BULLETIN OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF PETROLEUM
V O L . 5 0 , N O . n ( M A R C H . 19G6). PP. 439-47S. 67 F I G S .
SALT STRUCTURES OF GULF OF MEXICO BASIN—A REVIEW
GROVER E. MURRAY"
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
INTRODUCTION
Although a remarkably accurate geological de-
scription of salt domes was published nearly 100
years ago in a paper on Galicia (Posepny,
1871), it was not until the 1920s that a reason-
ably modern interpretation of the nature and ori-
gin of salt diapirs in the Gulf of Mexico basin
was widely accepted.
Today, in the Gulf basin, more than 300 salt
diapirs are known in Alabama, Mississippi, Loui-
siana, Arkansas, Texas, Nuevo Leon, Veracruz,
Tabasco, and Cuba (Figs. 1, 2). Possibly an
equal number exist beneath the continental
shelves off Louisiana-Texas and Veracruz-Tabas-
co. In addition, M. Ewing et al. (1962), Nowlin
et al. (1965), and Ewing and Antoine (1966)
' Manuscript received, December 6, 196S.
Modified from presidential address to The Ameri-
can Association of Petroleum Geologists, New Or-
leans, Louisiana, April 27, 1965. The Convention
theme was diapirism, and this address was patterned
to serve as background for papers which followed.
Free use has been made of published and unpublished
information. Therefore, this paper must be considered
a selected assembly and analysis of existing knowl-
edge, generalized and illustrated for easy review.
Special thanks are due New Orleans Geological
Society, Lafayette Geological Society, Houston Geo-
logical Society, Gulf Coast Association of Geologi-
cal Societies, The American Association of Petro-
leum Geologists, and Petroleos Mexicanos for per-
mission to modify certain published illustrations and
to quote various passages from their publications.
Gustavo A. Morales, formerly a graduate stu-
dent. Department of Geology, Louisiana State Uni-
versity, and now employed by Esso Production
Research Company, Houston, Texas, labored long
and carefully in preparation of original color illus-
trations and in compilation of certain data. Richard
Bolander, graduate student, Department of Geol-
ogy, Louisiana State University, prepared certain
illustrations in black and white for publication.
Philip B. Larrimore, Jr., Chief of Cartographic Sec-
tion, devoted much time to consultation regarding
illustrations and to planning their basic format.
Mrs. Catherine I. Lignos, the writer's executive sec-
retary, and Mrs. Virginia B. Foss ably typed and
retyped original manuscript and this modified ver-
sion. Sincere thanks are extended to each of these
individuals and organizations, and to all others too
numerous to mention, who by discussions, sugges-
tions, or in other ways contributed to this review.
" Boyd Professor of Geology, Department of Geol-
ogy, Louisiana State University; Vice President for
Academic Affairs, Louisiana State University System.
439
GEOLOGISTS
have found structures in the Sigsbee Deep whose
growth pattern is similar to that of salt diapirs.
Diapiric salt structures are unknown (1) on
the higher parts of the large structural anomalies
in the Gulf of Mexico basin and (2) in the car-
bonate platforms of Florida, the Bahamas, and
most of Yucatan (Fig. 1). Instead, these struc-
tures are concentrated in areas of greater than
normal sedimentary thickness, and their times of
growth appear to be related to periods of greater
than normal sedimentary accumulation. Their ab-
sence in certain areas is taken to indicate either
thinness or absence of salt because of (1) non-de-
position of sodium chloride in those areas or (2)
regional flowage of the salt from structurally or
topographically high areas to lower ones. Salt
structures similar to those in the Gulf of Mexico
basin also are known in Colorado, Utah, the Ca-
nadian Arctic Islands, Arabia, France, Germany,
India, Iran, Russia, Spain, Africa, Australia, and
other areas.
Numerous additional domal and anticlinal
structures also are present in the Gulf province.
On the basis of geological and geophysical data,
many of these are considered to be salt-con-
trolled. It is well known that under proper condi-
tions any plastic medium may flow and form di-
apiric anomalies similar to those effected by salt
flowage. For example, structures resulting from
the flowage of thick clay-shales are widely pres-
ent in the Louisiana continental-shelf area.
Prominent anticlinal folds caused by, or in-
volving, salt flowage are present in Arkansas
(U.S.A.), Nuevo Leon, Coahuila, Veracruz, Ta-
basco, Chiapas, and Campeche (Mexico), and in
El Peten Province of northern Guatemala (Figs.
3, 4). Similar structural forms resulting from salt
flowage are known from other parts of the
world, e.g., the Zechstein basin of northwestern
Germany, the Paradox basin of Colorado and
Utah, and the Amadeus basin of central Australia
(Figs. S-7).
GEOMETRY AND PATTERNS
Geophysical and drill data disclose that salt di-
apirs in the Gulf of Mexico region differ appre-
440 GROVER E. MURRAY

FIG. 1.^Probable salt structures. Gulf of Mexico basin.

ciably in geometry and growth patterns (Figs. 2,
8, 10, 11-24). Essentially, the salt of these di-
apirs has moved vertically upward through the
enclosing strata for distances up to 8 miles.
forming masses fundamentally identical with
those known in the Zechstein basin of Germany,
except possibly for the separate droplet type
and the salt-wall (Fig. 9). In contrast, great salt
anticlines or ridges, and irregular salt masses with
spinose to cone-shaped apophyses rising from
them, are relatively better developed in the Gulf
basin. Characteristic of these are (1) the salt
mass in Veracruz and Tabasco illustrated in Fig-

FIG. 2.-—Anse La Butte salt dome, Lafayette and

St. Martin Parishes, Louisiana (after Bates and
E 3 SALT I I SAND ^ SHALE
Wharton, 1943).
 SALT STRUCTURES OF GULF OF MEXICO BASIN 441

40
MILES

SALT CORE OF
z „,us, fs' s^/ANTICLINE
MAGNOLIA

DORCHEAT- SCHllLER

UNION
ARKANSAS
LOUiSiANA

FIG. ,S.—Probable salt structure in southern

Arkansas (after Bornhauser, 1958).

COLORADO
NEW MEXICO

FIG. 6.—Salt structures, Paradox basin, Utah and

FIG. 4.—Probable salt structures, northeastern Mexico.
Colorado (after Elston and Shoemaker, 1963).
ure 8; (2) the East and West Hackberry ridge,
Louisiana (Fig. 10); and the Caillou Island-Tim-
balier Bay-Bay Marchand complex, also in Loui-
siana (Fig. 11).
The upper parts of salt stocks are most com-
monly circular to elongate, to the depths to which
they have been explored; or their form is some
modification of these, such as quadrate or round-
ed-triangular. The basin shape may be distorted
by the formation of lobes or shoulders, by mush-

FiG. 5.—Salt structures, northern Zechstein basin, Germany (after Trusheim, 1960).
442 GROVER E. MURRAY

FIG. 7.—Salt diapirs and possible salt anticlines, Amadeus basin. Northern Territory, Australia
(after McNaughton, Murray, and Siller, 1965).
rooming or bulging, or by the growth of spines individual rod-like stocks are now known to rise
protruding from the main salt mass. as spines, stocks, or apophyses from great ridge-
Many salt structures originally believed to be like or anticlinal masses of salt. Others, which

FIG. 8.—Configuration of salt structures. Saline basin, Veracruz, Mexico (constructed from data
in Catling, 1954).
 SALT STRUCTURES OF GULF OF MEXICO BASIN 443

Fio. 9.—^Types of salt structures, Zechstein basin, Germany (after Trusheim, 1960).

have a classic rod or spindle shape for at least they may be related to a particular rate of
3 ^ miles downward from the surface, may con- growth; they may have formed in response to the
stitute isolated salt masses, in contrast to the speed and the depth to which they were buried;
clustering or grouping of certain other diapirs; they may be the result of an insufficient supply

A'

5,000'

•x*;*:*:-:':-:*>:v:*>X::;:v:v

£^:->:<':-:-:':'>:*:-:-:->:-:':-:-:*>>>>>:*:-:-:':-:-:-:':-:*:-:->:-:-:-:->:20,ooo'
FIG. 10.—Salt ridge containing East and West Hackberry domes, Cameron Parish, Louisiana. Configuration
of surface salt is after New Orleans Geol. Soc. (1962).
 '°-Ooo-

-'6,OOo:^ -/2,006'-
MILES

-15,000'

20,000'
FIG. 11.—Salt ridge containing Caillou Island dome (west), Terrebonne Parish, and Timbalier Bay and
Bay Marchand (east) domes, Lafourche Parish, Louisiana. Configuration of salt surfaces is after New Or-
leans Geol. Soc. (1962) and Atwater and Forman (1959).

