
Consequently, aeration, plant water uptake, and soil leaching capabilities are reduced, thus impacting the
spatial and temporal distribution of the solutes in the root zone and altering strategies based on the LR concept.
The effect of sodicity is clay-type dependent and will be stronger in montmorillonitic soils than in kaolinitic ones,
more common under tropical climate.
van der Zee et al. [2014] have shown that for infiltration of rainfall water (low salinity) into sodic soil, the impact
on soil hydraulic properties depends on the temporal structure of the wetting events. The impact is negligible
for rainfall regimes inducing low variation in soil wetness and therefore low variation in soil salinity, whereas
the impact is more significant for seasonal rainfall patterns. Russo et al. [2004] and Russo et al. (Salinity control
in a clay soil beneath an orchard irrigated with treated waste water in the presence of a shallow water table: A
numerical study, submitted to Journal of Hydrology, 2015) analyzed flow and transport in 3-D spatially
heterogeneous soils whose clay fraction is dominated by montmorillonite, under typical Mediterranean climate
with a long dry season requiring irrigation and a distinct rainy period during the winter. They analyzed long-
term effects of interactions between the soil solution and the soil matrix on water and solute movement,
demonstrating a minor decrease in the hydraulic conductivity function K(w) during the irrigation season (due to
the relatively concentrated soil solution), and a more significant decrease in K(w) during the rainfall seasons
associated with diluted soil solution. The system exhibits a reversible, cyclic behavior that persists while the soil
ESP remain below a threshold value (e.g., ESPc 5 15%) [Shainberg and Kaiserman, 1969], above which a
breakdown of the clay particle domains, and the subsequent relocation of the clay particles, may lead to a
continuous decrease in the soil hydraulic conductivity, and, eventually, to an unrecoverable situation in which
most of the soil upper layer is essentially sealed.
2.1.2. The Agricultural and Environmental Consequences of Excess Irrigation to Compensate for Poor Water
Quality: A Case Study
Recently, Russo et al. [2009] have provided a comprehensive analysis of the management strategy based on
increasing Qr (irrigation water quantity I relative to the potential evapotranspiration ET p; Qr5I/ETp) to
compensate for the adverse effects of high irrigation water salinity (expressed as total soluble salt
concentration, cI). The analyses focused on drip irrigation (considering a two-dimensional flow in a spatially
heterogeneous domain). The model accounts for the coupling between water flow and salt transport, plant
water uptake, soil evaporation, and interactions between adjacent drip line laterals. The study considered sandy
and clayey soils to illustrate the impact of soil hydraulic properties, for a wide range of c I and Qr values to
represent various irrigation management conditions.
The simulated results illustrate that soil volume per unit drip irrigated length, Vs, from which most (90%) of the
plant water is taken up by roots decreases with increasing cI for both Qr values (Figure 2a). The sensitivity of root
uptake zone to water salinity (dVs/dcI) was higher for the clayey soil than in sandy soil. Variations in the volume
of soil explored by plants with irrigation water salinity and irrigation method [Mmolawa and Or, 2000; Stevens
and Douglas, 2004; Dudley et al., 2008] play an important role in soil and irrigation management, and crop
selection. For both soils, the relative amount of solutes leached beyond the root zone increases with Q r,
suggesting an increase in salt load that could affect groundwater resources (Figure 2b).
In summary, the study of Russo et al. [2009] has shown that the excess irrigation to compensate for poor water
quality in drip irrigation: (i) exhibits diminishing efficiency as Q r increases; (ii) is more efficient in sandy than in
clayey soils in controlling the solute concentrations in the root zone; (iii) is more efficient in clayey soils (than in
sand) for controlling transpiration of the plants (and possibly crop yield), and the amount of salt leached below
the root zone; and (iv) could adversely impact salinization of groundwater resources.
2.2. Treated Effluent (Wastewater) for Irrigation
2.2.1. Overview of the Allocation of Treated Effluent for Irrigation

