Types of Stomata in Plants

Stomata are minute pores which occur on epidermal surface of leaves and also some herbaceous
stems. Each stoma is guarded by two specialised epidermal cells, called guard cells. These guard cells
are also surrounded by other specialised epidermal cells called subsidiary cells or accessory cells.
These cells also plays an important role during opening and closing of stomata.

Metcalfe and Chalk (1950) classified stomata on the basis of number and arrangement of the
subsidiary cells in to the following types:

1. Anomocytic (irregular celled) or Ranunculaceous: In this type, the stomata remains surrounded by
limited number of subsidiary cells which are quite alike the remaining epidermal cells.

Example: Ranunculaceae, Malvaceae, Papaveraceae

2. Anisocytic (Unequal celled) or Cruciferous: In this stomata remains surrounded by three subsidiary
cells of which one is distinctly smaller than the other two.

Example: Cruciferacea, Solanum, Nicotianaetc.

3. Paracytic (Parallel celled) or Rubiaceous: In this type, the stomata surrounded by two subsidiary
cells which are parallel to the longitudinal axis of pore and guard cells.

4. Diacytic (Cross celled) or Caryophyllaceous: In this type, the stomata remains surrounded by a pair
of subsidiary cells whose common wall is at right angles to the guard cells.

Example: Acanthacea, Caryophyllaceae

5. Actinocytic: These stomata are surrounded by four or more subsidiary cells, elongated radially to
the stomata.

Example: Araceae, Musaceae, Commelinaceae

6. Cyclocytic: The stomata are surrounded by four or more subsidiary cells arranged in a narrow ring
around the stoma

Example: Palmae, Pandanus, Cyclanthaceae

7. Graminaceous type: The stomatal guard cells are dumb bell shaped. They are surrounded by
subsidiary cells which are lying parallel to the long axis of the pore.

Example: In the members of Poaceae and cyperaceae

  Classification and MOA of Antidiabetic drugs

Insulin Secretagogues (Enhance insulin secretion)

1) Sulfonylureas (Oral Hypoglycemic agents) – They have potential to decrease blood

glucose to subnormal levels and also promote insulin release from pancreatic β-cells by
blocking KATP Channel)

First generation:

Carbutamide (First agent, introduced in 1940s) (Withdrawn because of effects on bone marrow)

Chlorpropamide

Tolbutamide (Cinderella drug) (Most potent)

Tolazamide

Acetohexamide

Second generation:

Glibenclamide (Glyburide) (Increase Insulin sensitivity of peripheral tissues)

Glipizide (Increase Insulin sensitivity of peripheral tissues)

Gliclazide (Increase Insulin sensitivity of peripheral tissues)

Glimepiride

2) Meglitinides/ Phenylalanine analogues (Oral Hypoglycemic agents )– They have

potential to decrease blood glucose to subnormal levels and also promote insulin release
from pancreatic β-cells by blocking KATP Channel)

Repaglinide

Nateglinide

3) Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists (Injectable drugs)

Exenatide (Polypeptide)

Liraglutide (Polypetide+16-carbon fatty acid)

4) Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors

Sitagliptin
Vildagliptin
Saxagliptin

Alogliptin

Linagliptin

Teneligliptin

Gemigliptin

Overcome Insulin resistance

1) Biguanides (AMPk Activator)

Phenformin (Introduced in 1950s)(Withdrawn in 1977 because of lactic acidosis)

Buformin

Metformin

2) Thiazolidinediones/ Glitazones(PPARγ Activators)

Troglitazone (First agent, introduced in 1998) (Withdrawn in 2000 because of hepatotoxicity)

Pioglitazone (Increase Insulin sensitivity)

Rosiglitazone

Ciglitazone (Serendipitous discovery)

Euglitazone

3) Glitazars (Dual PPARα and PPARγ Co-activators)