COTK BLVNCHE ISLAND

A'

-5,000'

-10,000'

:\ -15,000'

•.•••-•••-•-20,000'
BELLE
FIG. 12.—Cote Blanche Island and Belle Isle domes, St. Mary Parish, Louisiana. These domes show in-
clination of salt stock and slight mushrooming with overhang of northwestern and northeastern flanks, re-
spectively. Configurations of salt surfaces are after New Orleans Geol. Soc. (1960). Cross section of Cote
Blanche Island dome is modified from Atwater and Forman (19S9).
 SALT STRUCTURES OF GULF OF MEXICO BASIN 445

A A'

-5,000'

— /'. , -10,000'

;! ;:-15,000'
'•'.'•'.'•'.'•'.'•'. •;•
*•'• o n r\r\r\'
MILE
[)RT BARKE

A'

-5,000'

-10,000'

X--15,000'

•:::;:::2o,ooo'
MILE
BAYOU CHOCTAW
FIG. 13.—Port Barre dome, St. Landry Parish, and Bayou Choctaw dome, Iberville and West Baton Rouge
Parishes, Louisiana, illustrate essentially vertical stocks with flat tops, subrounded shapes with bulges and
overhang on northwestern and western sides, respectively. Configurations of salt surfaces are after New Or-
leans Geol. Soc. (1960).

of salt, with a consequent pinching-off at the base
and the development of a tear-drop shape; or
they may be related to still other factors and
forces. In some places, a single rod-shaped
structure rises from an anticlinal salt mass; in
other examples, several rod-like or cylindrical
apophyses are present. The number of these pro-
trusions may be related to the size of the parent
salt ridge or anticline and thereby to the volume
of salt available for domal growth. Elongations or
enlargements of these particular diapirs with
depth commonly are oriented parallel with the
long axis of the salt ridge or anticline, whereas
factors affecting the enlargement of isolated rod-
shaped masses are unknown. Expansions toward
the northwest, northeast, southeast, and south-
west appear to be most common in the case of
isolated stocks, a condition which, in the Gulf re-
gion, could be related to regional fracture zones
(Fisk, 1944; Murray, 1956).
Individual salt stocks stand vertically to slight-
ly inclined, with any or all flanks being vertical
to inclined. Some stocks are inclined at one depth
and are vertical at others. The upper surfaces of
the salt masses range from essentially plane to
highly irregular, and from horizontal to inclined.
Mushrooming near the apex of the stock is com-
mon and may occur around part or all of the
stock. Spines of different forms and shapes rise
to various heights from the tops or gently sloping
flanks of many structures. Deep-well and geo-
physical data reveal that most salt stocks expand
at depth but that others may decrease in diame-
ter with depth, becoming severed entirely from
the parent bed deeper in the section.
Characteristic forms of salt stocks in the Gulf
of Mexico basin are illustrated in Figures 8 and
10-24. Although most of these examples are from
southern Louisiana, because recent publications
of the New Orleans and Lafayette Geological So-
446 GROVER E. MURRAY

A'

-5,000'

-10,000'

. .^ -15,000'

/.•!*!'>M*M*>»M-:*;*>!*!-.-20,000'
LAKE HERMITAGE

>-20,000'
LAKE WASHINGTON
FIG. 14.—Lake Hermitage and Lake Washington domes, Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana, are northwesterly
elongated cone-shaped masses. Lake Hermitage is somewhat cone-shaped with a prominent bulge on south-
western flank, whereas Lake Washington is more circular, without known overhang or mushrooming, and is
relatively flat-topped. Configurations of salt surfaces are after New Orleans Geol. Soc. (1960).
cieties present the best available information re- 90 per cent or more of the bulk rock. Calcium
garding them, it should be noted that they are sulfate, usually in the form of anhydrite, is sec-
representative of diapiric types throughout the ond in abundance. Various chlorides, sulfates, ox-
Gulf basin. ides, carbonates, silica, and other compounds may
be present. In some regions the precipitates are
COMPOSITION predominantly to entirely calcium sulfate.
The salt rock in these structures (Figs. 25, 26) Water-insoluble residues commonly constitute
consists generally of a granular aggregate of hal- 5-10 per cent by weight of the rock salt, anhy-
ite crystals normally about ^ - J ^ inch in diameter. drite being the principal component. Taylor
The crystals are typically elongate, some being as (1937, 1938, 1953) and Goldman (1925, 1933,
much as several feet in length; inclusions of var- 1952) report also the presence of dolomite, cal-
ious kinds are common. Miners classify salt as cite, pyrite, marcasite, quartz, limonite, hematite,
"hard" and "soft," depending upon the ease with hauerite, sulfur, celestite, barite, kaolinite, gyp-
which it is mined. "Soft" salt generally is rela- sum, magnesite, danburite, boracite, and hilgar-
tively pure, whereas "hard" salt generally is less dite. Inclusions of sedimentary rocks, brine, oil,
pure and commonly contains large crystals of an- and gas are not uncommon.
hydrite.
STRUCTURES ASSOCIATED WITH DOMES
The composition of salt rock differs from one
INTERNAL STRUCTURES
place to another within individual diapirs as well
as from diapir to diapir. Sodium chloride is the Layering.—Layering is the dominant megascop-
predominant component, commonly constituting ic structural aspect of salt rock in domes of the
 SALT STRUCTURES OF GULF OF MEXICO BASLX 447

EUGENE ISLAND BLOCK 110

A'

-5,000'

•M'
-10,000'

-15,000'

MILE A*.
.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.-20,000'
LAKE BARRE
FIG. IS.—Lake Barre dome, Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana, and Eugene Island Block 110 dome (offshore
Louisiana). Lake Barre is typical, almost circular, vertical stock with subsidiary lobes or low-relief domes
on east and south. Eugene Island Block 110 is elongated north-south, being almost elliptical in shape. Bulg-
ing and mushrooming occur on northwestern, southwestern, and eastern flanks. Configurations of salt sur-
faces are after New Orleans Geol. Soc. (1960, 1962).
Gulf coastal region (Figs. 27-30); white and tion, but at distances of several feet they can be
gray alternations predominate but black layers traced rather easily.
are not uncommon. In many places, the layers Folding.—Various types of folds, ranging from
are an inch to several feet thick, but some pure broad and open to tightly compressed and isocli-
salt layers tens-of-feet thick are known. The nal, are beautifully displayed in the walls and
white bands are rather pure salt; the dark layers ceilings of mines in salt domes (Figs. 29-30, 32).
contain larger quantities of impurities, chiefly an- Axial planes of the folds characteristically are
hydrite and a little dolomite. Minor quantities of nearly vertical and belong to that relatively rare
other minerals, especially pyrite, quartz, and syl- type of crustal deformation in which a vertical
vite, also may be present. Balk (1953) has re- element overshadows all other directions of
ported that black layers contain about 25 per strain. The planes of many folds are straight;
cent anhydrite, but that the black color of the those of larger folds are more commonly curved
anhydrite crystals is caused by inclusions of mi- (Figs. 31, ?>2). In adjacent folds, the axial planes
croscopically undeterminable particles of dust. may or may not be parallel.
The banded layers differ considerably in ap- Isoclinal folds appear to be the most abundant
pearance in the walls of mines (Figs. 27-30). in domes mapped to date. Some are so complex
Some are long; others are short and lens-like. and distorted that interpretation or deciphering is
Some are paired, whereas others occur in variable impossible. The size of the different folds ranges
groupings; graded bedding is not uncommon. from those with very small contortions and with
Contacts between the layers generally are grada- wave lengths and amplitudes of only a very few
tional and difficult to determine on close examina- inches to folds whose wave length or amplitudes
448 GROVER E. MURRAY

"MTTF 20,000'
CALCASIEU LAKE
FIG. 16.—Jefferson Island dome, Iberia Parish, and Calcasieu Lake dome, Cameron Parish, Louisiana. Jef-
ferson Island is flat-topped, almost circular in upper portion, and mushroomed slightly on northwest, south-
west, and southeast. With increasing depth, salt mass enlarges and becomes almost triangular in shape because
of expansions toward north, northeast, southwest, and west. Calcasieu Lake has classic mushroom form, al-
most circular, with complete overhang except for small area on southeastern flank. It may represent a salt
mass which is completely severed from parent bed and which has moved through enclosing sediments as a
"droplet." Configurations of salt surface (Jefferson Island) and surface of salt or cap rock (Calcasieu Lake)
are after New Orleans Geol. Soc. (1962).