Effluent reuse in agriculture has a long tradition [Shuval et al., 1986], where most irrigated lands are located
near urban areas where effluents are generated. Global estimates of effluent reuse indicate that about 20
million hectares of agricultural land are irrigated with wastewater [Jimenez and Asano, 2008]. The past few
decades mark an increase in wastewater use in agriculture in developing countries and in semiarid and arid
areas of industrialized countries. The ten countries with the largest volume of wastewater used for irrigation
are shown in Figure 3 [Jimenez and Asano, 2008]. Irrigation with wastewater may pose a risk to public health
due to exposure to microbial pathogens (viruses, bacteria, and protozoa) or chemical compounds (heavy
zone versus the irrigation
water salinity cI for given Qr
values and two soil types
(clay in black and sand in
gray).
metals, toxic organics, and anthropogenic
compounds), thus requiring appropriate regulations
[Aiello et al., 2007; Toze, 2006; Scheierling et al.,
2010; Qadir et al., 2010; Shuval, 2011]. Wastewater
use in agriculture could also induce various
environmental risks to soil ecology and function and
might lead to groundwater pollution.
The primary risks associated with TE irrigation involve
high concentrations of salts, especially sodium (Na1),
and of organic compounds [Feigin et al., 1991; Balks
et al., 1998; Hamilton et al., 2007; Pedrero et al.,
2010]. The combination of these elements increase
the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) of the
irrigated soils [Shainberg and Letey, 1984; Halliwell et
al., 2001] and affect their wettability [Wallach et al.,
2005]. The consequence is a significant deterioration
of soil physical and chemical properties [Lado et al.,
2005; 2012; Aiello et al.,
2007; Levy and Assouline, 2011]. A detailed
quantitative description of the changes in the soil
physical and hydraulic properties of a clayey soil
following long-term irrigation with TE can be found in
Figure 2. (a) Soil volume per unit length, Vs, from which most
(90%) of the volume of water is extracted by the plant roots
Assouline and Narkis [2011]. An interesting finding
versus irrigation water concentration cI for two given Qr values was that the level of soil deterioration was depth-
(1.4 and 2.0) and two soil types (clay in black and sand in gray); dependent. The decrease in the Ks values induced by
(b) Relative cumulative mass of chloride leached below the root
TE irrigation was maximal at the upper
soil layer and decreased gradually with depth. However, the amplitude of the impact on the water retention
curve and the hydraulic conductivity function was different at each depth, indicating that the long-term use of
TE for irrigation will affect different zones in the soil profile differently, in response to soil properties, water
quality, irrigation management parameters, plant uptake characteristics, and climatic conditions (rain-
for lowering oxygen concentrations and

diminishing soil aeration rates.
2.2.2. Evidence for Adverse Impacts of
Long-Term Irrigation With Treated
Effluent
Figure 3. The ten countries with the largest volume of wastewater used for
irrigation (* indicates that only the use in California and Florida are accounted
for).
Data based on Jimenez and Asano [2008].
fall and evapotranspiration). The resulting changes in soil
properties reflect on the fluxes of the main flow processes
(infiltration, drainage, and evaporation) in the soil, and
consequently, affect water and nutrients availability to plants in
the root zone.
Oxygen at sufficient concentrations in the root zone is crucial for
proper plant development [Armstrong, 1979; Glinski and
Stepniewski, 1985]. Assouline and Narkis [2013] have shown
that the changes in the hydraulic properties of the TE-irrigated
soil have a great impact not only on the water regime but also
on the aeration of the root zone. In addition, TE irrigation has
been shown to
Years of TE-irrigation
Figure 4. The ratio between yields from TE-irrigated and FW-irrigated avocado
and citrus trees versus duration of TE irrigation (data for citrus were provided by
Asher Aizenkot and for avocado, by Myriam Silberstein, Anat Lowengart, Ami
Keinan, and Udi Gafni).
affect soil microbial activity [Elifantz et al., 2011; del Mar
Alguacil et al., 2012] and bacterial community composition
[Frenk et al., 2013]. The increase in input of organic substrates
with TE irrigation with concurrent changes in water retention
properties and enhanced microbial activity could be responsible
The arbitrarily short duration of most funded research projects