Muraglitazar

Tesaglitazar

Saroglitazar

Miscellaneous
1) α-Glucosidase inhibitors

Miglitol

Acarbose
Voglibose

2) Amylin analogue

Pramlintide (Polypeptide)

3) Dopamine-D2 receptor agonist

Bromocriptin

4) Sodium-Glucose co-transport-2 (SGLT-2) inhibitor

Dapagliflozin

Canagliflozin

5) Bile acid sequestrant

Colesevelam

Important for NIPER- Diagnostic Tests

1. Scarlet Fever: Dick Test, Schultz Charlton Test

2. AIDS: ELISA Test, Western Blot Test
3. Typhoid (S. Typhii) And Enteric Fever: Widal Test (Agglutination)
4. Hepatitis: Australian Antigen Test
5. Tuberculosis: Mantoux Test, Tine Test, Heaf Test, Tuberculin Test (Hyper-sensitivity Test)
6. Mononucleosis: Paun Bunnell Test (Red Cells as Antigen)
7. Typhus Fever: Weil Felix Test
8. Influenza Virus: Radial Immuno Diffusion
9. Small Pox: Ouchtertomy (Precipitation)
10. Leprosy: Lepromine Test
11. Pregnancy (HcG): Gravidex Test
12. Rheumatoid Arthritis: Rose Waaler Test (Agglutination)

--->> Pharmacology of ACE Inhibitors

ACE inhibitors lower blood pressure. Aldosterone produced by the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal
cortex, is responsible for acting on the distal tubules and collecting ducts of the kidney. There, it
increases water retention, conserves sodium ions and promotes potassium secretion. These effects
increase blood pressure.

ACE inhibitors indirectly inhibit aldosterone release by halting conversion of angiotensin I into
angiotensin II. This latter molecule, angiotensin II, acts at AT1 receptors on the adrenal cortex to
release aldosterone.

Example-

Captopril

Enalapril

Lisinopril

Ramipril

Fosinopril

Perindopril

Pharmacokinetics-
ACE inhibitors are formulated as prodrugs, because their active forms are sufficiently polar to result
in poor gut absorption.

These prodrugs are converted into their active forms via hepatic metabolism.

Ramipril is, for example, converted into its active form, ramiprilat, in the liver. This contrasts with
other.

Only captopril and lisinopril are administered as active molecules.

ACE inhibitors should be avoided, if possible, in pregnant women – as it’s associated with birth
defects, particularly if taken during the second and third trimester.

Caution should be taken if taken with K+-sparing diuretics, NSAIDs, anticoagulants, and DDP-4
inhibitors.

Adverse Effects

Dry Cough

Postural hypotension

Renal impairment
Taste disturbance

Angioedema

Nausea

Vomiting

Dyspepsia

Hyperkalemia

Dizziness

Fatigue

Glycosides
Glycosides are compounds containing a carbohydrate and a noncarbohydrate residue in the same
molecule.

The carbohydrate residue is attached by an acetal linkage at carbon atom 1 to a noncarbohydrate

residue or AGLYCONE

The nonsugar component is known as the AGLYCONE. The sugar component is called the GLYCONE.

If the carbohydrate portion is glucose, the resulting compound is a GLUCOSIDE.

Prodrug
Definition of prodrug: Prodrugs are some chemical substances which do not produce
pharmacological effects until they are chemically altered within the body. Such chemical substances
are called prodrugs. So basically, prodrugs are inactive drugs which are converted to active drugs
inside the body by chemical alterations.

Examples of prodrugs and their active metabolites

Prodrug -------------- Active Drug

 Protonsil-Sulfanilamide
 Levodopa-Dopamine
 Talampicillin-Ampicillin
 Cyclophosphamide-Phosphoramide mustard
 Diazepam-Oxazepam
 Azathioprine-Mercaptopurine
 Cortisone-Hydrocortisone
 Dipivefrin-Adrenaline
  Prednisone- Prednisolone
 Enalapril- Enalaprilat

Receptoris a protein-molecule that receives chemical-signals from outside a cell. When such
chemical-signals bind to a receptor, they cause some form of cellular/tissue-response, e.g. a change
in the electrical-activity of a cell.

