Tyr It is Loki who begins the chain of events that leads to the destruction of the gods.

s the chain of events that leads to the destruction of the gods. He does this by causing the death of the beautiful
The original Germanic god of war and the patron god of justice, the precursor of
Odin. At the time of the Vikings, Tyr had to make way for Odin, who became the
god of war himself.
Baldr, Frigg's son, who in his goodness and perfection embodies the attainment of every desirable quality. Baldr's death plunges all
of Asgard into mourning. Yet Loki feels no remorse, and in fact relishes every opportunity to exert his contrary nature.
Loki was chained to three large boulders; one under his shoulders, one under his loins and one under his knees. A poisonous snake
was placed above his head. The dripping venom that lands on him is caught by Sigyn in a bowl. But every now and then, when the

Tyr was by then regarded as Odin's son (or possibly of the giant Hymir). He is the bowl is filled to the brim, she has to leave him to empty it. Then the poison that falls on Loki's face makes him twist in pain,
boldest of the gods, who inspires courage and heroism in battle. causing earthquakes.

Tyr is represented as a man with one hand, because his right hand was bitten off by After Frigg had gone to great lengths to bring Baldr back to the land of the living by asking all beings to weep for his return, Loki

the gigantic wolf Fenrir (in old-Norse, the wrist was called 'wolf-joint'). (in the guise of an old female giant) steadfastly refused to shed a single tear for the slain god. Thus Baldr was consigned to the
realms of the dead, under the governance of Lady Hel.

His attribute is a spear; the symbol of justice, as well as a weapon.

At the day of Ragnarok, Tyr will kill the hound Garm, the guardian of the hell, but
will die from the wounds inflicted by the animal. In later mythology, "Tyr" became
to mean "god".
This loss of innocence represented by Baldr's death is the act that triggers Ragnarok, the end of all things. Ragnarok begins with
famine and darkness and bitter cold - a winter lasting three entire years.
It ends with all creation becoming a flaming furnace. In the middle is staged the disastrous final battle in which the gods are
arrayed against the powers of evil represented by the giants. Nearly everything and every body, in all realms, is destroyed. Loki

He is also known as T”waz, Tiw and Ziu. fights against the gods, and is killed, as is Odin, Tyr, Freyr, and Thor.

Even the elves, dwarfs, Sun and Moon are destroyed. Out of this a new Earth arises, and a single man and woman, Lifthrasir and
Loki
Lif, who had hidden themselves in Yggdrasil the World Tree, emerge. Baldr comes forth, and a few sons and daughters of the gods
survive, and begin a fresh cycle of life.
The most unpredictable and certainly the most dangerous god in the Northern pantheon was Loki. His activities ran from the
merely mischievous to the blatantly malicious. Supremely clever, Loki ensnared everyone in complicated problems, to which he
This final lesson reminds us that nothing can remain static, even the gods and stories evolve into new.
always supplied a remedy - through his solution often engendered even greater troubles.

Metaphors
His parents were both giants (the perpetual enemies of the gods.)

Snake - Human DNA.

Loki is an immensely powerful magician, and shares with Odin the ability to sex and shape shift at will.

Shape shifting, we play many roles simultaneously.

Loki was fair of face, and took many lovers, despite his constant criticism of goddesses who did the same.

Trickster [duality, negative component] - Good vs. evil symbology.

His wife is Sigyn, who stayed loyal to him, even when the gods punished him for the death of Balder.

Three - third dimension - 3D

Loki's mistress is the giantess Angrboda. With her he is the father of three monsters.

