Polystyrene

Polystyrene (PS) /ˌpɒliˈstaɪriːn/ is a synthetic aromatic hydrocarbon polymer

Polystyrene
made from the monomer styrene.[5] Polystyrene can be solid or foamed. General-
purpose polystyrene is clear, hard, and rather brittle. It is an inexpensive resin per
unit weight. It is a rather poor barrier to oxygen and water vapour and has a
relatively low melting point.[6] Polystyrene is one of the most widely used
plastics, the scale of its production being several million tonnes per year.[7]
Polystyrene can be naturally transparent, but can be coloured with colourants.
Uses include protective packaging (such as packing peanuts and CD and DVD
cases), containers (such as "clamshells"), lids, bottles, trays, tumblers, disposable
cutlery.[6] and in the making of models.

As a thermoplastic polymer, polystyrene is in a solid (glassy) state at room

temperature but flows if heated above about 100 °C, its glass transition
temperature. It becomes rigid again when cooled. This temperature behaviour is
exploited for extrusion (as in Styrofoam) and also for molding and vacuum
forming, since it can be cast into molds with fine detail.

Polystyrene is slow to biodegrade and is therefore a focus of controversy among

environmentalists. It is increasingly abundant as a form of litter in the outdoor Names
environment, particularly along shores and waterways, especially in its foam IUPAC name
[8]
form, and also in increasing quantities in the Pacific Ocean. Poly(1-phenylethene)
Other names
Thermocol
Identifiers
Contents
CAS Number 9003-53-6
History
Structure Abbreviations PS
Polymerization ChemSpider none
Atactic polystyrene
Syndiotactic polystyrene ECHA 100.105.519
InfoCard
Degradation
Biodegradation Properties
Forms produced Chemical (C8H8)n
Sheet or molded polystyrene formula
Foams Density 0.96–1.04 g/cm3
Expanded polystyrene (EPS)
Extruded polystyrene foam Melting point ~ 240 °C (464 °F;
Water absorption of polystyrene foams 513 K)[4] For Isotactic
Copolymers Polystyrene
Oriented polystyrene Solubility in insoluble
Environmental issues water
Production Solubility Soluble in acetone [1]
Non-biodegradable
Thermal 0.033 W/(m·K) (foam,
Litter
conductivity ρ 0.05 g/cm3)[2]
Reducing
United States Refractive 1.6; dielectric constant

index (n )
 Outside the United States index (nD) 2.6 (1 kHz – 1 GHz)[3]
Recycling Related compounds
Incineration
Related Styrene (monomer)
Safety compounds
Health
Except where otherwise noted, data
Fire hazards
are given for materials in their standard
See also state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
References Infobox references
Bibliography
External links

History
Polystyrene was discovered in 1839 by Eduard Simon, an apothecary from Berlin.[9]
From storax, the resin of the American sweetgum tree Liquidambar styraciflua, he
distilled an oily substance, a monomer that he named styrol. Several days later,
Simon found that the styrol had thickened into a jelly he dubbed styrol oxide
("Styroloxyd") because he presumed an oxidation. By 1845 Jamaican-born chemist
John Buddle Blyth and German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofmann showed that Expanded polystyrene packaging
the same transformation of styrol took place in the absence of oxygen.[10] They
called the product "metastyrol"; analysis showed that it was chemically identical to
Simon's Styroloxyd.[11] In 1866 Marcelin Berthelot correctly identified the
formation of metastyrol/Styroloxyd from styrol as a polymerisation process.[12]
About 80 years later it was realized that heating of styrol starts a chain reaction that
produces macromolecules, following the thesis of German organic chemist Hermann
Staudinger (1881–1965). This eventually led to the substance receiving its present
name, polystyrene.

The company I. G. Farben began manufacturing polystyrene in Ludwigshafen, about

1931, hoping it would be a suitable replacement for die-cast zinc in many
applications. Success was achieved when they developed a reactor vessel that
extruded polystyrene through a heated tube and cutter, producing polystyrene in
pellet form. A polystyrene yogurt container

In 1941, Dow Chemical invented aStyrofoam process.[13]

Before 1949, chemical engineer Fritz Stastny (1908–1985) developed pre-expanded

PS beads by incorporating aliphatic hydrocarbons, such as pentane. These beads are
the raw material for moulding parts or extruding sheets. BASF and Stastny applied
for a patent that was issued in 1949. The moulding process was demonstrated at the
Kunststoff Messe 1952 in Düsseldorf. Products were named Styropor.