exceed 100 feet. Circular, elliptical, and similar
patterns suggest the existence of closed folds in
all domes studied thus far.
T h e development of isoclinal folding in a ris-
ing salt stock has been demonstrated experimen-
tally by Escher and Kuenen (1929). They made
"cakes" of paraffin and clay and deformed them
in a piston which compressed the cake every-
where except at the center, allowing it to rise in a
cylinder. T h e artificial stock developed vertical
folds very similar to those in natural salt stocks,
except that the folds were less distorted (Fig.
33).
The experiments illustrated three significant
points which may be applicable to the internal
structure of salt diapirs: (1) the synclines are
inclined or bent inward, whereas the anticlines
are inclined or bent outward; (2) the external
(younger) beds are less deformed than the beds
of intermediate position, a relation known to
exist in certain natural salt diapirs; and (3) the
folding of the central (oldest) beds may be either
the simplest or the most complex.
Shear folds (Figs. 34, 35) are abundant in
some places, especially near and in the zone of
the axial plane of the folds. Elsewhere, numerous
small secondary folds distort the limbs of large
primary ones. The axial planes of smaller or sub-
sidiary folds parallel those of the larger ones on
which they occur. Thinning of individual layers
on the limbs of folds and thickening in the crests
and troughs apparently are caused, at least part-
ly, by shear folding.
Lineation.—Several types of lineation are pres-
 .^'fi

10,000'

i^:-:*:-;*;-;*>x-:-:-x-:-:->>x-;\ -15,000'

MILE
^•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.%'.-.-.-.-.-.-.v20,000'
CHACAHOULA

10,000'

:-i5,ooo'

MILE
- ••••*••-••••-20,000'
FAUSSE POINT
FIG. 17.—Chacahoula dome, Lafourche Parish, and Fausse Point dome, Iberia and St. Martin Parishes,
Louisiana, are large, east-west-elongated salt stocks. Bulging is present at eastern end of Chacahoula, whereas
Fausse Point is slightly arcuate, being convex toward north. Configurations of surfaces of salt (Chacahoula)
and surface of salt or cap rock (Fausse Point) are after New Orleans Geol. Soc. (1962).

-5,000'

-10,000'

•>:':::::y:::;:yUi5,ooo'

•••.•••••••••-•••••••••••••'20,000'
DARKOW

A'

-5,000'

-10,000'

-^>x">x-:-:-:-:-:-:v:*:-:*:-:*x*:%-i5,ooo'

MILE X';-:-:-:-:-;-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-::-:-:-:-:-:2o,ooo'
SECTION 28
FIG. 18.—Darrow dome, Ascension Parish, and Section 28 dome, St. Martin Parish, Louisiana, are simple,
subroimded salt stocks without known overhang. Darrow is cone-shaped whereas Section 28 is flat-topped
with steep eastern and southern flanks. Configuration of salt surface (Darrow) and salt or cap-rock surface
(Section 28) is after New Orleans GeoL Soc. (1960).
 jr~

-5,000'

-10,000'

-15,000'

:-:*:-:-M2o,ooo'
VENICE

A'

-5,000'

-10,000'

-15,000'

MILE 20,000'
ANSE LA BUTTE
FIG. 19.—Venice dome, Plaquemines Parish, and Anse La Butte dome, St. Martin and Lafayette Parishes,
Louisiana. Venice is rod-shaped in upper part but expands markedly at depth. Upper surface is relatively
flat and western flank has overhang. Anse La Butte is distorted, cone-shaped dome, irregular in configuration
on northwestern flank. Configurations of salt surfaces are after New Orleans Geol. Soc. (1960).

"A"

.•.••.•-•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.••.•.20,000'
MILE
HAYOl) BEIE

~ A ^

-5,000'

(••••f^V A
-10,000'

MILE
•••••.•.••.••.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.••. .•.•.•_20,000'
B.4Y0L COUBA
FIG. 20.—Bayou Blue dome, Iberville Parish, and Bayou Couba dome, St. Charles Parish, Louisiana, are
relatively simple, elliptical forms with long axes trending north and east, respectively. Configurations of salt
surfaces are after New Orleans Geol. Soc. (1960).
 SALT STRL("rURES OF (^ULF OF MEXICO BASIN 451

MILE

SOUTH TIMBALIER BLOCK 86

-5,000'

-10,000'

/^•x-:':-:-x-:*:';-:*:<>-, -15,000'
0 ]
MILE
.•.•.•.•.•.•.•:-:-:-.-.--2o,ooo'
SHIP SHOAL BLOCK 113
FIG. 21.—South Timbalier Block 86 and Ship Shoal Block 113 domes (offshore Louisiana) are elliptical
in shape at depth with long axes oriented northwest and northeast, respectively. Block 86 rises as mush-
roomed cylinder with overhang on northeast and southwest. Block 113 is semi-arcuate, compressed near cen-
ter, and has small overhang on southern flank. Configurations of salt surfaces are after New Orleans Geol.
Soc. (1960, 1962).

ent in salt diapirs. Layered rock salt and, in some
instances, pure massive salt commonly contain
halite crystals with spindle- or almond-like shapes,
the long axes of which commonly are oriented
vertically. Such lineation is best developed, how-
ever, in impure, anhydrite-bearing salt, the anhy-
drite characteristically being aligned in vertically
elongated prisms or in pencil-like aggregates. In
some diapirs lineation is sufficiently pronounced
that exposed sections resemble gneiss. Referring
to this phenomenon. Balk (1953, p. 2468) wrote:
". . . In agreement with the observations at
Grand Saline, it seems that the preferred vertical
elongation of halite crystals is a mechanically
necessary act, brought about by the continuous
deformation and recrystallization of the crystals
during the upward extrusion of the aggregate. It
has innumerable analogues among the textures of
deformed and recrystallized marbles, quartzites,
and other metamorphosed rocks, in the arrange-
ment of phenocrysts and vesicles in volcanic
rocks, and the preferred elongation of alloy crys-
tals and rod-like molecules of organic compounds
in stretched metals and plastics."
Analogous lineations, deformation, and recrys-
tallization of diapiric gypsum and anhydrite are
present in the Sierra del Fraile, northwest of
Monterrey, Nuevo Leon, Mexico (Figs. 36, 37;
Wall, Murray, and Diaz, 1961).
DOMAL GROWTH
Some geologists consider it necessary for salt
stocks of high relief to remain permanently at-
tached to the mother salt bed if they are to re-
ceive new supplies of salt and are to continue ris-
ing through the host rock. Others believe that
domes become detached or pinched off from the
source bed, assume an elongate, tear-drop shape,
and continue to rise through the sedimentary se-
quence as long as the density differential between
the salt and sediments is sufficient. Geophysical
data suggest the likelihood that both conditions
452 GROVER E. MURRAY

10,000'

^:-:*:':*:*X':-;-:*:-x*x-:*x'X'>^^^

MILE
>:->»:-:-:':-:-:':-:-:-:-x-:':->x-X2o,ooo'
EDGERLY

A'

-5,000'

-10,000'
-',.,.•
^:-:'xv:-:'x-x-x*x-x*>Xv-^^^^

^-im—' x-:.:-:->....x.x..-.-.-.-.-...-...-.-._2o,ooo'
LAKE MONGOULOIS
FIG. 22.—Edgerly dome, Calcasieu Parish, and Lake Mongoulois dome, St. Martin Parish, Louisiana, are
simple, slightly elongated domal salt masses. Configurations of salt surfaces are after New Orleans Geol.
Soc. (1960, 1962).

exist, some domes remaining attached and ex-
panding with depth whereas others are severed
from the mother bed.
Appraisals of domal growth clearly demon-
strate that a rising salt mass does not move ev-
erywhere at the same rate. Instead one segment
will rise for a period of time, after which it may
reach equilibrium, and some other portion will
move. The effect of this differential flowage of
the salt on the enclosing sediments and the petro-
leum they may contain is obvious, accumulations
of oil or gas commonly being related to a fossil
or relict structure rather than to a more recently
formed one.
When salt flows into a growing structure, it
leaves behind a peripheral area depleted in salt;
this partly vacated area is a salt "thin" which is
filled by sediments from above. The resulting
depression or structural sag in the salt and in the
overlying sediments may partly or completely en-
circle the structure and is termed a rim syncUne
or rim basin.
The D'Lo dome in Simpson County, central
Mississippi, has a rather typical rim syncline
(Fig. 38). If several domes are relatively close
together, the rim synclines may overlap in part,
thus isolating segments of the original salt layer.
Depending on the time and rapidity of with-
drawal, and the depth of burial at the time of
isolation, masses of residual salt may move ac-
tively upward. However, they also may remain
stationary relative to the surrounding sediments,
which then will be simply draped over the isolat-
ed salt body to form residual, relict, or rim
domes or anticlines. Many deep-seated salt struc-
tures are thought to have been effected in this
manner. Clustering or nesting of certain salt
structures also may result from similar phenom-
ena (Figs. 39-41).
 SALT STRUCTURES OF GULF OF MEXICO BASIN 453

A'

-5,000'

-10,000'

-15,000'

MILE -20,000'
COON POINT

A'

/ \*\\ _ /<-T-7-7:-->. -5,000'

/ \o\\ '^ ^
- / ifl
\ / /]// - /•:-x*:-:':-:':-:';-:-:\ -io,ooo'

i ^ ^ ^ - ['•[•••'•'•'•••\<y-y::'-\ -15,000'

MILE /:•:•; : ; : : ; ; ; ; : : ; : : : \ -20,000'

SOUTH TIMBALIEK BLOCK 135
FIG. 23.—Coon Point dome (Ship Shoal area) and South Timbalier Block 135 dome (offshore Louisiana)
are simple domal masses; former is semi-cone-shaped and latter flat-topped. Configurations of surface of salt
or cap rock (Coon Point) and salt surfaces of Block 135 are after New Orleans Geol. Soc. (1960).