(rarely exceeding 3 years) reflects on the body of knowledge
with respect to
long-term impacts of irrigation with treated effluent. Most past studies have concluded that there are no
significant statistical differences between TE and local FW irrigation in terms of crop yields, with the exception
of specific toxicity issues such are related to high boron concentrations [Pedrero et al., 2010]. Recent long-term
studies in Israel have shown a systematic decrease in yields of orchards planted on clayey soils (50% clay) and
drip-irrigated with TE (Figure 4). Following more than 10 years of consecutive TE irrigation, avocado and citrus
yields have dropped by approximately 20–30% in comparison with yields from parts of the orchard receiving
local FW irrigation under similar agrotechnical management. The mechanisms for such loss of productivity
remain unclear and reflect a complex interplay of chemical, physical, and biological soil attributes affecting plant
function.
Evidence for potential effects of long-term TE application on soil properties emerges from monitoring the spatial
distribution of bulk soil electrical conductivity. An electromagnetic induction (DUALEM 1-S) survey was
conducted in the middle of the irrigation season in an avocado orchard near Acre (Northern Israel) planted on
a clayey soil, where several tree rows were drip-irrigated with FW next to rows drip-irrigated with TE. Result
clearly show that TE-irrigated rows exhibit higher electrical conductivity than FW-irrigated
Figure 5. Distribution in space and with depth of the soil bulk electrical conductivity
in the upper soil layer of two adjacent rows of avocado tree in the experimental farm
of Acre, one irrigated with freshwater (FW) and the other with treated effluent (TE).
Measurements were carried out using DUALEM-1S (Courtesy of Scott Jones— Utah
State Univ.).
rows, suggesting wetter and more saline root zones for TE-irrigated
trees (Figure 5). Due to the relatively high sodium adsorption ration
(SAR) of TE, the higher soil salinity is accompanied by a higher
sodicity, inducing higher ESP values in the TE-irrigated soils that
increase with depth [Assouline and Narkis, 2011; 2013]. Additional
effects of TE application were demonstrated in the cumulative
infiltration versus time in laboratory experiments on disturbed
samples from clayey soils from two orchards (Acre and Rosh Pina)
(Figure 6). Long-term irrigation with TE resulted in a drastic
reduction of the soil infiltrability compared to the FWirrigated soil.
The decrease in the infiltrability of TE-irrigated soils expresses
changes in the soil hydraulic properties [Coppola et al., 2004; Aiello
et al., 2007; Assouline and Narkis, 2011] that
may also affect soil aeration regime

[Assouline and Narkis, 2013], thus impacting
soil biological activity [Elifantz et al., 2011; del
Mar Alguacil et al., 2012]. The oxygen
concentrations in the soil gas phase
measured within the avocado root zone in
the Acre orchard (20 cm below the soil
surface near tree trunks) in the TE-drip
irrigated rows were consistently about 20%
lower than in the FW-irrigated ones (Figure
7). A clear aeration response to irrigation
events is also depicted, revealing a
Figure 6. Cumulative infiltration versus time for disturbed samples from the 20– drop in oxygen content following
40 cm layer in the experimental orchards of Acre (dashed curves) and Rosh Pina
(solid curves). The blue curves correspond to FW-irrigated soil samples, and the water application that is more accentured-ones to
TE-irrigated soil samples. ated in TE treatments. Interestingly, the oxygen concentrations measured at
mid distance between trees have shown no particular impact of the irrigation water quality, indicating the
complex interactions between the chemical (saline and sodic conditions), physical (hydraulic properties; plant
water uptake), and biological (root and microbial activity) aspects involved with TE irrigation.
2.3. Large-Scale Use of Desalinized Water in Irrigated Agriculture