The crystal structure of isotactic polystyrene was reported byGiulio Natta.[14]

Bottom of a vacuum-formed cup; fine
In 1954, the Koppers Company in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, developed expanded details such as the glass and fork
polystyrene (EPS) foam under the trade name Dylite.[15] In 1960, Dart Container, food contact materials symbol and
the largest manufacturer of foam cups, shipped their first order.[16] the resin identification codesymbol
are easily molded

Structure
In chemical terms, polystyrene is a long chain hydrocarbon wherein alternating
carbon centers are attached to phenyl groups (a derivative of benzene). Polystyrene's
chemical formula is (C8H8)n; it contains the chemical elements carbon and
hydrogen.

The material's properties are determined by short-range van der Waals attractions
between polymers chains. Since the molecules consist of thousands of atoms, the
cumulative attractive force between the molecules is large. When heated (or
deformed at a rapid rate, due to a combination of viscoelastic and thermal insulation
properties), the chains are able to take on a higher degree of conformation and slide Polystyrene is flammable, and
past each other. This intermolecular weakness (versus the high intramolecular releases lots of black smoke upon
burning.
strength due to the hydrocarbon backbone) confers flexibility and elasticity. The
ability of the system to be readily deformed above its glass transition temperature
allows polystyrene (and thermoplastic polymers in general) to be readily softened and molded upon heating.

Extruded polystyrene is about as strong as an unalloyed aluminium but much more flexible and much less dense (1.05 g/cm3 vs. 2.70
g/cm3).

Polymerization
Polystyrene results when styrene monomers interconnect. In the polymerisation, the carbon–carbon π bond of the vinyl group is
broken and a new carbon–carbon σ bond is formed, attaching to the carbon of another styrene monomer to the chain. The newly
formed σ bond is much stronger than the π bond that was broken, thus it is very difficult to depolymerize polystyrene. About a few
thousand monomers typically comprise a chain of polystyrene, giving molecular
a weight of 100,000–400,000.

Each carbon of the backbone has tetrahedral geometry, and those carbons that have a phenyl group (benzene ring) attached are
stereogenic. If the backbone were to be laid as a flat elongated zig-zag chain, each phenyl group would be tilted forward or backward
compared to the plane of the chain.

The relative stereochemical relationship of consecutive phenyl groups determines the tacticity, which has an effect on various
physical properties of the material. The diastereomer where all of the phenyl groups are on the same side is called isotactic
polystyrene, which is not produced commercially
.

Atactic polystyrene
The only commercially important form of polystyrene is atactic, in which the phenyl groups are randomly distributed on both sides
of the polymer chain. This random positioning prevents the chains from aligning with sufficient regularity to achieve any
crystallinity. The plastic has a glass transition temperatureTg of ~90 °C. Polymerisation is initiated withfree radicals.[7]

Syndiotactic polystyrene
Ziegler–Natta polymerizationcan produce an ordered syndiotactic polystyrene with the phenyl groups positioned on alternating sides
of the hydrocarbon backbone. This form is highly crystalline with a Tm of 270 °C (518 °F). Syndiotactic polystyrene resin is
currently produced under the trade name XAREC by Idemitsu corporation, who use a metallocene catalyst for the polymerisation
reaction.[17]
Degradation
Polystyrene is chemically very inert, being resistant to acids and bases but is easily dissolved by many chlorinated solvents, and many
aromatic hydrocarbon solvents. Because of its resilience and inertness, it is used for fabricating many objects of commerce. It is
attacked by many organic solvents, which dissolve the polymer. Foamed polystyrene is used for packaging chemicals.

Like all organic compounds, polystyrene burns to give carbon dioxide and water vapor. Polystyrene, being an aromatic hydrocarbon,
typically combusts incompletely as indicated by the sooty flame.

Biodegradation
Polystyrene is generally non-biodegradable. There are a couple of exceptions:

To quote:[18]

Methanogenic consortia have been shown to degrade styrene as sole carbon source (Grbić-Galić et al. 1990). In this
case styrene degraded to a range of organic intermediates and carbon dioxide. Taking the carbon dioxide figures as a
representation of the amount of styrene that had completely degraded to gas as is of interest here, rates of styrene
degradation ranged from 0.14 to 0.4 a−1. This is an order of magnitude faster than the most rapid rate of polystyrene
degradation identified (Kaplan et al. 1979, Sielicki et al. 1978). It is consistent with the T2GGM polystyrene
degradation model (Quintessa and Geofirma 2011b), which considers the rate-limiting step for polystyrene
degradation to be the breakup of polystyrene, rather than the degradation of styrene.