Receptors can be divided into 4 general groups:

1. Ion channels(Ionotropic)

Ligand gatedace

Voltage gated

Second messenger regulated

📝These receptors are typically the targets of fast-neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine (nicotinic)
and GABA; and, activation of these receptors results in changes in ion-movement across a
membrane.

2. G protein coupled receptors(Metabotropic)

Largest family of receptors and includes the receptors for several hormones and slow transmitters
e.g. dopamine, metabotropic-glutamate.

3. Receptor tyrosine kinase

("Enzyme-linked receptor")

e.g. Insulin receptor

4. Intracellular hormone receptors: glucocorticoid receptor

 Agonists-: activate the receptor and result in a maximal-biological response.

 Partial agonists-: activate receptors with sub-maximal-efficacy, causes responses which are
partial compared to those of full-agonists.
 Antagonists-: bind to receptors but do not activate them. This results in a receptor-blockade,
inhibiting the binding of agonists and inverse-agonists.
 Inverse-agonists-: reduce the activity of receptors by inhibiting their constitutive-activity
(negative-efficacy)
>> Cotransport is the name of a process in which two substances are simultaneously transported
across a membrane by one protein, or protein complex which does not have ATPase activity.

Different types of co-transport

Symport: When both substances are transported in the same direction the transport protein is
known as a symport .

Antiport: When the substances are transported in opposite directions the transport protein is known
as an antiport

1. Aprotic solvent- neither donate nor accept electrons.

2. Protophilic solvent- which have greater tendency to accept proton.
3. Protogenic Solvent- which have greater tendency to produce protons.
4. Amphiprotic Solvent- which can act as Protophilic or Protogenic both.

Year and acts in Pharmacy:-

2005- Product Patent In India

1956- Companies Act

1932-Partnership Act

1993- End of GATT era

1997-National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority (NPPA)

1994-Dolly sheep – First clone

1950- First Planning Commission

1984-Hatch-Waxman Act

1955- SBI nationalized

2005-IPC constituted

1896- First Olympics

2000 - Human Genome Revealed

1970- Indian Patents Act

1919-Poison Act

1948-Pharmacy Act

1940- Drug and Cosmetic Act

1930- Dangerous Drug Act

1857- Opium Act

1954- Drug and Magic Remedies Act

1971- Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act (MTP)