Recent technological advances make desalinated water (DS) a competitive source of water for irrigation in
certain regions and for high cash crops [Beltran and Koo-Oshima, 2006]. A comprehensive study regarding the
impact of DS-irrigation on plant growth, yield, and water use efficiency, relying on data from a field experiments
conducted in a banana plantation located in the Jordan Valley, Northern Israel, was published recently [Silber
et al., 2015]. Relative to irrigation with FW from the Sea of Galilee (with EC FW 51.5 dS m21), irrigation with DS
(ECDS 50.3 dS m21) resulted in higher yields for all seasonal irrigation amounts investigated (Figure 8). Greater
impact was observed for low irrigation treatments (deficit irrigation), and the difference decreases with
increasing seasonal irrigation amount. In practical terms, banana yields (75 tons/ha) that under FW irrigation
require 2100 mm/yr, could be achieved with 30% less water under DS-irrigation (1500 mm/yr) (Figure 8). A
similar trend was observed for irrigated bell pepper [Ben Gal et al., 2009]. The environmental benefit of DS
irrigation in arid regions is a reduced leaching of salts into groundwater resources [Silber et al., 2015]. The use
of DS for irrigation, and for domestic use as well, present a few challenges of restoration of mineral balance for
plant and human consumption [Avni et al., 2013; Ben Gal et al., 2009], which could be relatively easily met by
remineralization through mix-
Figure 7. Measured oxygen concentrations by means of sensors (Figaro, Japan) For climatic conditions where annual
installed 15 cm aside from the dripper and 20 cm below the soil surface close to
ETp is high and annual rainfall limits salt
avocado trunks and at mid distance between trees (trees are planted at 6 m intervals
and are irrigated by two dripping lines with drippers every 50 cm) in the FW (blue) leaching (arid regions), the use of poor
and TE (red) drip-irrigated plots at the experimental farm of Acre. irrigation water quality requires
ing with seawater or other FW sources. In general, DS irrigation prescribed excess amounts of water for
emerges as a viable alternative for water saving, crop yield salt leaching from the root zone (Figure
increase, and reduction of pollution hazards in certain regions and 1). The salinity level of the applied water
for certain crops and economic scenarios, thereby broadening the relative to the salinity tolerance of the
range of options for increased food production and sustainable specific crop under interest is a key
irrigated agriculture. factor in the seasonal amount of
irrigation water
to be allocated to attain target (high)
yields. Consider for example, three
different water sources with salinity
expressed by ECDS 5 0.3 dS/m for DS, ECFW
51.2 dS/ m for FW, and ECTE 52.5 dS/m for
TE, and a crop characterized by ECT5 1.5 dS
m21 [threshold value for full potential yield
following Ayers and Westcot, 1985]. As the
salinity of the irrigation water decreases,
the LR is lower, and the water saving
potential is greater (Figure 1). Considering
salinity aspects alone and for the assumed
irrigation water salinity values, a shift from
using FW irrigation to Figure 8. Banana yield for the 2011 season for the different irrigation amounts of TE irrigation will require
an increase in freshwater (FW; blue) and desalinated water (DS; dark blue). The dotted line indi- the allotted irrigation water
amounts of cates the level of the commercial yield of banana in the region under FW irriga-
tion (75 T/ha). The values indicated below this line indicate the irrigation rates 50% to achieve similar yields. Alternathat
correspond to the intersection of the curve with the dashed line, i.e., the irri- tively, considering DS irrigation will
gengation rates required to achieve the commercial yield for each water quality. erate 20% water saving,
thereby increasing the potential of available
water for irrigation. In addition, the lower LR (with DS) will significantly reduce salt leaching to groundwater
resources. Naturally, the use of DS would be costly, requiring economic analysis and proper infrastructure.
However, preliminary estimates indicate that a 15% increase of banana or avocado yields should be sufficient
to cover the related additional expenses. The analysis above, based on Figure 1, considers salinity aspects solely.
To consider sodicity aspects, we applied a coupled numerical model of flow and transport that accounts for the
dependence of the hydraulic properties on soil solution concentrations [Russo, 2013] to simulate the impact of
long-term irrigation (10 years) with TE and DS on agricultural and environmental metrics (Figures 9a and 9b).
Two annual irrigation water amounts were applied in relation to the irrigation water quality (accounting for the
different corresponding LR): 2400 mm/yr for the more saline TE water and 1800 mm/yr for the DS water. The
agricultural metric presented is the plant transpiration rate relative to the potential transpiration, T/T p (Figure
9a), considered to be a good proxy for the relative yield [Skaggs et al., 2014a]. During the first 2 years, the
simulated curves for DS irrigation and TE irrigation are similar and higher water application rate allowing salt
leaching does compensate for water quality, in agreement with short-term studies [Pedrero et al., 2010].
However, from that point, due to the buildup of salinity in the root zone and changes in soil hydraulic properties
resulting from sodicity effects, the curves diverge and a drop of 20% in the yield is predicted. The emerging time
scale for stabilization of the low yield in case of long-term TE irrigation seems to be at the order of a decade.
The positive impact of DS irrigation providing higher yields while saving 25% of irrigation water is also simulated
(Figure 9a).
An environmental impact metric for gauging the relative effect of different water sources for irrigation is
represented by the mass of chloride leached below the root zone (a reference horizontal plane 1.50 m below
the soil surface) relative to the applied chloride mass in each of the cases (Figure 9b). For the TE irrigation, the
mass of salts leached toward the groundwater is practically equal to the applied mass of salts via irrigation
because of the high LR. On a relative basis, only half of it is leached in the case of DS. However, in terms of
absolute values, the salt load leached under DS-irrigation conditions is only 10% of the load leached under TE
irrigation because of the lower LR and water salinity. The results in Figures 9a and 9b could have a tremendous
impact when applied on a global scale to available water resources and crop productivity: (i) more freshwater
will be available due to the saving of most of the excess water needed for salt leaching and the resulting drastic
reduction of the salinization rate of groundwater, thus allowing the increase of the relative part of the irrigated
land; (ii) higher yields resulting from the joint effect of the increase of the total area of irrigated land and of the
yield per unit area of irrigated land due to the improvement in water quality.
3. A Global Outlook on the Expansion of Irrigation Based on Marginal Water Sources
The range of strategies required for meeting the global challenge of producing more food with practically the
same land footprint but less available FW have not yet been developed. One of the few options is the
1.5 m below soil surface
relative to the applied
mass of chloride.
expansion of irrigation, yet, limited FW resources
where irrigation is needed most requires expansion
of (presently) marginal alternative water resources
(SW, TE, and DS). For such an expansion to become
a viable option, it must offer agroecological
sustainability and economic feasibility. The global
map of where irrigation expansion is feasible and
sustainable varies dramatically across geographic
and climatic regions and is shaped by local land and
water resources and socioeconomic development.
It is thus important to analyze the risks and
challenges for expansion of marginal water-based
irrigated agriculture in arid regions.
3.1. Long-Term Effects on Soil Ecology and Emerging