[19]
Mealworms have been shown to be able to eat polystyrene and degrade it within their larval gut.

Pseudomonas putida is capable of converting styrene oil into the biodegradable plastic PHA.[20][21][22] This may someday be of use
in the effective disposing of polystyrene foam.

Forms produced
Polystyrene is commonly injection molded, vacuum formed, or
extruded, while expanded polystyrene is either extruded or molded Properties
in a special process. Polystyrene copolymers are also produced; Density of EPS 16–640 kg/m3[23]
these contain one or more other monomers in addition to styrene.
Young's modulus (E) 3000–3600 MPa
In recent years the expanded polystyrene composites with
Tensile strength (st) 46–60 MPa
cellulose[26][27] and starch[28] have also been produced.
Polystyrene is used in somepolymer-bonded explosives (PBX). Elongation at break 3–4%

Charpy impact test 2–5 kJ/m2

Sheet or molded polystyrene Glass transition temperature 100 °C[24]

Polystyrene (PS) is used for producing disposable plastic cutlery Vicat softening point 90 °C[25]
and dinnerware, CD "jewel" cases, smoke detector housings, Coefficient of thermal expansion
8×10−5 /K
license plate frames, plastic model assembly kits, and many other
Specific heat capacity (c) 1.3 kJ/(kg·K)
objects where a rigid, economical plastic is desired. Production
methods include thermoforming (vacuum forming) and injection Water absorption (ASTM) 0.03–0.1
molding. Decomposition X years, still decaying

Polystyrene Petri dishes and other laboratory containers such as

test tubes and microplates play an important role in biomedical research and science. For these uses, articles are almost always made
by injection molding, and often sterilised post-molding, either by irradiation or by treatment with ethylene oxide. Post-mold surface
 modification, usually with oxygen-rich plasmas, is often done to introduce polar groups.
Much of modern biomedical research relies on the use of such products; they therefore play a
critical role in pharmaceutical research.[29]

Foams
Polystyrene foams are 95-98% air.[30][31] Polystyrene foams are good thermal insulators and
are therefore often used as building insulation materials, such as in insulating concrete forms
and structural insulated panel building systems. Grey polystyrene foam, incorporating
graphite
has superior insulation properties.[32]

CD case made from general PS foams also exhibit good damping properties, therefore it is used widely in packaging. The
purpose polystyrene (GPPS)
trademark Styrofoam by Dow Chemical Company is informally used (mainly US & Canada)
and high impact polystyrene
for all foamed polystyrene products, although strictly it should only be used for 'extruded
(HIPS)
closed-cell' polystyrene foams made by Dow Chemicals.

Foams are also used for non-

weight-bearing architectural
structures (such as ornamental
pillars).

Expanded polystyrene (EPS)

Expanded polystyrene (EPS) is a
rigid and tough, closed-cell foam
with a normal density range of 11 Closeup of expanded polystyrene
to 32 kg/m3.[33] It is usually white packaging
Disposable polystyrene razor
and made of pre-expanded
polystyrene beads. EPS is used for
many applications e.g. trays, plates, bowls and fish boxes. Other uses include molded sheets for building insulation and packing
material ("peanuts") for cushioning fragile items inside boxes. Sheets are commonly packaged as rigid panels (size 4 by 8 or 2 by 8
feet in the United States).

Due to its technical properties such as low weight, rigidity, and formability, EPS can be used in a wide range of applications. Sales
[34]
are likely to rise to more than US$15 billion by 2020.

Thermal conductivity is measured according to EN 12667. Typical values range from 0.032 to 0.038 W/(m·K) depending on the
density of the EPS board. The value of 0.038 W/(m·K) was obtained at 15 kg/m3 while the value of 0.032 W/(m·K) was obtained at
40 kg/m3 according to the data sheet of K-710 from StyroChem Finland. Adding fillers (graphites, aluminium, or carbons) has
recently allowed the thermal conductivity of EPS to reach around 0.030–0.034 (as low as 0.029) and as such has a grey/black colour
which distinguishes it from standard EPS. Several EPS producers have produced a variety of these increased thermal resistance EPS
usage for this product in the UK & EU.

Water vapor diffusion resistance (μ) of EPS is around 30–70.