1989- First ICH

Indian pharmacopoeias:
1955- 1st Edition IP

1966- 2nd Edition IP

1985- 3rd Edition IP

1996- 4th Edition IP

2007- 5th Edition IP

2010- 6th Edition IP

2014- 7th Edition IP

Chemical Test used For

1.Baljet test- Cardiac glycosides

2.Born Trager test- Anthraquinone glycosides

3.Modified Born Trager test

4.Borex test- Aloes

5.Boudouin's test- Seasame oil

6.Bardfoed's test- Carbohydrates

7.Biuret test- Proteins

8.Curaploin's test- Aloes

9.Murexide test- Purines/xanthines

10.Carr price test- Vitamin A

11.Fiehe's test- Artificial

  invert sugar as adultrant in honey

12.Foam test- Saponin

13.Grignard reaction- Cyanogenetic glycosides

14.Gold beater skin test- Tannins

15.Hal phen's test- Cotton seed oil as adultrant

16.Haemolysis test- Saponins

17.Klung's test- Aloes

18.Keller killianin test- Desocy sugar in digitalis

19.Keris test- Rancidity of fats and oil

20.Legal test- Cardiac Glycosides

21.Lieberman burchard test- steroids

22.Ergotoxin Test- Ergot

PREFIX / SUFFIX ..................... USE / CLASS

1. -Pril ................... ACE Inhibitor
2. -olol .................. Beta Blocker
3. -sartan .................. A2RB
4. -statin .................. Cholesterol
5. Pred- ................... Steroid
6. -asone ................... Steroid
7. -olone .................... Steroid
8. -thiazide ................... Diuretic
9. -gliptin .................... Anti-Diabetic
10. -zepam .................. Benzo
11. -zolam ................... Benzo
12. -zodone ................... Anti-Depressant
13. -nazole ..................... Anti-Fungal
14. Ceph- .................... Anti-Biotic
15. -cillin ..................... Anti-Biotic
16. -cycline ..................... Anti-Biotic
17. -mycin .................... Anti-Biotic
18. -floxacin .................... Anti-Biotic
19. -vir ...................... Anti-Viral
20. -eprazole .................... P. Pump Inhibitor
21. -oprazole .................... P. Pump Inhibitor
22. -tidine ....................... H2 Antagonist
 23. -dipine ...................... Calcium Ch. Block

MISC
1) Kraftpoint: Temperature at which solubility ofsurfactant equal to CMC.

2) Cloudpoint: Temperature above which cloudinessoccurs.

3) Upperconsulate temperature: Temperature abovewhich two liquids get completely miscible. e.g.
Phenol-water.

4) Lowerconsulate temperature: Temperature below whichtwo liquids get completely immiscible.

e.g. Triethyl amine water.

5) Pumice: Gas in solid.

6) Foam:Gas in liquid.

7) Bulges:Bentonite magma.

8) Spur:Procaine penicillin gel.

9) Schulze-Hardyrule: Precipitating power of oppositelycharged ion.

10) HofmeisterRank series: Precipitating power directlyrelated to ability to separate water

molecule.

11) MarkHowink equation: Intrinsic viscosity.

12) Fannineequation: Energy loss due to friction.

13) Vanderwaal’sequation: Real gases.

14) ClausiusClapeyron equation: Heat of vaporisation.

15) Cryoscopicconstant: Freezing point depression (Beckmannapparatus).

16) Ebulloscopicconstant: Elevation of boiling point.

17) Grahm’slaw: Diffusion of Gases.

18) Dalton’slaw: Total vapour pressure.

19) Raoult’slaw: Partial vapour pressure

(Positive deviation:Benzene; Negative deviation: Acetone, chloroform)

20) Parachor: Liquid surface tension (sudgen constant).

21) RabbitRBC’s: Standardisation of electrophoreticcells and zeta meter.

Name of antibiotic and their source

1. Erythromycin- Streptomyces erythaeraeus

2. Aureomycin- Streptomyces aurofaciens
3. Terramycin- Streptomyces ramosus
4. Chloromycetin- Streptomyces Venezuela
5. Streptomycin- Streptomyces griseus
6. Penicillin- Pencillium notatum
7. Actinomycetin- Micromonospora spp
8. Tetramycin- Streptomyces grisens
9. Neomycin, novaboium- Streptomyces spp

Actions & Adverse Drug reactions (ADRs) of Cholinergic Drugs:

Remember the mnemonics

“DUMB HAVES”

D- Defecation (Increased GI motility)

*ADR: Cramps and diarrhea

U- Urination (Detrusor contraction and Sphincter relaxation)

*ADR: Urinary frequency

M- Muscle (Skeletal) excitation

*ADR: Twitchings and fasciculations

B- Bronchospasm
*ADR: Shortness of breathe (Dyspnea)

H- Heart bradycardia and reduced contractility, conductivity

*ADR: Bradycardia

A- Autonomic ganglia stimulation

V- Vascular dilation (hypotenstion and erection)

*ADR: Hypotension
E- Eye miosis and accomodation spasm
*ADR: Blurred vision

S- Secretions increase (lacrimation, sweating, salivation, GI secretions)

*ADR: Nausea, vomiting, increased sweating and salivation

S- Stimulation followed by depression in CNS

*ADR: Delirium