RELATIONS WITH SEDIMENTS In the case of high-relief domes, simple arching

The structure of the sediments enclosing salt
stocks varies considerably. These strata may be
arched gently or steeply; they may be ruptured
and pierced by the salt; they may be complexly
faulted; or they may be deformed by various
combinations of faulting and folding (Figs. 39,
42_55")
In those diapirs which have grown appreciable
distances upward, piercement of the enclosing
strata has occurred together with varying
amounts of upwarping and thinning of the adja-
cent beds. All stages of piercement can be dem-
onstrated, ranging from 30,000-35,000 feet of
penetration in the case of shallow domes to es-
sentially no piercement in the case of very deep-
seated domes.
Simple doming of sediments, with or without
piercement and rupture of the enclosing strata,
occurs over both high- and low-relief salt stocks,
takes place only in beds above or close to the
"PP^r Part of the salt stock,
Sharp arching may occur over the crest of salt
"passes or may be effected by faulting associated
^ ' t h the stock. Normally there is peripheral up-
^a-Ting of the strata adjacent to a stock, these
strata commonly being vertical and in some
Peaces overturned. Around a few diapirs, only
^'nof "pwarping of strata can be demonstrated,
Thinning is commonly associated with arching
«f strata close to and over salt structures; in
some instances the reduction in thickness of a
Particular unit may exceed half the thickness of
'^e equivalent unit some distance away from the
diapir.
FAULTING
Faulting is a common adjunct of most salt
masses that have appreciable relief. It is also
454 GROVER E. MURRAY

A'

-5,000'

/5:-:*:':':'x*x-;-x*:*>>>. -10,000'

-15,000'

MILE ^-.•.•.-.•.•.•.•-•.•.•-•.•-•.•.•.•.'.•.•.•.•.20,000'
SHIP SHOAL BLOCK 72

A'

-5,000'

-10,000'

MILE x-:*x*x-x*x-:-x-x-:-x-x-:-l2o,ooo'
EAST CAMERON BLOCK 126
FIG. 24.—Ship Shoal Block 72 and East Cameron Block 126 domes (offshore Louisiana) are elongate salt
masses, Block 72 having differentially steep flanks and Block 126 possessing rather uniformly sloping flanks
but being slightly arcuate and convex toward northeast. Configuration of salt surfaces is after New Orleans
Geol. Soc. (1960, 1962).

commonly present on many structures interpreted
to be salt-controlled but in which salt has not ac-
tually been encountered. T h e faulting may be
local, and associated directly with movements of
the salt mass, or it may be related to regional
faulting which has influenced or masked local
rupturing. With very few exceptions, known
faulting associated with salt structures can be in-
terpreted to be normal or gravity faulting. The
patterns m a y be simple to complex, but in most
areas data are not sufficient to permit construc-
tion of the entire fracture complex. On some
structures it appears that faulting is negligible or
even absent.
Wallace (1944, 1949), has proposed a usable
classification of (1) simple offset, (2) multiple

^ wssr

FIG. 25.—Rock salt from Weeks Island dome,

Iberia Parish, Louisiana, with inclusions of anhy-
drite grains and large dolomite crystal (dark) illus-
trating bands of anhydrite cleavage fragments ap-
parently caused by crushing. Nicol prisms removed,
X 45 (Taylor, 1938).
 SALT STRUCTURES OF GULF OF MEXICO BASIN 455

FIG. 26.—Giant salt crystals in Grand Saline salt dome, Van Zandt County, Texas. Drill hole near top of
photograph is approximately 6 ft. long; parallel traces of cleavage give estimate of size. Dark area near cen-
ter is part of one crystal (Muehlberger, 19 SQ).

offset, and (3) dome-with-graben, for patterns of structures (Figs. 53, 54). These so-called shale or
faulting over deep-seated salt structures in south clay sheaths have a great range in thickness and
Louisiana. With some modification and expansion, degree of development; they are composed pre-
this scheme is applicable to fault patterns associ- dominantly of finely comminuted argillaceous
ated with any local structure caused by vertical sediment. As the material of these masses physi-
movement of plastic media. Because the pattern cally is very similar to fault gouge, it probably
of faulting may not be consistent at all levels, formed by an analogous process of fragmentation
being generally more complex with depth and during growth of the salt stock. The presence of
with more detailed data, any classification is nec- a variety of sedimentary materials and of micro-
essarily provisional and represents essentially a fossils of various ages in the argillaceous sheaths
"progress report" as of a specific time and period is additional evidence for their secondary origin.
of exploration. The classification includes the fol- In some structures the clay or shale can be
lowing.
1. Structures without known faults
2. Structures with normal faults
a. Structures with simple-offset faulting
b. Structures with multiple-offset faulting
c. Structures with graben
d. Structures with horst
e. Structures with radial faulting
f. Structures with peripheral or tangential
faulting
g. Structures with compound-offset faulting
3. Structures without major faulting
4. Structures with reverse or thrust faulting
Figures 39 and 42-54 illustrate fault patterns
in various parts of the Gulf basin which are be-
lieved to have been caused by salt diapirism.

SHALE SHEATHS

Highly variable, stratigraphically indeterminate FIG. 27.—Banded salt and anhydrite (dark)
Winnfield dome, Winn Parish, Louisiana (courtesy
sequences of argillaceous material surround some of The Carey Salt Co., in Huner, 1939).
 456 GROVER E. MURRAY

FIG. 28.—Nearly vertical bands of salt and anhydrite (dark) in Grand Saline dome. Van Zandt County,
Texas (Muehlberger, 19S9),

FIG. 29.—Folds exposed in ceiling of Grand Saline

dome, Van Zandt County, Texas. Ceiling is approxi-
mately 130 ft. above floor; short straight lines are
8-ft. drill blast holes. Different fold shapes in salt
structures are well illustrated in this photograph
(Muehlberger, 1959).
FIG. 30.—Small closed fold in ceiling of Morton
Salt Company's Kleer mine. Grand Saline dome. Van
Zandt County, Texas. Total length of fold is ap-
proximately 10 ft. (Muehlberger, 1959).
 SALT STRUCTURES OF GULF OF MEXICO BASIN 457

Direction of Convexity of Arch Bends of Folds

N o r t h a n d W e s I I S o u t h a n d EosI

First o r d e r
Second o r d e r

A x i a l planes of t n u l t i p l e , i s o c l i n o l f o l d s

FIG. 31.—Traces of axial planes of folds in 7S8-ft. level of mine of Morton Salt Co., Weeks Island dome,
Iberia Parish, Louisiana (after Kupfer, 1963). Heavy and light solid lines, respectively, represent 1st- and
2nd-order folds in which directions of convexity of arch-bends are north and west. Heavy and light dashed
lines (single), respectively, depict 1st- and 2nd-order folds in which directions of convexity of arch-bends
are south and east. Multiple, light dashed lines represent axial planes of multiple, isoclinal folds. In some
areas, only S3Tnbol for more prominent directions of convexity of arch-bends of folds is used.
458 GROVER E. MURRAY

FIG. 32.—Generalized sketch of segment of mine of Jefferson Island Salt Company, Jefferson Island dome,
Iberia Parish, Louisiana. This view, which is at about 60° upward toward southwest, shows three closures
and two groups of isoclinal folds. Ceiling height is about 100 ft. (after Balk, 1953).
 SALT STRUCTURES OF GULF OF MEXICO BASIN 459

FIG. 33.—Laboratory experiment by Escher and

Kuenen (1929) duplicating salt domal structure. Cen-
tral structure is simple at some levels and complex
at others. Maximum deformation does not occur
at center or periphery of stock but in intermediate
areas.