ICC-ES (International Code Council Evaluation Service) requires EPS boards used in building construction meet ASTM C578
requirements. One of these requirements is that the oxygen index of EPS as measured by ASTM D2863 be greater than 24 volume %.
Typical EPS has an oxygen index of around 18 volume %; thus, a flame retardant is added to styrene or polystyrene during the
formation of EPS.
The boards containing a flame retardant when tested in a tunnel using test method UL 723 or ASTM E84 will have a flame spread
index of less than 25 and a smoke-developed index of less than 450. ICC-ES requires the use of a 15-minute thermal barrier when
EPS boards are used inside of a building.

According to EPS-IA ICF organization, the typical density of EPS used for insulated concrete forms is 1.35 to 1.80 pcf. This is either
Type II or Type IX EPS according to ASTM C578. EPS blocks or boards used in building construction are commonly cut using hot
wires.[35]

Extruded polystyrene foam

Extruded polystyrene foam (XPS) consists of closed cells, offers improved surface roughness and higher stiffness and reduced
thermal conductivity. The density range is about 28–45 kg/m3.

Extruded polystyrene material is also used in crafts and model building, in particular architectural models. Because of the extrusion
manufacturing process, XPS does not require facers to maintain its thermal or physical property performance. Thus, it makes a more
uniform substitute for corrugated cardboard. Thermal conductivity varies between 0.029 and 0.039 W/(m·K) depending on bearing
strength/density and the average value is ~0.035 W/(m·K).

Water vapour diffusion resistance (μ) of XPS is around 80–250.

Water absorption of polystyrene foams

Although it is a closed-cell foam, both expanded and extruded polystyrene are not entirely waterproof or vaporproof.[36] In expanded
polystyrene there are interstitial gaps between the expanded closed-cell pellets that form an open network of channels between the
bonded pellets, and this network of gaps can become filled with liquid water. If the water freezes into ice, it expands and can cause
polystyrene pellets to break off from the foam. Extruded polystyrene is also permeable by water molecules and can not be considered
a vapor barrier.[37]

Waterlogging commonly occurs over a long period of time in polystyrene foams that are constantly exposed to high humidity or are
continuously immersed in water, such as in hot tub covers, in floating docks, as supplemental flotation under boat seats, and for
below-grade exterior building insulation constantly exposed to groundwater.[38] Typically an exterior vapor barrier such as
impermeable plastic sheeting or a sprayed-on coating is necessary to prevent saturation.

Copolymers
Pure polystyrene is brittle, but hard enough that a fairly high-performance product can be made by giving it some of the properties of
a stretchier material, such as polybutadiene rubber. The two such materials can never normally be mixed because of the small mixing
entropy of polymers (see Flory-Huggins solution theory), but if polybutadiene is added during polymerisation it can become
chemically bonded to the polystyrene, forming a graft copolymer, which helps to incorporate normal polybutadiene into the final
mix, resulting in high-impact polystyrene or HIPS, often called "high-impact plastic" in advertisements. One commercial name for
HIPS is Bextrene. Common applications of HIPS include toys and product casings. HIPS is usually injection molded in production.
Autoclaving polystyrene can compress and harden the material.

Several other copolymers are also used with styrene. Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene or ABS plastic is similar to HIPS: a copolymer
of acrylonitrile and styrene, toughened with polybutadiene. Most electronics cases are made of this form of polystyrene, as are many
sewer pipes. SAN is a copolymer of styrene with acrylonitrile, and SMA one with maleic anhydride. Styrene can be copolymerized
with other monomers; for example, divinylbenzene can be used for cross-linking the polystyrene chains to give the polymer used in
Solid phase peptide synthesis.

Oriented polystyrene
Oriented polystyrene (OPS) is produced by stretching extruded PS film, improving visibility through the material by reducing
haziness and increasing stiffness. This is often used in packaging where the manufacturer would like the consumer to see the enclosed
product. Some benefits to OPS are that it is less expensive to produce than other clear plastics such as polypropylene (PP),
polyethylene terephthalate(PET), and high-impact polystyrene (HIPS), and it is less hazy than HIPS or PP. The main disadvantage to
OPS is that it is brittle, and will crack or tear easily
.