Risks The long-term effects of irrigating a complex
ecological system such as soil with marginal water
(SW and TE) are largely unknown. The functionality
and balance among the highly diverse and
interacting soil fauna and flora and especially the
Figure 9. (a) and (b) Simulated agricultural and environmental
microbial communities are critically dependent on
metrics during 10 years of consecutive irrigation with desalinated the physical and chemical environment they inhabit
water at a rate of IDS51800 mm/ yr (DS; dark blue), treated effluent [Wieland et al., 2001; Mills, 2003; Young
at a rate of ITE52400 mm/yr (TE; red), and alternating between TE
and DS (ALT_TE_DS; green) at a constant rate of 2400 mm/ yr—
Figure 9a shows ratio between plant actual transpiration, T, to
potential transpiration, Tp; Figure 9b shows mass of chloride
leached below a reference plane
and Crawford, 2004; Or et al., 2007]. The transition to more saline and sodic soil water alters not only the
composition of the aqueous phase, but affects also dispersion and swelling processes that reduce pore spaces
and change hydraulic connectivity and diffusion processes essential to microbial life and to critical interactions
with plant root rhizosphere [Vessey, 2003; Berg, 2009; Barea et al., 2005]. An important aspect of the success
and sustainability of expanding irrigation would be the systematic consideration of long-term exposure of soil
biological function to marginal water. The potential impacts on soil ecology and microbial community
composition [del Mar Alguacil et al., 2012; Frenk et al., 2013; Garcıa-Orenes et al., 2015] are not only important
for the primary objective of increasing crop yields, but also to address concerns that have been raised with
respect to risk to human health [Pruden, 2014; Becerra-Castro et al., 2015]. The risk is not limited to potential
exposure to pathogens in food webs, but also to unknown consequences of developing antibiotic resistance
(soil bacteria and genes) as a result of extended exposure of unknown microbial populations to persistent
amounts of residual antibiotics in TE irrigation water [Pruden, 2014; Negreanu et al., 2012]. Some of the risk
could be reduced by changing behavior in producing the effluents, or developing new technologies to target
and remove such unwanted compounds. However, the main challenge to the sustainable use of marginal water
sources remains the unintended consequences on the ecology, hydrology, and productivity of irrigated soils.
Hence, comprehensive monitoring strategies for soil health, that could provide timely and actionable indications
of substantial shifts in key variables that affect soil biota, hydraulic and transport properties, biochemical and
biophysical conditions would have to be developed and integrated in future intensive irrigated agriculture.
3.2. Effluent Reuse and A Sustainable Agro-Urban Water Cycle
Considering the vast amounts of effluent produced in urban areas and growing costs of treatment and disposal,
it is not surprising that national and international initiatives (e.g., ReNUWIt) are seeking a more comprehensive
solution to this rapidly growing challenge [Pruden, 2014; Grant et al., 2012]. The transformation of effluent into
a dependable and renewable resource for irrigation require new approaches toward its generation and
treatment to meet health and composition guidelines [Pruden, 2014; Becerra-Castro et al., 2015], and to ensure
a balance between irrigation water availability, public health, and long-term sustainability of the lands that are
exposed to this renewed resource. Depending on the scale and level of the effluent treatment, modern methods
are now available, which offer an array of solutions at different scales ranging from a household to megacities
that balance operational simplicity, costs, and regulatory constraints [van Loosdrecht and Brdjanovic, 2014,
Grant et al., 2012]. The volumes and quality of effluent depend on public awareness and participation
influencing how effluent is generated, and acceptance of various forms of reuse, while, at the same time,
changing how freshwater is sourced, used, managed, and priced [Grant et al., 2012].
Localized agricultural reuse of effluent seems the logical and preferable option to long distance or interbasin
transfers. Hence, an integral element in planning sustainable future cities in arid and semiarid regions is the
incorporation of agricultural land that would benefit from the agro-urban water cycle either by providing a
fraction of the food production locally, or by using this renewed water resource within other economically
feasible agricultural schemes.
The sociohydrological time bomb due to the accelerating effluent cycle in the underdeveloped world, and the
growing reliance on TE as a dependable resource in the developed world, are two sides of this important hydro-
urban challenge. At the same time, the conditions in the temperate climate of central Europe with established
regulation and advanced treatment are significantly different from those in semiarid regions requiring different
approaches, treatment strategies, and applications. Therefore, appropriate approaches that account for the
specific regional conditions and constraints have to be developed.
3.3. Effects of Extreme Climatic Events on the Sustainability of Irrigated Agriculture