World Tree - Tree of Life

He had some unusual children, including the huge wolf borne from Loki's brief dalliance with a giantess. Loki was the father (and
in few instances the mother) of many creatures, men and monsters. Having liaisons with giantesses was nothing unusual for gods
in Norse mythology - both Odin and Freyr are good examples; and since Loki was actually a giant himself, there is nothing
Here we find another myth about birth, death, and resurrection. It reminds me of the
unusual about this activity.
story of Isis, Osiris and Horus.
 Freyal
In Norse mythology, Freya is a goddess of love and fertility, and the most beautiful
and propitious of the goddesses. She is the patron goddess of crops and birth, the
symbol of sensuality and was called upon in matters of love. She loves music, spring
and flowers, and is particularly fond of the elves (fairies). Freya is one of the
foremost goddesses of the Vanir.
Goddess of sex, battle, and pleasure, most beautiful and desirable of white-armed
women, Freyja was sister to the male fertility god Freyr. Freyja had unusual parity
with Odin, for they divided the heroic dead amongst themselves. Half went to live
eternally in Odin's hall, and half in Freyja's hall Sessrumnir- and the goddess got first
pick.
As befits a goddess, Freyja owned potent magical equipment. Like Frigg, she
possessed a falcon skin, which when pulled over her shoulders, allowed her to take
the form of that raptor.This also provided a useful disguise when needed - important
to a goddess whose personage made her instantly recognisable.
Freyja's most wonderful adornment was her necklace (or possibly a jewelled belt),
Brisingamen.It was crafted by four dwarfs, and was of exceptional beauty.Freyja so
longed for it that she consented to spend one night each in the arms of its makers as
her payment.This was a just recompense in the eyes of the goddess, for as the
necklace was the finest of all things the dwarfs could produce, the utter summation
of their skill, why not repay them with an equally precious example of her love-art?
Freyja always wished to give her love freely.Her beauty and desirability often
attracted the attention of those she did not want, such as the giant who offered to
build an impregnable defensive wall around Asgard, the dwelling of the gods, in
exchange for taking Freyja away as his wife. The goddess knew nothing of this
agreement, and her outraged indignation at being so wagered grew the greater as the
wall grew taller. Never believing they would have to forfeit Freyja, the gods grew
more and more uneasy in their wager, until Loki ,who had urged the agreement, was
forced to utilize his trickster ability to the fullest.
Three animals are associated with Freyja. She is pulled about in a cart to which two
cats are harnessed. Their sinuous beauty and comfort-loving nature recall one side of
the goddess. The other two animals are direct symbols of sexuality and strength.
Her golden-bristled boar is called Battle Swine (Hildisvini), and recalls her role as
the receiver of heroic dead. Battle helmets topped with iron and bronze images of
boars have been found throughout England and Scandinavia, for the boar's savage
and cunning nature was widely revered. The other animal is the mare, associated
with night, unbridled sexuality, and dangerous magical power. To "ride the night-
mare" meant then, as now, to have bad dreams.
Sif
The golden-haired wife of the god Thor. There is not much known about her, except
that she could originally have been a fertility goddess. Neither does she appear often
in the myths.
The best know myth, however, is when Loki the Trickster sneaked into Sif's
bedroom and lopped off her hair. Furious, Thor threatened to smash him unless Loki
managed to replace the hair. He went to a great cave, the home of the sons of Ivaldi,
and told them the reason of his journey. He then asked the dwarfs to spin gold as fine
as Sif's hair and imbue it with magic that it will grow on her head. The dwarfs agreed
and made a long wave of fine golden strands, which Loki gave to Sif.
Bragi
The god of eloquence and poetry, and the patron of skalds (poets) in Norse
mythology. He is regarded as a son of Odin and Frigg. Runes were carved on his
tongue and he inspired poetry in humans by letting them drink from the mead of
poetry. Bragi is married to Idun, the goddess of eternal youth. Oaths were sworn over
the Bragarfull ("Cup of Bragi"), and drinks were taken from it in honor of a dead
king. Before a king ascended the throne, he drank from such a cup
Forseti
In Norse mythology, Forseti is the god of justice. He is the son of the god Balder and
his mother is Nanna. Forseti rules in the beautiful palace Glitnir, which serves as a
court of justice and where all legal disputes are settled. Glitnir has a roof of silver
that is supported by pillars of red gold. Forseti can be compared with the Teutonic
god Fosite, who was worshipped on Helgoland.
Heimdall
Heimdall is the god of light, the son of nine mothers (variously given as the
daughters of Geirrendour the Giant or of Aegir).
He was born at the end of the world and raised by the force of the earth, seawater and In Norse mythology, Ymir is the primordial giant and the progenitor of the race of
the blood of a boar.
Because of his shining, golden teeth he is also called Gullintani ("gold tooth").
His hall is Himinbjorg, The Cliffs of Heaven, and his horse is Gulltop.
Heimdall carries the horn Gjallar.
He is the watchman of the gods and guards Bifrost, the only entrance to Asgard, the
realm of the gods.
It is Heimdall's duty to prevent the giants from forcing their way into Asgard. He
requires less sleep than a bird and can see a hundred miles around him, by night as
well as by day.
His hearing is so accurate that no sound escapes him: he can even hear the grass
grow or the wool on a sheep's back. At the final conflict of Ragnarok he will kill his
age-old enemy, the evil god Loki, but will die himself from his wounds.
As the god Rig ("ruler"), Heimdall created the three races of mankind: the serfs, the
peasants, and the warriors. It is interesting to note why Heimdall fathered them, and
not Odin as might be expected. Furthermore, Heimdall is in many attributes identical
with Tyr.
Ve
Ve is one of a triad of ancient Scandinavian gods including Odin and Vili - sons of
the primordial pair of giants Bor and Bestla. The three brothers created heaven and
earth from the slain body of the primeval being Ymir and built the twelve realms.
They also created the first pair of humans. The male was named Ask ("ash") and the
female the named Embla ("elm"). Ask and Embla became the progenitors of the
human race and Midgard was given to them as their residence.
In Norse myth, Midgar is the defensive fortress which the gods build about the
middle portion of the Earth allotted to men in order to protect mankind from the
giants. Midgard ("middle world") is on the same level as Nidavellir (land of the
dwarfs), Svartalfheim (land of the dark elves/dwarfs) and Jotunheim (the land of the
giants).
frost giants. He was created from the melting ice of Niflheim, when it came in
contact with the hot air from Muspell. From Ymir's sleeping body the first giants
sprang forth: one of his legs fathered a son on his other leg while from under his
armpit a man and women grew out.
The frost kept melting and from the drops the divine cow Audumla was created.
From her udder flowed four rivers of milk, on which Ymir fed. The cow itself got
nourishment by licking hoar frost and salt from the ice. On the evening on the first
day the hair of a man appeared, on the second day the whole head and on the third
day it became a man, Buri, the first god. His grandchildren are Odin, Ve and Vili.
Odin and his brothers had no liking for Ymir, nor for the growing number of giants,
and killed him. In the huge amount of blood that flowed from Ymir's wounds all the
giants, except two, drowned. From the slain body the brothers created heaven and
earth. They used the flesh to fill the Ginnungagap; his blood to create the lakes and
the seas; from his unbroken bones they made the mountains; the giant's teeth and the
fragments of his shattered bones became rocks and boulders and stones; trees were
made from his hair, and the clouds from his brains. Odin and his brothers raised
Ymir's skull and made the sky from it and beneath its four corners they placed a
dwarf.
Finally, from Ymir's eyebrow they shaped Midgard, the realm of man. The maggots
which swarmed in Ymir's flesh they gave wits and the shape of men, but they live
under the hills and mountains. They are called dwarfs.
MGA TAUHAN SA IBONG ADARNA
Ito ang ilan sa mga tauhan na galing sa Ibong Adarna.
Don Fernando
Siya ang hari ng Berbanya. May 3 siyang anak. Nagkasakit siya kaya
hinanap ng tatlong niyang anak ang Ibong Adarna.
Donya Leonora
Pangalawang prinsesa na nakita ni Juan sa ilalim ng balo. Nakuha agad ng
kagandahan ni Leonora ang puso ni Don Juan.
Donya Valeriana
Siya ang reyna ng Berbanya. Tatlo ang anak niya. Asawa niya si Don
Fernando.
Donya Juana
Unang mahal ni Juan. Kapatid ni Leonora. Siya ay isa sa mga tao ng balón.
Asawa niya ay si Don Diego.
Don Pedro
Ako ay ang mahal na prinsipe ng Berbanya. Takot ako sa dilim at naging
Magiting na bayani, mandirigma at heneral ng hukbong magtatanggol sa
bato ako dahil sa tae ng Ibong Adarna. Gusto ko magkain at iniibig ko si
Donya Leonora. pagsalakay ng mga Persiyano at Turko.