7777? T^

shown to have pierced enclosing strata in a fash-

ion similar to salt piercement and therefore to be
upthrust sedimentary material.

CAP ROCK I I MORE PLASTIC (PARAFFIN) I 1 lESS PLASTIC (CLAY)

Cap rock (Fig. S5) is the name applied to the

variable mass of rocks, predominantly anhydrite,
which are present on the top of many salt struc-
tures in the Gulf basin. Gypsum, calcite, and sul-
fur are the other most abundant constituents. All
are commonly brecciated and sheared, especially
in the upper part, and they may contain frag-
ments of the adjacent formations. Around the
upper parts of some structures, siliceous or cal-
careous cementation processes may result in hard
strata usually called ]alse cap rock. Fragments of
the so-called false cap rock may occur as frag-
ments in the cap rock per se.
Cap rock may occur at various places on the
upper parts of structures, from the surface to
depths of more than 10,000 feet. Commonly it is
thickest and most extensive over the center of
shallow domes, thicknesses greater than 1,000
feet being known (Figs. 56-58). The geometrical
configuration of cap rock differs greatly. It may
cover all of the upper surface of a salt stock; it
may extend down one or more flanks for thou-
sands of feet; or it may be mushroomed and
form overhangs.
A greater percentage of shallow (near-surface)
domes occur in Texas than in Louisiana, Missis-
sippi, or Alabama, but no significant variation in
thickness of cap rock is apparent in these areas.
It should be noted, however, that the occurrence

FIG. 34.—Shear fold in wall of Morton Salt Company's Kleer mine, Grand Saline dome, Van Zandt County,
Texas. Dark layers are richer in anhydrite. Shearing in such folds is always parallel with axial plane of fold
(Muehlberger, 1959).
 460 GROVER E. MURRAY

FIG. 35.—Shear folding in wall of Morton Salt Company's Kleer mine, Grand Saline dome, Van Zandt County,
Texas. Shearing is outlined by dark, anhydrite-rich band (Muehlberger, 1959).

and thickness of cap rock definitely decrease
below a depth of 4,000-S,000 feet (Figs. 56-58).
Although anhydrite, gypsum, and calcite, in de-
creasing order of abundance, are the chief con-
stituents of cap rock, many different mineral spe-
cies have been reported by various authors (Figs.
59-65). Anhydrite always is present, and in some
examples it is the only mineral present in quanti-
ty.
Normal cap rock typically has three general-
ized mineralogical zones: (1) an upper calcite
zone; (2) a middle transitional zone character-
ized by the presence of gypsum or sulfur but in
many cases including a variable mineralogical
suite; and (3) a lower anhydrite zone.
The zones are not layered in the stratigraphic
sense of the word but consist of variable, irregu-
larly distributed, gradatlonal mineral zones. For
example, at the Winnfield dome, Winn Parish,

FIG. 36.—Photogi,i|ili .>( |..i;t ..f I. fl 'iu);lli. w.ill

of Arroyo Potrero Chito, biciia dU lia;le duiiic,
Nuevo Leon, Mexico, showing flowage bands in dia-
piric gypsum (Minas Viejas Formation). Flowage
bands of gypsum contain xenoliths of dark gray lime-
stone and streaks and bands of black shale litho-
logically similar to Jurassic Zuloaga and La Casita
Formations which occur, respectively, in stratigraphic
order above Minas Viejas gypsum. Gypsum here is
so distinctly banded and possesses such orientation
of grains that it resembles metamorphic rock (Wall,
Murray, and Diaz, 1961).
FIG. 37.—Photograph of portion of right (south)
wall of Arroyo Potrero Chico, Sierra del Fraile dome,
Nuevo Leon, Mexico, showing flowage bands in
diapiric gypsum (Minas Viejas Formation) and large
xenolith of gray, fractured, crystalline hmestone.
Limestone is Uthologically similar to that of Juras-
sic Zuloaga Formation which overlies Minas Viejas.
At this locality, gypsum has been deformed and
recrystallized to point of resembling coarse micace-
ous schist (Wall, Murray, and Diaz, 1961).
 SALT STRUCTURES OF GULF OF MEXICO BASIN 461

FIG. 38,—Reflection seismograph survey of D'Lo

salt dome, Simpson County, Mississippi, showing con-,
figuration of salt stock and prominent rim syncline
on western and northern flanks (after Nettleton,
1947).

\\V,\ -fc

Louisiana, the intermediate zone containing gyp-

sum ranges from a feather-edge to about 75 feet
in vertical thickness and rests on a highly irregu-
lar surface of anhydrite. The gypsum is grada-
tional with the anhydrite below and, in its lower
part, it commonly contains lenses and irregular
masses of anhydrite. Gradation from nearly pure
anhydrite to equally uncontaminated gypsum may MILES

9,000'

MILES
LAKE MONGOULOIS
FIG. 39.—Cluster of salt diapirs in St. Martin and Iberville Parishes, Louisiana, showing interpretation of
(1) rim synclines, (2) interdomal (rim, relict, or residual) anticlines, and (3) various fault patterns affecting
enclosing sediments. Dotted contour lines represent configuration of surface of salt; solid and dashed contour
lines depict configuration of upper surface of Heterostegina zone of Anahuacian (after Forman, 19S7; see
also Fig. 40).
462 GROVER E. MURRAY

FIG. 40.—Cluster of salt diapirs in St. Martin and Iberville Parishes, Louisiana, showing interpretation of
inter-diapiric structural lows and highs designed to illustrate the inter-related and overlapping nature of
structures associated with such diapiric clusters (see also Figs. 39, 41).
occur in the space of a few inches or gradually 3. Compaction of the cap rock accompanied by
through a distance of several feet. precipitation of anhydrite from solution and in-
The origin of cap rock has been the subject of tergrowth of anhydrite grains.
controversy. In the past, some geologists main- 4. Continued solution of the salt, with growth
tained that it was a residue of Cretaceous strata of the salt plug compensating for removal of salt
pierced by the salt as it moved through the sedi- by solution. Consolidation of the anhydrite and
ments. Now, based on mineralogical and distribu- subsequent shearing of it by stresses created by
tional studies, cap rock generally is conceded to upthrust and collapse.
be a residue or accumulation, principally anhydri- 5. Entrance of altering solutions and develop-
tic, derived by the solution of the upper portion ment of a transition zone in which anhydrite al-
of a growing salt structure. Gypsum, calcite, sul- ters to gypsum and both, in turn, alter to calcite
fur, and certain other minerals are believed to and sulfur; a relict anhydrite structure is com-
form by alteration of the anhydrite. No genetic monly preserved.
relations between cap rock and the enclosing stra- 6. Transgression of the transition zone down-
ta can be demonstrated. ward, escape of hydrogen sulfide, or its oxidation
The following is the sequence of events which to sulfur in place or within the overlying cap rock,
probably takes place during cap-rock formation. and deposition of calcite. Secondary calcite, sul-
1. Intrusion of the salt plug into a zone of ac- fur, pyrite, other sulfides, barite, and celestite
tive water circulation. may develop in the upper part of the calcite
2. Gradual truncation of the top of the salt zone, or they may replace sulfur in the transition
plug by solution, decapitation of the folds in the zone. Influx of hydrocarbons may result in the
salt and formation of a solution table, and ac- reduction of sulfur, its redeposition in another part
cumulation of residual anhydrite sand. of the cap rock, or its escape.
 SALT STRUCTURES OF GULF OF MEXICO BASIN 463

FIG. 41.—Cluster of diapirs in Zechstein basin of northwestern Germany showing widespread

overlapping of interdomal structural highs and lows (modified from Trusheim, 1960; see also Fig. 40).
GRAVITY ANOMALIES
Many of the salt diapiric structures, both
stocks and ridges, are associated with relative
gravity minima. Salt has a density of about 2.2,
which generally is less than that of the sediments
below a depth of 3,000-4,000 feet. If the salt
body extends to a considerable depth, a relative
gravity minimum results. The location of the
minimum will be directly above the salt intrusion
if the intrusion is vertical. However, if the intru-
sion is inclined, the position of the minimum will
be offset from that of the upper part of the salt
body. The size of the minimum varies consider-
ably, ranging from less than 1 milligal to more
than 10 milligals.
Great care should be exercised in relating grav-
ity data to salt intrusions. A very shallow stock,
for example, with a thick cap rock (density about
2.7) may have a small relative maximum directly
above it. Shale diapirs also have relative minima
associated with them, though these generally are
smaller because of the smaller density contrasts
involved.
DISTRIBUTION, THICKNESS, AND AGE
Figure 1 shows the areas of known or suspect-
ed diapiric salt structures in the Gulf of Mexico
basin. The diagonally ruled areas are those in
which anticlines apparently related to salt and
gypsum-anhydrite are present. In addition, four
salt diapirs are known in north-central Cuba
(Meyerhoff, 1965), and recently Ewing (1962)
and his associates (Nowlin et al, 1965; Ewing
and Antoine, 1966) have reported the presence of
structures in the Sigsbee Deep with growth pat-
terns similar to those of known salt structures.
On the other hand, similar growth patterns result
from the widespread diapirism of argillaceous
masses in the continental shelves of Louisiana
and Texas; therefore, the growth patterns ob-
464 GROVER E. MURRAY

KMS. KMS.