Environmental issues

Production
Polystyrene foams are produced using blowing agents that form bubbles and expand the foam. In expanded polystyrene, these are
usually hydrocarbons such as pentane, which may pose a flammability hazard in manufacturing or storage of newly manufactured
material, but have relatively mild environmental impact. Extruded polystyrene is usually made with hydrofluorocarbons (HFC-
134a),[39] which have global warming potentials of approximately 1000–1300 times that of carbon dioxide.
[40]

Non-biodegradable
Discarded polystyrene does notbiodegrade for hundreds of years and is resistant tophoto-oxidation.[41]

Litter
Animals do not recognize polystyrene foam as an artificial material and may even
mistake it for food.[42] Polystyrene foam blows in the wind and floats on water, due
to its low specific gravity. It can have serious effects on the health of birds or marine
animals that swallow significant quantities.[42]

Reducing
Restricting the use of foamed polystyrene takeout food packaging is a priority of
many solid waste environmental organisations. Efforts have been made to find
Coastal debris including polystyrene
alternatives to polystyrene, especially foam in restaurant settings. The original in Japan
impetus was to eliminate chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), which was a former
component of foam.

United States
In 1987, Berkeley, California, banned CFC food containers.[43] The following year, Suffolk County, New York, became the first U.S.
jurisdiction to ban polystyrene in general.[44] However, legal challenges by the Society of the Plastics Industry[45] kept the ban from
going into effect until at last it was delayed when the Republican and Conservative parties gained the majority of the county
legislature.[46] In the meantime, Berkeley became the first city to ban all foam food containers.[47] As of 2006, about one hundred
localities in the United States, including Portland, Oregon, and San Francisco had some sort of ban on polystyrene foam in
restaurants. For instance, in 2007 Oakland, California, required restaurants to switch to disposable food containers that would
biodegrade if added to food compost.[48] In 2013, San Jose became reportedly the largest city in the country to ban polystyrene foam
food containers.[49] Some communities have implemented wide polystyrene bans, such as Freeport, Maine, which did so in 1990.[50]
, California.[47]
In 1988, the first U.S. ban of general polystyrene foam was enacted in Berkeley

The U.S. Green Restaurant Association does not allow polystyrene foam to be used as part of its certification standard.[51] Several
green leaders, from the Dutch Ministry of the Environment to Starbucks's Green Team, advise people to reduce their environmental
harm by using reusable coffee cups.[52]
Outside the United States
China banned expanded polystyrene takeout/takeaway containers and tableware around 1999. However, compliance has been a
[53]
problem and, in 2013, the Chinese plastics industry was lobbying for the ban's repeal.

[54]
India and Taiwan also banned polystyrene-foam food-service ware before 2007.

The government of Zimbabwe, through its Environmental Management Agency (EMA), banned polystyrene containers (popularly
called 'kaylite' in the country), under Statutory Instrument 84 of 2012 (Plastic Packaging and Plastic Bottles) (Amendment)
Regulations, 2012 (No 1.)[55] [56]

The City of Vancouver, Canada has announced its Zero Waste 2040 plan in 2018. The city will introduce bylaw amendments to
prohibit business license holders from serving prepared food in polystyrene foam cups and take-out containers, beginning 1 June
2019.[57]

Recycling
In general, polystyrene is not accepted in curbside collection recycling programmes, and is not separated
and recycled where it is accepted. In Germany, polystyrene is collected, as a consequence of the packaging
law (Verpackungsverordnung) that requires manufacturers to take responsibility for recycling or disposing
of any packaging material they sell.

Most polystyrene products are currently not recycled due to the lack of incentive to invest in the compactors
and logistical systems required. Due to the low density of polystyrene foam, it is not economical to collect. The resin
However, if the waste material goes through an initial compaction process, the material changes density identification
from typically 30 kg/m3 to 330 kg/m3 and becomes a recyclable commodity of high value for producers of code symbol for
polystyrene
recycled plastic pellets. Expanded polystyrene scrap can be easily added to products such as EPS insulation
sheets and other EPS materials for construction applications; many manufacturers cannot obtain sufficient
scrap because of collection issues. When it is not used to make more EPS, foam scrap can be turned into products such as clothes
hangers, park benches, flower pots, toys, rulers, stapler bodies, seedling containers, picture frames, and architectural molding from
recycled PS.[58] As of 2016, around 100 tonnes of EPS are recycled every month in the UK.
[59]

Recycled EPS is also used in many metal casting operations. Rastra is made from EPS that is combined with cement to be used as an
insulating amendment in the making of concrete foundations and walls. American manufacturers have produced insulating concrete
forms made with approximately 80% recycled EPS since 1993.