Higante
Ang malakas at matatakot na guwardiya ni Donya Juana. Laura
Don Diego Anak ni Haring Linceo at ang natatanging pag-ibig ni Florante. Tapat ang
Si Don Diego ay isang anak nina Don Fernando at Donya Valeriana. Lagi
siya pinipilit ng kanyang kapatid na si Don Pedro. Tumitira siya sa kaharian puso sa pag-ibig ngunit aagawin ng buhong na si Adolfo.
ng Berbanya. Pangalawa siya sa mga kapatid na sina Don Pedro at Juan.
Serpyente
Adolfo
Ang serpiente ay ang nag-away kay Don Juan, nag-away sila dahil kay
Leonora. Tinulungan ni Leonora si Juan para patayin siya. Anak ng magiting na si Konde Sileno ng Albanya. Kabaligtaran ng
Don Juan
Ang tatay ni Don Juan ay si Don Fernando. Ang nanay niya ay si Donya kanyang ama, si Adolfo ay isang taksil at lihim na may inggit kay Florante
Valeriana. Ang kapatid niya ay si Don Pedro at Don Diego. Ang asawa niya mula nang magkasama sila sa Atenas. Siya ang mahigpit na karibal ni
ay si Donya Maria.
Ibong Adarna Florante sa pag-aaral at popularidad sa Atenas. Ang malaking balakid sa
Nakatira sa puno ng Piedras Platas. Mahilig kumanta at maglabas. pag-iibigan nina Florante at Laura, at aagaw sa trono ni Haring Linceo ng
Ginawang bato si Don Pedro at Diego. Hinuli siya ni Don Juan. Ang amo niya
ay si Don Juan. Siya lang ang makakapagaling sa hari Albanya.
Ermitanyo
Ang Ermitanyo ay tumitira sa katabi ng bahay ng Ibong Adarna. Alam niya
Aladin
paano maghuli ng Ibong Adarna. Tinulong niya si Juan sa paghuli ng Ibong
Adarna. Ang ermitanyo ay sobrang matanda. Isang gererong Moro at prinsipe ng Persiya. Anak ni Sultan Ali-adab.
Ang Leproso
Tinulungan siya ni Don Juan, binigay siya ng tinapay pero binalik niya ang Mahigpit na kaaway ng bayan at relihiyon ni Florante, ngunit magiging
tinapay. Siya ang nagturo kay Don Juan kung saan bahay ng Ermitanyo. tagapagligtas ni Florante.
Birheng Maria
Si Don Juan ay nagdadasal sa kanya.
Maria Blanca Flerida
Asawa ni Don Juan. Meron siyang “White Magic”. Tinulungan niya si Don isang matapang na babaeng Moro na tatakas sa Persiya para hanapin sa
Juan sa utos binibigay ng tatay niya o Hari Salermo.
kagubatan ang kasintahang si Aladin. Siya ay magiging tagapagligtas ni
Florante At Laura Laura mula kay Adolfo.

