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Types of Stomata in Plants
Types of Stomata in Plants
Stomata are minute pores which occur on epidermal surface of leaves and also some herbaceous
stems. Each stoma is guarded by two specialised epidermal cells, called guard cells. These guard cells
are also surrounded by other specialised epidermal cells called subsidiary cells or accessory cells.
These cells also plays an important role during opening and closing of stomata.
Metcalfe and Chalk (1950) classified stomata on the basis of number and arrangement of the
subsidiary cells in to the following types:
1. Anomocytic (irregular celled) or Ranunculaceous: In this type, the stomata remains surrounded by
limited number of subsidiary cells which are quite alike the remaining epidermal cells.
2. Anisocytic (Unequal celled) or Cruciferous: In this stomata remains surrounded by three subsidiary
cells of which one is distinctly smaller than the other two.
3. Paracytic (Parallel celled) or Rubiaceous: In this type, the stomata surrounded by two subsidiary
cells which are parallel to the longitudinal axis of pore and guard cells.
4. Diacytic (Cross celled) or Caryophyllaceous: In this type, the stomata remains surrounded by a pair
of subsidiary cells whose common wall is at right angles to the guard cells.
5. Actinocytic: These stomata are surrounded by four or more subsidiary cells, elongated radially to
the stomata.
6. Cyclocytic: The stomata are surrounded by four or more subsidiary cells arranged in a narrow ring
around the stoma
7. Graminaceous type: The stomatal guard cells are dumb bell shaped. They are surrounded by
subsidiary cells which are lying parallel to the long axis of the pore.
First generation:
Carbutamide (First agent, introduced in 1940s) (Withdrawn because of effects on bone marrow)
Chlorpropamide
Tolazamide
Acetohexamide
Second generation:
Glimepiride
Repaglinide
Nateglinide
Exenatide (Polypeptide)
Sitagliptin
Vildagliptin
Saxagliptin
Alogliptin
Linagliptin
Teneligliptin
Gemigliptin
Buformin
Metformin
Rosiglitazone
Euglitazone
Muraglitazar
Tesaglitazar
Saroglitazar
Miscellaneous
1) α-Glucosidase inhibitors
Miglitol
Acarbose
Voglibose
2) Amylin analogue
Pramlintide (Polypeptide)
Bromocriptin
Dapagliflozin
Canagliflozin
Colesevelam
ACE inhibitors lower blood pressure. Aldosterone produced by the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal
cortex, is responsible for acting on the distal tubules and collecting ducts of the kidney. There, it
increases water retention, conserves sodium ions and promotes potassium secretion. These effects
increase blood pressure.
ACE inhibitors indirectly inhibit aldosterone release by halting conversion of angiotensin I into
angiotensin II. This latter molecule, angiotensin II, acts at AT1 receptors on the adrenal cortex to
release aldosterone.
Example-
Captopril
Enalapril
Lisinopril
Ramipril
Fosinopril
Perindopril
Pharmacokinetics-
ACE inhibitors are formulated as prodrugs, because their active forms are sufficiently polar to result
in poor gut absorption.
These prodrugs are converted into their active forms via hepatic metabolism.
Ramipril is, for example, converted into its active form, ramiprilat, in the liver. This contrasts with
other.
ACE inhibitors should be avoided, if possible, in pregnant women – as it’s associated with birth
defects, particularly if taken during the second and third trimester.
Caution should be taken if taken with K+-sparing diuretics, NSAIDs, anticoagulants, and DDP-4
inhibitors.
Adverse Effects
Dry Cough
Postural hypotension
Renal impairment
Taste disturbance
Angioedema
Nausea
Vomiting
Dyspepsia
Hyperkalemia
Dizziness
Fatigue
Glycosides
Glycosides are compounds containing a carbohydrate and a noncarbohydrate residue in the same
molecule.
The nonsugar component is known as the AGLYCONE. The sugar component is called the GLYCONE.
Prodrug
Definition of prodrug: Prodrugs are some chemical substances which do not produce
pharmacological effects until they are chemically altered within the body. Such chemical substances
are called prodrugs. So basically, prodrugs are inactive drugs which are converted to active drugs
inside the body by chemical alterations.
Protonsil-Sulfanilamide
Levodopa-Dopamine
Talampicillin-Ampicillin
Cyclophosphamide-Phosphoramide mustard
Diazepam-Oxazepam
Azathioprine-Mercaptopurine
Cortisone-Hydrocortisone
Dipivefrin-Adrenaline
Prednisone- Prednisolone
Enalapril- Enalaprilat
Receptoris a protein-molecule that receives chemical-signals from outside a cell. When such
chemical-signals bind to a receptor, they cause some form of cellular/tissue-response, e.g. a change
in the electrical-activity of a cell.
1. Ion channels(Ionotropic)
Ligand gatedace
Voltage gated
📝These receptors are typically the targets of fast-neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine (nicotinic)
and GABA; and, activation of these receptors results in changes in ion-movement across a
membrane.
Largest family of receptors and includes the receptors for several hormones and slow transmitters
e.g. dopamine, metabotropic-glutamate.
("Enzyme-linked receptor")
Symport: When both substances are transported in the same direction the transport protein is
known as a symport .
Antiport: When the substances are transported in opposite directions the transport protein is known
as an antiport
1932-Partnership Act
1984-Hatch-Waxman Act
2005-IPC constituted
1919-Poison Act
1948-Pharmacy Act
Indian pharmacopoeias:
1955- 1st Edition IP
MISC
1) Kraftpoint: Temperature at which solubility ofsurfactant equal to CMC.
3) Upperconsulate temperature: Temperature abovewhich two liquids get completely miscible. e.g.
Phenol-water.
6) Foam:Gas in liquid.
7) Bulges:Bentonite magma.
“DUMB HAVES”
B- Bronchospasm
*ADR: Shortness of breathe (Dyspnea)