//SYS21/F:/PAGINATION/ELSEVIER US/CSDG/3B2/FINALS_03-01-04/CH009.3D ± 178 ± [171±190/20] 12.1.

2004 7:10PM

178 " CHAPTER 9 FILTERS IN CONTROL SYSTEMS

The phase lag at 20 Hz is 26 . A one-pole ®lter or a two-pole ®lter with a larger damping
ratio produces poorer results. For a single-pole ®lter, the settings to achieve at least 20-dB
attenuation for all frequencies above 200 Hz imply that the bandwidth is just 21 Hz (again,
this was determined experimentally). The resulting phase lag at 20 Hz is 43 . For two
identical one-pole ®lters in cascade, 20 dB of attenuation at 200 Hz implies a bandwidth of
66 Hz. This ®lter produces 33 phase lag at 20 Hz. However, if the damping ratio is set to
0.4, the ®lter bandwidth moves to 60 Hz, and the phase lag is just 16 . These results are
shown in Table 9-1. (Note that having two single-pole ®lters with the same bandwidth is
equivalent to a two-pole ®lter at the same bandwidth with a damping ratio of 1.0.)
When the damping ratio falls below 0.707, the two-pole ®lter will have peaking. If
the peaking is large enough, it can reduce the gain margin. When two-pole ®lters are
used, a damping ratio between 0.4 and 0.7 often works well. However, single-pole
®lters are easier to implement; in analog form they can be created with two passive
components, and in digital form they require fewer calculations. As a result, both one-
pole and two-pole ®lters are commonly used in controllers.

9.2.1.3 A Simple Model for a Closed Loop System

The two-pole low-pass ®lter with a damping ratio less than 1 is the simplest ®lter that
models effects of marginal stability: overshoot and ringing. As a result, two-pole
®lters are frequently used as a model of a closed-loop control system. For example,
engineers will often characterize a control system as having a damping ratio. Broadly
speaking, this implies that the controller has a command response similar to that of a
two-pole ®lter with a speci®ed bandwidth and damping ratio. Such a comparison is
limited; closed-loop control systems are more complex than a two-pole ®lter. How-
ever, the comparison provides a useful shorthand.

9.2.1.4 Higher-Order Low-Pass Filters

High-order ®lters are used because they have the ability to roll off gain after the
bandwidth at a sharper rate than low-order ®lters. The attenuation of a ®lter above
the bandwidth grows proportionally to the number of poles. When rapid attenuation
is required, higher-order ®lters are often employed.

TABLE 9-1 PHASE LAG FOR DIFFERENT FILTERS WITH 20-dB ATTENUATION AT 200 Hz
Filter order Damping ratio Filter bandwidth Attenuation at 200 Hz Phase lag at 20 Hz

1 N/A 21 Hz 20 dB 43
2 1.0 66 Hz 20 dB 33
2 0.7 63 Hz 20 dB 26
2 0.4 60 Hz 20 dB 16