Extreme events such as prolonged droughts or large rainfall events impart significant ecological, economic, and
societal influences [Diffenbaugh et al., 2005], especially on the trajectories of water and salt balances in soil and
on surface and groundwater resources. Prolonged droughts contribute to increase the rates of soil salinization,
especially in agricultural systems irrigated with marginal water. In contrast, the episodic occurrence of
extremely wet events offers opportunities for massive salt leaching that may help reset salinization trends that
cause slow drifting away from sustainability. A class of stochastic models for salinity buildup and flushing under
random rainfall events have been proposed [Suweis et al. 2010], which provide a formal framework for
considering such reset events in the long-term management scheme despite their random nature. Some of the
models do not yet consider aspects such as the possible development of sodic conditions in soils, which could
change the nature of the impact of extreme rainfall events, reducing the efficiency of salt leaching and
increasing flooding and erosion damages [van der Zee et al., 2014]. Additionally, the ecological component of
the soil that undoubtedly would be affected by extreme drought or rainfall events is largely absent in such
modeling schemes. Many climate models predict an increase in the frequency of such extreme events [Meelh
and Tebaldi, 2004; Diffenbaugh et al., 2005], a factor that could be exploited and integrated in future irrigation
management schemes with marginal water. Naturally, the full pathways analysis of the fate of salt removed or
accumulated during such extreme events should be considered as part of the full salt balance in these systems.
3.4. The Role of Irrigation Methods