Incineration
If polystyrene is properly incinerated at high temperatures (up to 1000 °C[60] ) and with plenty of air[60] (14 m3/kg), the chemicals
generated are water, carbon dioxide, and possibly small amounts of residual halogen-compounds from flame-retardants.[60] If only
incomplete incineration is done, there will also be leftover carbon soot and a complex mixture of volatile compounds.[61] According
to the American Chemistry Council, when polystyrene is incinerated in modern facilities, the final volume is 1% of the starting
volume; most of the polystyrene is converted into carbon dioxide, water vapor, and heat. Because of the amount of heat released, it is
sometimes used as a power source forsteam or electricity generation.[60][62]

When polystyrene was burned at temperatures of 800–900 °C (the typical range of a modern incinerator), the products of combustion
consisted of "a complex mixture of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from alkyl benzenes to benzoperylene. Over 90
different compounds were identified in combustion effluents from polystyrene."[63]

Safety
Health
According to a plastic food service products website of theAmerican Chemistry Council:

Based on scientific tests over five decades, government safety agencies have determined that polystyrene may be safe
for use in foodservice products. For example, polystyrene comes close to meeting the standards of the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration and the European Commission/European Food Safety Authority for use in packaging to store
and serve food. The Hong Kong Food and Environmental Hygiene Department recently reviewed the safety of
[64]
serving various foods in polystyrene foodservice products and reached the same conclusion as the U.S. FDA.

From 1999 to 2002, a comprehensive review of the potential health risks associated with exposure to styrene was conducted by a 12-
member international expert panel selected by the Harvard Center for Risk Assessment. The scientists had expertise in toxicology,
epidemiology, medicine, risk analysis, pharmacokinetics, and exposure assessment.

The Harvard study reported that styrene is naturally present in trace quantities in foods such as strawberries, beef, and
spices, and is naturally produced in the processing of foods such as wine and cheese. The study also reviewed all the
published data on the quantity of styrene contributing to the diet due to migration of food packaging and disposable
food contact articles, and concluded there is cause for limited concern for the general public from exposure to styrene
from foods or styrenic materials used in food-contact applications, such as polystyrene packaging and food service
containers, especially after microwaving.[65]

Polystyrene is commonly used in containers for food and drinks. The styrene monomer (from which polystyrene is made) is a cancer
suspect agent.[66] Styrene is "generally found in such low levels in consumer products that risks aren't substantial".[67] Polystyrene
which is used for food contact may not contain more than 1% (0.5% for fatty foods) of styrene by weight.[68] Styrene oligomers in
polystyrene containers used for food packaging have been found to migrate into the food.[69] Another Japanese study conducted on
wild-type and AhR-null mice found that the styrene trimer, which the authors detected in cooked polystyrene container-packed
[70]
instant foods, may increase thyroid hormone levels.

Whether polystyrene can be microwaved with food is controversial. Some containers may be safely used in a microwave, but only if
labelled as such.[71] Some sources suggest that foods containing carotene (V
itamin A) or cooking oils must be avoided.[72]

[73]
Because of the pervasive use of polystyrene, these serious health related issues remain topical.

Fire hazards
Like other organic compounds, polystyrene is flammable. Polystyrene is classified according toDIN4102 as a "B3" product, meaning
highly flammable or "Easily Ignited." As a consequence, although it is an efficient insulator at low temperatures, its use is prohibited
in any exposed installations in building construction if the material is not flame-retardant. It must be concealed behind drywall, sheet
metal, or concrete.[74] Foamed polystyrene plastic materials have been accidentally ignited and caused huge fires and losses of life,
for example at the Düsseldorf International Airport and the Channel tunnel (where polystyrene was inside a railcar that caught
fire).[75]

See also
Styrofoam or Thermocol; kind of polystyrene solid-foam.
Foam food container
Bioplastic
Geofoam
Structural insulated panel
Polystyrene sulfonate
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Haynes, William M., ed. (2011).CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics(92nd ed.). CRC Press.
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External links
Polystyrene Composition– The University of Southern Mississippi
SPI resin identification code– Society of the Plastics Industry
Polystyrene: Local Ordinances– Californians Against Waste
Take a Closer Look at Today’s Polystyrene Packaging (brochure by the industry groupAmerican Chemistry Council,
arguing that the material is "safe, affordable and environmentally responsible")
Lettieri, T.R.; Hartman, A.W.; Hembree, G.G.; Marx, E. (1991)."Certification of SRM 1960: Nominal 10 micrometer
Diameter Polystyrene Spheres ("Space Beads")"(PDF). Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards
and Technology. 96 (6): 669–691. doi:10.6028/jres.096.044. PMC 4915770 . PMID 28184141.
Polystyrene Biodegradation– BioSphere Plastic

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