JOSE COLOMO DOME MINAS VIEJAS ANTICLINE

C.I.: METERS

KMS.
^ ^/ KMS.
TIGRES CHANGOS DOME RABON GRANDE DOME
FIG. 42.—Sierra de Minas Viejas, Nuevo Leon, Mexico, is great simple anticline, about 30 km. long, with-
out known major faulting (courtesy Petroleos Mexicanos). Both diapiric gypsum and salt appear to be in-
volved in development of this structure; Jose Colomo dome. Tabasco, possesses multiple faults with central
graben (Contreras et al., 1959); Rabon Grande dome, Veracruz, is fine example of structure with com-
pound, oifset faulting, three of faults being down-to-southwest, multiple-offset group, and other two forming
down-to-northeast, multiple-offset group (Catling, 19S4); Tigres Changos dome, Veracruz, similarly illustrates
compound-offset faulting involving one predominant down-to-southeast fault and several minor faults with
offsets in various directions (Ruiz Ruiz, 1954).

served by Ewing and his associates could be
caused by either salt or clay-shale diapirs.
In Figures 66 and 67, the generalized locations
of (1) the Ouachita-Appalachian structural belt
and (2) the Mexia-Talco and related perimetrical
fault systems are shown. Especially noteworthy
are (1) the close agreement in trend of the fault
systems and the frontal belt of the Ouachita fold
zone and (2) the apparent relations of these to
the distribution of thick Mesozoic precipitates
and the consequent distribution of associated salt
and (or) gypsum-anhydrite structures. Particular
attention is directed to the apparent predomi-
nance of anticlinal forms in those areas where
sulfates predominate or constitute an appreciable
segment of the precipitates.
A salt bed of considerable thickness is neces-
sary for the development of salt features such as
those in the Gulf of Mexico basin. The presence
of possibly two such beds has been revealed by
deep wells in Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana, Missis-
sippi, and Alabama, which have penetrated (1) as
much as 1,500 feet of Louann Salt below the
Smackover-Norphlet (Late Jurassic) strata and
(2) lesser amounts of salt in the Late Jurassic
Haynesville Formation above the Smackover.
The Haynesville salt is unquestionably of Late
Jurassic age. The Louann, which has been var-
 SALT STRUCTURES OF GULF OF MEXICO BASIN 465

KOOO'

A'

MILE
TOP OF SALT TOP OF ALLIANCE SAND

•A'

-4,000'

-8,000'

12,000'

-16,000'
FIG. 43.—Gueydan dome, Acadia and Vermilion Parishes, Louisiana, is classic example of dome with radial
faulting. Subsidiary peripheral faults also are present (after Lafayette Geol. Soc, 1964).

iously considered to be Permian(?) or Jurassic,
may be of either age; it may be Triassic, or it
may span the interval from the Permian to the
Jurassic. However, the best information available
indicates a Late Triassic-Middle Jurassic age
(Jux, 1961).
A thick bed of salt of similar age is present in
the Saline basin of Veracruz, Tabasco, and Chi-
apas in Mexico. Widespread evaporites in the Co-
manchean of the northern Gulf province and in
the Tertiary and Cretaceous of the Yucatan Pen-
insula suggest that other salt beds of Mesozoic or
Cenozoic age may exist in areas still untested by
the drill.
Salt structures in the northern Gulf region
presently are believed to be restricted to the area
gulfward from the inner perimetrical system of
down-to-the-basin faulting (Mexia-Talco-Arkansas
Pickens-Gilbertown) which can be traced approxi-
mately from the Rio Grande to northwestern
Florida. Similarly, all known salt features in the
southern portion of the province are limited by the
466 GROVER E. MURRAY

Conroe Field, Cranfield Field,

Montgomery Co Adams Co.. Miss.
Tex.
Nolan Edward Dome,
Wood Co., Tex.

Dorcheat-Macedonia Field,
Columbia Co., Ark.
FIG. 44,—Conroe dome, Montgomery County, Texas, possesses compound-offset system of faults (Carlos,
1953); Cranfield dome, Adams County, Mississippi, illustrates simple, offset faulting, downfaulted block being
toward southwest; Nolan Edward dome, Wood County, Texas, has horst system with major faults down-
thrown on northwest and southeast (Moore, 1951); and Dorcheat-Macedonia anticline, Columbia County,
Arkansas (Shreveport Geol. Soc, 1947), is bilobate structure without known major faulting.
great Santa Elena system of Veracruz and its com- the basis of this information, together with the ab-
panion zones in Chiapas and Guatemala, the San sence of known Haynesville salt thicknesses that
Cristobal-Coban system. Thick beds of salt in are sufficient for domal growth, it seems probable
the inner portions of the Gulf region (1) are that most, perhaps all, of the salt structures in
present only gulfward from the zones of perimet- the peripheral portions of the northern Gulf
rical faulting and (2) are associated with Late basin are derived from the Louann. No available
Jurassic or pre-Late Jurassic strata which thicken data permit definite determination of the source
markedly and greatly on the basin side of the bed for salt masses in the more central portions
faults. It should be noted, however, that data are of the basin, except for the spore content report-
not available to demonstrate the full extent of ed by Jux (1961).
thick salt within these general areas. Similar salt structures in Tabasco and Veracruz
The Louann and Haynesville salts generally are have developed from the Saline Formation (pre-
similar to those in all salt structures in the Gulf Cretaceous, probably Triassic-Jurassic) of that
basin which have been studied to date. The area. Because the salt in them is similar both to
Louann, however, contains an excess of chloride that in the salt structures of the northern Gulf
(NaCl), as is true of the salt in all domes region and to the Louann Salt, it seems reason-
studied, whereas the Haynesville contains an ap- able to assume that the diapirs in southern Mexi-
preciable proportion of carbonate and sulfate. On co may be derived from a salt whose age is
 SALT STRUCTURES OF GULF OF MEXICO BASIN 467

Heidelberg Field,
Van Field Van Jasper Co., Miss.
Zandt Co., Tex.

Caillou Island Dome, El Plan Dome,

Terrebonne Ph., La. Veracruz, Mex.
FIG. 45.—Van dome, Van Zandt County, Texas, possesses compound-offset fault pattern; Heidelberg dome,
Jasper County, Mississippi, is classic example of complex graben pattern with subsidiary compound-offset
fault system; Caillou Island dome, Terrebonne Parish, southern Louisiana, has radial fault system; El Plan
dome, Veracruz, Mexico, possesses radial system of faults in combination with tangential and compound-offset
faults. (Configurations of Van dome after Liddle, 1936; El Plan dome after Contreras et al., 1959).