Florante Menandro
Makisig na binatang anak ni Duke Briseo at Prinsesa Floresca. Siya ang Ang matapat na kaibigan ni Florante. Mabait at laging kasa-kasama ni
pangunahing tauhan ng awit. Halal na Heneral ng hukbo ng Albanya. Florante sa digmaan.

Mga iba pang tauhan :

Duke Briseo Hari ng Krotona
ang mabait na ama ni Florante. Taga-payo ni Haring Linceo ng Albanya. Ama ni Prinsesa Floresca at lolo ni Florante.

Prinsesa Floresca
Ang mahal na ina ni Florante. Mga Tauhan sa Noli Me Tangere

Haring Linceo
Juan Crisostomo Magsalin Ibarra
hari ng Albanya at ama ni Prinsesa Laura.

Siya ang binatang nag-aral sa Europa. Nangarap siyang makapagpatayo ng paaralan

Antenor
upang matiyak ang magandang kinabukasan ng mga kabataan ng San Diego. Nag-
ang mabait na guro sa Atenas. Guro nina Florante, Menandro at Adolfo.
iisa siyang anak ni Don Rafael Ibarra. Itinuring siyang “eskumulgado” at idinawit sa
Amain ni Menandro.
naganap na pag-aalsa. Siya ay katipan ni Maria Clara.

Konde Sileno
Ang ama ni Adolfo na taga-Albanya. Maria Clara

Heneral Miramolin Babaeng pinakamamahal ni Ibarra. Kilala sa San Diego dahil sa kanyang angking
Heneral ng mga Turko na lumusob sa Albanya. ganda at kayumian. Anak siya ng inang si Donya Pia Alba kay Padre Damaso.

Heneral Osmalik
Elias
Ang heneral ng Persya na lumusob sa Krotona. Siya ay napatay ni Florante.