The expansion of irrigated land and the increased reliance on marginal water sources are aimed at increasing
yields and enhancing water use efficiency in a sustainable manner. An important tool for the success of such
strategy is the adoption of appropriate irrigation methods for the soil and climatic conditions, and development
of irrigation and fertigation management protocols suited to the particular irrigation method. A range of
pressurized irrigation methods (sprinkler, drip) offer alternatives to the traditional surface irrigation (furrow,
basin) in terms of efficiency, environmental impact, health risks, and more. These advantages come at a cost in
terms of infrastructure, knowledge, maintenance, and potential vulnerability to crop failure (limited root zones
and small wetted soil volumes by drip irrigation), or soil degradation [Phene and Sanders, 1976; Schneider et
al., 2001; Assouline and Ben-Hur, 2003; Assouline et al., 2006]. The local climatic conditions, soil and crop
characteristics, water quality and availability, water pricing, and technological infrastructure play an important
role in the selection and success of an irrigation method and its related management. In contrast with the large
body of knowledge related to the performances of irrigation methods with respect to efficiency and crop
response, very little is known about the long-term effects of different irrigation methods using marginal water
on soil health and ecological function. Evidence suggests that the extrapolation of knowledge gained from ‘‘blue
water’’ irrigation with the various methods to their long-term performance with marginal water is unwarranted
(see examples with TE and DS above) and require far more monitoring of below ground soil ecological and
hydrologic responses to avoid potential of ecological collapse of the soil system at a time it is needed most.
Considering salinity management in irrigated agriculture, the vast number of studies in the 1960–1990 [Maas
and Hoffman, 1977; Bresler et al., 1982; Ayers and Wetscott, 1985; Rhoades, 1999] provides a wealth of
knowledge concerning how to improve salt leaching efficiency while reducing deleterious effects of salinity on
crop production. There is a large gap in the impacts of various irrigation methods on long term salt loading rates
and residence times in the subsurface [Schoups et al., 2005]. Sustainability of a selected irrigation method
require a broader picture (beyond crop yields) including ground water recharge patterns, depth to water table
and long-term drought or rainfall record, and consideration of all relevant temporal and spatial scales involved
[Passioura, 2005]. Arid regions with episodic rainfall may support drip irrigation with highly localized salt loads
that would not be possible without episodic flushing events (or availability of DS water for the same purpose).
Similarly, surface irrigation is arid region underlain by shallow water table are typically unsustainable (see the
demise of ancient agricultural civilizations) [Hillel, 1991].
In general, for a certain irrigation water quality and crops, the impact of an irrigation method on the rate of (the
inevitable) salinization will depend on several variables including vertical and spatial distribution of soil
properties, topography, irrigation and cultural practices, climatic conditions, and regional hydrological
conditions (depth and water quality of local water table).
Techniques for improving the quality of available irrigation water by mixing water sources of different qualities
have been considered and could be adapted to the irrigation method [Ben Gal et al., 2009] (Russo et al.,
submitted manuscript, 2015). Multiple water sources could help the selection of appropriate EC I/ECT target
values, allowing the adaptation of specific values to different stages of the crop. Certain combination may be
used to reduce the LR (Figure 1) while increasing crop yields (Figure 9a) and reducing groundwater salinization
(Figure 9b). The mixing ratio corresponding to the required high EC I/ECT values becomes an operational state
variable depending on the specific soil properties, climate conditions, and crop characteristics of the system
under interest. In systems where the two-end members of available water quality for irrigation are DS and TE,
one scenario could be for example shifting from TE irrigation to DS irrigation according to some prescribed, user-
controlled, salinity criterion, ccr (Russo et al., submitted manuscript, 2015). Considering the chloride
concentration, c[zcu(t)], at the vertical position of the centroid of the soil volume active in water uptake, zcu(t),
irrigation water quality is alternated between TE and DS in the course of the irrigations, according to the rule
‘‘replace TE by DS if c[zcu(t),t]>ccr’’ and vice versa. The results, based on numerical simulations using the same
model and parameterization as above, for I5 2400 mm/yr and for ccr 515meq/‘, are illustrated in Figures 9a and
9b (green curve). Notice that the resultant mixing ratio, Rm5QDS/QTS, where QDS and QTS are the cumulative
volumes of DS and TS applied during the irrigations, respectively, depends on the selected value of the critical
chloride concentration, ccr, and on the interrelationships between flow, transport, and water uptake by the
plant roots; hence, Rm is time-dependent, i.e., Rm5Rm(t; ccr). Naturally, ability to implement such refined
management strategy within the crop root zone requires control over the water supply that would be critically
dependent on the irrigation method. Alternating between TE and DS according to c cr led to higher yields than if
DS is used solely (Figure 9a), reflecting the higher irrigation rate applied in the alternating irrigation scenario
compared to the rate of DS irrigation (2400 mm/yr versus 1800 mm/yr). It led also to intermediate salt leaching
between TE and DS irrigation (Figure 9b). In terms of absolute values, the salt load leached under alternating
irrigation is 59% of the load leached under TE irrigation. For the time period of 10 years, the resultant time-
averaged mixing ratio for this specific simulation, <Rm(t; ccr)>, was 1.0. Figures 9a and 9b suggests, therefore,
that alternating irrigation water quality between TE and DS allows higher yields and lower groundwater
salinization rate while using less of the more expensive DS water.
Human health concerns related to irrigation with TE water may dictate (by regulation or incentives) selection of
irrigation methods that do not wet parts of the crop consumed by humans. Buried drip irrigation method offers
isolation of TE water application from above ground consumable plant parts. In this context, we need to improve
our understanding of rhizospheric process including water and nutrients uptake at soil-root interfaces.
Measurements have shown that the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the rhizosphere differ
significantly from those of the bulk soil [Hinsinger et al., 2009]. Exudation of mucilage and other compounds by
roots and the biophysical modifications and stimulation of biological activity, all contribute to the formation of
very different environments (hot spots) at the vicinity of plant roots [Carminati and Vetterlein, 2013].
Integration of these modern insights into the macroscopic root zone models is critical for sustainable irrigation
where salts (and especially sodium) may preferentially accumulate at the soil-root interface at concentrations
well above predictions by diffuse macroscopic approach [Hamza and Aylmore, 1992; Hopmans and Bristow,
2002].
4. Summary and Conclusions