equivalent to that of the Louann but which
formed in a separate basin of evaporation.
VOLUME AND ORIGIN OF SALT
If a single, continous salt bed is the source of
all salt structures in the northern Gulf region, it
has an areal extent in excess of 200,000 square
miles. If isolated beds are the source of the sup-
ply, their areal extent could be in the order of
125,000 square miles, more or less. The salt-dome
region of Veracruz and Tabasco is underlain by
salt with an areal extent of at least 25,000 square
kilometers; the total may exceed 60,000 square
kilometers.
Current knowledge indicates that the mother
bed of salt must be several thousand feet thick
for diapirs to form. Nettleton (1934) suggested a
thickness of the order of 2,000 feet, but, on the
basis of experimental data, Parker and McDowell
(1955) concluded that a thickness of about 5,000
feet is more likely. If the thickness of the salt
averaged at least 1,000 feet throughout the area
of known structures before growth commenced,
the salt bed or beds would have had an original
volume of approximately 40,000 cubic miles. If
the thickness averaged 5,000 feet, it would have
had an original volume in the order of 200,000
cubic miles.
Precipitation of such a great volume of sodium
chloride poses numerous problems. It would re-
468
FIG. 46.—Bayou Blue dome, Iberville Parish,
Louisiana, illustrating faulting, thinning of sedi-
mentary strata, and unconformity related to dia-
piric intrusion of salt (after Mais, 19S7).
quire the evaporation of immense quantities of
sea water, presumably in some sort of isolated
basin or basins which would receive fresh sup-
plies of sahne water from time to time. Further-
more, it is necessary to account for the apparent
absence of sulfate and carbonate in quantities
commensurate with the volumes which should
have existed in the vast quantities of sea water
needed to produce so much sodium chloride.
REGIONAL RELATIONS
Regional stratigraphic and distributional studies
suggest a close relation between the Louann-
Werner sequence (pre-Smackover) of the United
States and the clastic-evaporitic sequences of
pre-Zuloaga and pre-Chinameca ages in eastern
N and coastal areas of the eastern United States.
. / / /
\ \ \ f / / /
•^
/ • • : - : - : o " - - i •:•:•:•:•:•:•:•:•:•:•:•:•:•':.
FIG. 47.—Cameron Meadows dome, Cameron Par-
ish, Louisiana, showing faulting and thinning of
sedimentary strata associated with salt diapirism
(after Lafayette Geol. Soc, 1964).
GROVER E. MURRAY
NE S\V NE
4000 CAP ROCK.
6,000'
8,000'
12000
10,000'
FIG. 48.—Brookshire dome, Austin and Waller
Counties, Texas, showing piercement, mushroomed
salt stock, cap rock, high-angle reverse faulting, and
thinning of adjacent strata related to salt diapirism
(after Sealy, in Davies: Houston Geol. Soc, 1953).
and southern Mexico, respectively (Figs. 66, 67).
The age of these clastic-evaporitic sequences in
Mexico has been debated for many years, some
workers considering them Permian and others
Triassic or Jurassic.
Figure 67 is a generalized lithofacies map of
the known distribution of these strata. Although
they are indicated to be Triassic on Figure 67,
the writer hastens to point out that either the
precipitates or the predominantly red facies may
range in age from Late Permian to Middle Juras-
sic. Evidence generally is insufificient to document
precisely their time of origin, but the best infor-
mation available strongly suggests a Late Triassic
to Early or Middle Jurassic age for most of them
(Jux, 1961). They may, of course, be time equiv-
alents of the Late Triassic strata in the Piedmont
Regional fault and tectonic patterns suggest
that collapse and faulting on the oceanic side of
-2,000'
the orogenic belts in eastern North America oc-
• -4,000'
-6,000'
-8,000'
-10,000'
-^-12,000'
FIG. 49.—El Plan dome, Veracruz, Mexico, illus-
trating piercement, thinning, and uplift of adjacent
strata in conjunction with pattern of radial, tangen-
tial, and compound-offset, normal faulting (see Fig.
45); (modified after Contreras et al., 1959).
 SALT STRUCTURES OF GULF OF MEXICO BASIN
curred during the late Paleozoic. Elongate basins
and grabens, subparallel with the axes of the oro-
genic belts, developed from Nova Scotia to Gua-
temala. Pennsylvanian deposits accumulated in
them in New England and eastern Canada; Trias-
sic strata filled them in the Atlantic seaboard
area of the eastern United States; and Jurassic
deposits thicken greatly in their vicinity in the
Gulf of Mexico basin. Is it possible, therefore,
that the orogenic paroxysms which initiated these
movements progressed from north to south and
did not reach the Gulf region until Jurassic time?
Regardless of the time of their development in an
individual area, the distributional pattern of salt
basins is such that initial accumulations of salt in
the Gulf area could have occurred in regional
grabens or fault troughs similar to those of the
eastern United States and Canada.
ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT
OF SALT STRUCTURES
Speculation on the origin and development of
salt structures has been in progress since the mid-
dle of the 19th century. Various theories pertain-
ing to the subject have been discussed widely in
the literature and no attempt is made here to re-
view them. Many of the earlier ideas seem ludi-
crous in retrospect, but it should be noted that
commonly they were only guesses about a problem
which still has not been solved definitely in spite
of a much greater quantity of information.
The history of the formulation of theories re-
garding the origin and development of salt struc-
tures of the Gulf of Mexico basin may be divided
into three periods, each characterized by the idea
which dominated thought during that period.
»i««fc-i,ooo
>>>>>>:-^^^«-^'°°°
3,000
FIG. SO.—Pedregal dome, Veracruz, reveals pro-
noitnced piercement of strata by salt stock, thin-
ning of enclosing strata, differential uplift on flanks,
and normal faulting over crest and on flanks of
diapir (after Ruiz Ruiz, 1954).
469
NV\' SE
-2,000'
•4,000'
-6,000'
-8,000'
•10,000'
FIG. 51.—Sugarland dome, Fort Bend County,
Texas, exhibits piercement and thinning of strata
with differential uplift on flanks. Growth of salt
stock contemporaneous with deposition is especially
well illustrated here by thinning and upward de-
crease in structural relief of deformed strata (after
Grinstead, in Houston Geol. Soc, 1962).
These are: (1) the volcanic and salt-ridge period
(1860-1901), dating from Thomassy's specula-
tions in 1860 concerning the origin of the Five
Islands in Louisiana; (2) the deposition-from-so-
lution period (1901-1910), commencing approxi-
mately with the discovery of oil at Spindletop in
1901; and (3) the tectonic or salt-flowage period
(1916-present), which began as early as 1870 but
NW SE
-2,000'
,-4,000'
•6,000'
-8,000'
-10,000'
FIG. 52.—Esperson dome. Liberty and Harris
Counties, Texas, reveals piercement, thinning, and
uplift of strata, together with series of small, normal
faults on northern flank. Graben is present almost
directly over apex of salt stock which is south of
structural apex of overlying strata (after Riddell, in
Houston Geol. Soc, 1962).
470 GROVER E MURRAY

DOMAL CORE DIAPIRIC SHALE AND SALT

MILES

VALENTINE

DIAPIRIC SALT -8,800',

WEEKS ISLAND IOWA

FIG. 53.—Structure of upper surface of Cibicides hazzardi zone (Chickasawhayan), Iowa dome, Calcasieu
and Jefferson Davis Parishes, Louisiana, showing major, simple-offset fault with subsidiary radial faulting.
Sediments enclosing Weeks Island dome, Iberia and St. Mary Parishes, Louisiana, are deformed by radial
fault pattern at top of "S" Sand (upper Miocene) where it is in contact with diapiric salt (crosses) and
diapiric shale (vertical, dashed lines). Maps of Valentine dome, Lafourche Parish, Louisiana, disclose con-
figuration of (1) upper surface of diapiric salt and shale (right) and (2) upper surface of Bigenerina humblei
zone (Miocene) where it is in contact with domal core of salt and shale (all figures after Atwater and For-
man, 19S9).

NW SK

0 500

-5,000' FEET

-10,000'

,;,!l!,l,^+ + + + -t- + + 4- V,'''iX-BEDDED" ISflflO' ^E^^iW^8t| K W ^ ^ ^ M

lilDOMAL CORE+^ + ^ + _^V'gi:'4HMfci ^'" ^^"^ + + + + + + + + + + + T**^^iV
• + + + + + + + + + + + + + +^«»S
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +^SB|
+ + + + + + r - j L | - i - + + t + + + + + IS
__- 6J MILES --20,000' + + + + + OALI + + + + + + + +
+ 4 + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
•JB •*• "*" + + + + + + + + + + + + + + -*- +
FIG. 54.—North-south (right) structural cross sec- f + + + + + -f + + + 4- + + + + + * ^ftVVVVVVVVN

tion of Valentine dome, Lafourche Parish, Louisi-

ana, showing relations of domal (diapiric) core of FIG. 55.—Diagrammatic cross section of cap rock,
salt and shale and enclosing sedimentary strata Jefferson Island dome, Iberia and Vermilion Parishes,
(after Atwater and Forman, 1959). Louisiana (after Taylor, 1938).
 SALT STRUCTURES OF GULF OF MEXICO BASIN 471

THICKJ;ST DRILLED CAPKOCK

1,500'
0'
HIGHESr DRILLED POINT ON SALT PLLG
:||i:::[^||^ SEA-LEVEL

-5,000'

'lilfiij:-;-^ ;: j: : : • ; • . • i; :;•:• ; T " " — -10,000'

:jl K;j|iH-/|rr'- : :^
.1 • liJiii iliii :'-li -^ Jnil.i:-;;ii..::l -15,000'
FIG. 56.—Highest drilled salt and thickness of cap rock for known salt structures in southern Louisiana
(after Murray, 1961).

did not achieve general acceptance until after
1916. Progressively, the great majority of geolo-
gists have moved toward accepting some sort of
salt-flowage theory of origin.
Nettleton (1934) formulated the "fluid me-
chanical theory" and discussed the gravitational
motive forces resulting from density differences
between salt and surrounding sediments. He
pointed out that sediments of the Texas Gulf
coastal area increase in density from about 1.9 at
the surface to approximately 2.2 at 2,000 feet
and to 2.4 near 10,000 feet of depth, whereas salt
remains essentially constant at 2.2. At depths
below 2,000 feet, then, sediments outweigh salt