The projected expansion of irrigated agriculture with a growing reliance on (presently) marginal water resources
are essential strategies for increasing food production while establishing a more sustainable agrourban water
cycle. The adaptation of irrigation methods and the extent of their expansion and management are expected to
vary widely across geographic regions, climate, and available water sources. The primary challenges to the
sustainability of irrigated agroecosystems in arid and semiarid regions lies with the hazards of saline and sodic
conditions due to salt accumulation in the soil profile, and the unintended consequences of using TE on soil
hydroecological functioning.
Salinization hazard is not new, and strategies have been devised to prolong the sustainability window of
irrigated systems through judicious implementation of the concept of leaching fraction (irrigation in excess of
crop water needs to leach salts). The blending of water sources of different qualities, the water application
through appropriate irrigation methods, and the selection of salt tolerant crops, are management options that
have been implemented in the past and require additional refinements for future use in a more intensive
agriculture under possible global climate changes. An interesting angle linked to this climate changes is the
predicted increase in extreme events (droughts or intense rainfall events) that could play a significant role in
the long-term management of irrigated agroecosystems.
The projected increase in TE use for irrigation presents unique challenges with largely unknown long-term
influences on the soil hydrology and ecology. Concerns regarding the potential enhancement of antibiotic
resistance of soil microbial communities may require not only rigorous and timely soil monitoring, but possibly
introduction of treatment methods for reducing the loads of certain anthropogenic compounds in the TE.
Mounting evidence suggests that long-term use of TE may affect various aspects of soil hydrology, due to
increased load of salts, organic matter, surfactants, nutrients, and subsequent interactions with the soil
minerals. Among these effects, a systematic reduction in soil infiltrability and in soil aeration has been observed
in some field experiments. Although the mechanisms, frequency of occurrence and magnitudes of adverse
impacts associated with long-term irrigation with TE are not yet fully known, the potential ramifications on soil
function and productivity, and on public health, necessitate significant investment in research and monitoring
of such irrigated systems to ensure their long-term sustainability.
The development of DS as a viable water source for irrigation is strongly linked with local conditions,
technological improvements, and the energy nexus. Recent expansion in Spain, the Middle East, Australia, and
other semiarid regions was driven primarily by the need to meet demand of rapidly growing populations under
climatic conditions that limited the capacity of available water resources. Naturally, for wetter periods where
the capacity meets the local demand for potable water, the decision regarding the use of DS for irrigation hinges
on the economics of the agricultural system and the alternatives in term of food distribution. The fluctuating
energy prices and strategic considerations may also play a role in DS diversion to agriculture. In the long-term
and for larger areas, the DS may be used to reduce the salt load (by mixing) under certain conditions (for
example, during a drought or when salinization approaches critical levels). The beneficial effects of irrigation
with DS have been shown in recent field experiments, both in terms of significant irrigation water savings or
yield increase. The availability of DS water, subject to the technological and cost constraints, broadens the
management options for sustainable irrigation in arid regions.
Developing strategies for addressing the issues presented above require multidisciplinary approaches that
combine new scientific knowhow with legislative, economic, and other societal tools to ensure safe and
sustainable use of water resources of different qualities. The new scientific knowhow should provide
quantitative models for integrating key biophysical processes with ecological interactions at appropriate spatial
and temporal scales.
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Balancing Water Scarcity and Quality For Sustainable Irrigated Agriculture

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RESEARCH ARTICLE Balancing water scarcity and quality for sustainable irrigated

Special Section: Published online 8 MAY 2015

2. Agricultural, Hydrological, and Environmental Impacts of Irrigation WithMarginal

cII 1 cPP 5 cDD 1cSWDW (1)

LF5cI=cL ECI=ECL (4)

LR530:86 ðECI=ECT Þ1:7 (5)

where LR is in percent. This relationship for ECT51.5 dS/m

2.2. Treated Effluent (Wastewater) for Irrigation

2.2.1. Overview of the Allocation of Treated Effluent for Irrigation

for lowering oxygen concentrations and

The arbitrarily short duration of most funded research projects

may also affect soil aeration regime

2.3. Large-Scale Use of Desalinized Water in Irrigated Agriculture

3.1. Long-Term Effects on Soil Ecology and Emerging

3.2. Effluent Reuse and A Sustainable Agro-Urban Water Cycle

3.3. Effects of Extreme Climatic Events on the Sustainability of Irrigated Agriculture

3.4. The Role of Irrigation Methods

4. Summary and Conclusions

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