THICKEST DRILLED CAPKOCK

HIGHEST DKILLED POINT ON SALT PIT G

SEA-LEVEL
, ]lT|mu Im

- Illn r -- • •

'
T l rTl' T T - r

1
1 ' r

:
• [TIT -
^ • ^ ^ "^fir -5,000'

: 1 ' i '• "

;•: i[l l l \

i.--
i'

liij,-.i.i.
:;
^

-15,000'
Ml
\

lLi...iL...i
1—
-10,000'

NORTH LOUISIANA IVIISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA

FIG. S7.—Highest drilled salt and thickness of cap rock for known salt structures in Alabama, Mississippi,
and northern Louisiana (after Murray, 1961).
472 GROVER E. MURRAY

THICKEST DRILLED CiPKOCK

1,500'

HIGHEST DRILLED FOUNT ON SALT PLUG

SEA-LEVEL

-5,000'

-10,000'

-15,000'
SW TEXAS TEXAS GULF COAST EAST TEXAS
FIG. S8.—Highest drilled salt and thickness of cap rock for known salt structures in Texas
(after Murray, 1961).
and the salt is under an upward buoying force. In general, geologists concerned with the prob-
Inherently, this theory implies an active growth lems of the origin of diapiric salt structures in
of the salt mass as an intrusive (diapiric) mass in the Gulf of Mexico basin now agree on these
sedimentary rocks. It contrasts with the idea ad- points.
vanced earlier by Barton (1933) of essential sta- 1. Salt in diapiric structures is derived from a
bility of the salt stock and "downbuilding" of the sedimentary salt bed.
sedimentary mass around it. 2. Salt moved into the diapiric structures by
means of plastic deformation.
3. Density differences between the salt and
overlying sediments are sufficient to cause rela-

FiG. 59.—Closely banded, fine-grained calcite cap

rock, with sulfur vein (upper left) and scattered
rhombs of dolomite. Plane polarized light, X 16.
Section cut from core of Freeport Sulphur Com-
pany's No. 1005 well, 1,497-1,508 ft., Lake Wash-
ington dome, Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana (after
Taylor, 1938).
FIG. 60.—Sulfur veins (black) in calcite (white
and gray). Plane polarized light, X 16. Section cut
from core of Jefferson Lake Oil Company's No.
36 well, 729-732 ft., Jefferson Island dome, Iberia
Parish, Louisiana (after Taylor, 1938).
 SALT STRUCTURES OF GULF OF MEXICO BASIN 473

tive upward growth through great thicknesses of

sedimentary rocks.
Modern theory postulates a thick mother bed
(or beds) of sedimentary salt. From the bed (or
beds) of salt, structures have been formed (1)
by salt moving up through the overlying sedi-
ments in response to gravitational inequilibrium,
or (2) by salt structures remaining at an essen-
tially constant level while the surrounding sedi-
ments or sedimentary rocks moved downward
around them as deposition progressed. Both pro-
cesses produce similar structures, but the me-
chanics of origin are fundamentally different.
In any theory of genesis, some mechanism
must initiate upward growth of the salt. Irregu-
larities in the basement rock beneath the salt or
in the upper surface of the salt bed, basement-
rock movements, variations in thickness or com-
position of the overburden, faulting or other
stresses, and other factors have been cited by
various authors as possible initiating forces. As a
result of model studies, Parker and McDowell
(1955) have suggested that (1) variations in
overburden and (2) faulting appear to be the
most probable methods of initiation of salt move-
ment and the development of growing structures.
The recognition of great salt ridges or anti-
clines, oriented subparallel with the regional strike
at depths of 4-5 miles in the Louisiana-Texas
FIG. 62.—Calcite cap rock with sulfur vein on
left, petroleum-stained calcite band on right, and
dolomite rhombs. Plane polarized light, X 21. Sec-
tion cut from core from Freeport Sulphur Com-
pany's No. 1005 well, 1,437-1,440 ft., Lake Wash-
ington dome, Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana (after
Taylor, 1938).
coastal area, and the occurrence of numerous
structures, also subparallel with the regional
strike but about 3-5 miles downdip from regional
flexure or strike-fault zones, indicate a possible
cause-and-effect relation between the faulting and
the position of certain structures. In view of
these factors, it is suggested that salt ridges or
anticlines, as well as groups of individual spines
or stocks which have a definite regional strike
alignment, may have been positioned by regional
strike flexures or strike-fault zones. Certain salt
masses, such as the West Hackberry-East Hack-
berry-Big Lake-Sweet Lake ridge in Cameron Par-
ish, Louisiana (Fig. 10), are associated with large

4.'-' ' 1 w .. • - *"

isJ»t, '
FIG. 61.—Sulfur (dark) in pseudomorphs of ;;>!)-
sum (gray and white) after anhydrite, showing how
outlines of anhydrite cleavage have been preserved.
Nicol prisms removed, X 21. Section cut from core FIG. 63.—Anhydrite cap rock composed of loosely
of Jefferson Lake Oil Company's No. 36 well, 838- compacted anhydrite grains. Plane polarized light,
841 ft., Jefferson Island dome, Iberia Parish, Louisi- X 25. Bayou Bouillon dome, St. Martin Parish,
ana (after Taylor, 1938). Louisiana (after Taylor, 1938).
474 GROVER E. MURRAY

FIG. 64.—Sheared anhydrite cap rock showing

elongation and alignment of anhydrite and dolo-
mite rhombs. Plane polarized light, X 16. Section
cut from core from Freeport Sulphur Company's
No. 1005 well, 1,451-1,456 ft.. Lake Washington
dome, Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana (after Taylor,
1938).
FIG. 65.—Residue of anhydrite grains with dolo-
mite rhomb (center) obtained by dissolving speci-
men of salt from Jefferson Island dome. Grains
were immersed in low-index oil and photographed
by reflected light, X 21 (after Taylor, 1938).

76°
36'

32°

28°-

24«

PRINCIPAL FAULT SYSTEMS

AFFECTING EVAPQRITE
DISTRIBUTION 20°-

Normal
**« N o r m a l and Reverse
aracter 16'
Displacement Unknown
Principal Faults
Associated w i t h
84 Triassic Redbeds 76"

FIG. 66.—Known distribution of thick Triassic-Jurassic evaporites, Gulf of Mexico basin.

 SALT STRUCTURES OF GULF OF MEXICO BASIN
FIG. 67.—Generalized, probable Triassic lithofacies distribution, Gulf of Mexico basin.
up-to-the-basin faults and, apparently, are unrelat-
ed to regional strike faulting.
Some salt structures with other alignments, for
example, northwesterly and northeasterly, may be
related to movements along similarly oriented
fracture zones in the basement rock. A promi-
nent, gently arcuate, convex-gulfward trend in
southern Louisiana suggests the possible localiza-
tion of structures along the margins of a conti-
nental shelf or large delta where the sedimentary
overburden was thinner and pressure relief there-
fore easier to attain. This concept of the localiza-
tion of certain salt masses is supported by the
apparent existence of clusters of such features on
parts of the modern continental slope south of
Louisiana.
Once structures are initiated and growth be-
gins, the density contrast between the salt and
475
surrounding materials, together with the plasticity
of the salt, appear to be sufficient to maintain
growth. Experimental data suggest that a critical
thickness of overburden which may impede
growth is of the same order of magnitude as the
height of a salt mass above its source bed.
Subsurface data in the southern Gulf region
are not sufficient to document similar genetic
mechanisms for the salt structures there. It
should be noted, however, that the configuration
of salt masses in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec re-
gion, where the overburden is relatively thin, is
similar to the configuration of salt masses at
much greater depths in the northern Gulf region.
Relatively low spines or stocks rise from the
large ridge-like or anticlinal masses in the south-
ern Gulf area, whereas in the Gulf province of
the United States the apophyses are greatly ex-
476 GROVER E. MURRAY
tended. The suspicion exists, then, that initial
warpings of the salt in the Gulf sedimentary
basin were in the form of irregular ridge and an-
ticlinal salt masses, from which spines subse-
quently rose; the heights of the spines probably
are related to the thickness of sediments above
the rising mass of salt. Perhaps, as advocated by
Barton, downbuilding is a more important aspect
of the development of salt diapirs than usually is
admitted.
In view of the overall similarity of salt struc-
tures wherever they occur around the periphery
of the Gulf sedimentary basin, not only in their
form, shape, and relationship to enclosing strata,
but also in the occurrence of cap rock which is
similar or identical in character, these structures
are interpreted to have had a basically similar
genesis.
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