Piloto at magsasakang tumulong kay Ibarra para makilala ang kanyang bayan at ang
Sultan Ali-abab
mga suliranin nito. Namatay siya sa pagliligtas kay Ibarra.
Ang ama ni Aladin na umagaw sa kanyang magandang kasintahang si
Flerida.
Kapitan Tiyago o Don Santiago de los Santos
Menalipo
Mangangalakal na taga-Binondo. Siya ang ama-amahan ni Maria Clara. Madalas
Ang pinsan ni Florante. Siya ang pumana sa buwitre na sana'y daragit sa
siyang magpahanda ng salu-salo at kilala sa pagiging bukas-palad.
sanggol na si Florante.
Padre Damaso Verdolagas
Isang kurang Pransiskano na masalita at talagang magaspang kumilos. Napalipat siya
ng ibang parokya matapos maglingkod ng matagal na panahon sa San Diego.
Padre Bernardo Salvi
Ang paring pumalit kay Padre Damaso. Mayroon siyang lihim na pagtingin kay
Maria Clara.
Padre Sibyla
Paring Agustino na lihim na sumusubaybay sa mga kilos ni Ibarra.
Kapitan-Heneral
Siya ang pinakamakapangyarihan sa Pilipinas. Siya ang lumakad upang maalisan ng
pagka-ekskomunyon si Ibarra.
Pilosopo Tasyo o Don Anastacio
Maalam na matandang tagapayo ng marurunong na mamamayan ng San Diego. Ang
tingin ng mga di nakapag-aral ay baliw ang matanda ngunit para sa mga may alam ay
isa siyang pilosopo. Hindi siya nakapagpatuloy ng pag-aaral at maagang nabalo kaya
ginugol ang panahon sa pagbabasa ng mga aklat.
Sisa
Isang mapagmahal na ina na may asawang pabaya at malupit.
Basilio at Crispin
Magkapatid na anak ni Sisa. Pareho silang sakristan at tagatugtog ng kampana sa
simbahan ng San Diego.
Tinyente Guevarra
Isang matapat na tinyente ng mga guwardiya sibil na nagsalaysay kay Ibarra ng
tungkol sa kasawiang sinapit ng kanyang ama.
Alperes
Ang kaagaw ng kura sa kapangyarihan sa San Diego.
Donya Consolacion
Napangasawa ng alperes. Dati siyang labandera na may malaswang bibig at pag-
uugali. Katawa-tawa siya kung manamit at ikinahihiyang isama ng alperes.
Ipinapalagay niya na siya’y higit na maganda kay Maria Clara.
Donya Victorina de los Reyes de Espadaña
Babaeng nagpapanggap na mestisang Kastila kung kaya abut-abot ang kolorete sa
mukha at maling pangangastila. Asawa ni Don Tiburcio de Espadaña
Don Tiburcio de Espadaña
Isang pilay at bungal na Kastilang napadpad sa Pilipinas sa paghahanap ng Donya Pia Alba
magandang kapalaran. Asawa ni Donya Victorina at nagpanggap na doktor.
Masimbahing ina ni Maria Clara na namatay matapos na maisilang ang anak.

Linares
Iday, Sinang, Victoria, at Andeng
Malayong pamangkin ni Don Tiburcio at pinsan ng inaanak ni Padre Damaso na
napili niya para mapangasawa ni Maria Clara. Mga kaibigan ni Maria Clara sa San Diego

Don Filipo Don Rafael Ibarra

Tinyente mayor na mahilig magbasa na Latin. Siya ang ama ni Sinang. Ama ni Crisostomo Ibarra. Labis siyang kinainggitan ni Padre Damaso dahil
mayaman ito. Tinawag din siyang erehe.

Senyor Nol Juan

Don Saturnino
Siya ang namahala ng mga gawain sa pagpapatayo ng paaralan.
Nuno o lolo ni Crisostomo. Siya ang naging dahilan ng kasawian ng nuno ni Elias.

Lucas
Mang Pablo
Taong dilaw na gumawa ng kalong ginamit sa di-natuloy na pagpatay kay Ibarra.
Matandang pinuno ng mga tulisan na ibig tulungan ni Elias.

Tarsilo at Bruno
Kapitan Basilio, Kapitan Tinong, at Kapitan Valentin
Magkapatid na ang ama ay napatay sa palo ng mga Kastila.
Ilan sa mga kapitan ng bayan sa San Diego

Tiya Isabel
Kapitana Maria
Pinsan ni Kapitan Tiago na tumulong sa pagpapalaki kay Maria Clara.
Ang nag-iisang babaeng makabayan na pumanig sa pagtatanggol ni Ibarra sa alaala
ng ama.
Albino
Dating seminarista na nakasama sa piknik sa lawa.
Mga Tauhan ng El Filibusterismo
58 Votes
Mga Tauhan sa El Filibusterismo:
Simoun – ang mayamang mag-aalahas, na nakasalaming may kulay,
na umano’y tagapayo ng Kapitan Heneral ngunit siya ay si Juan
Crisostomo Ibarrana nagbalik upang maghiganti sa kanyang mga
kaaway.
Isagani – ang makatang kasintahan ni Paulita, pamangkin ni Padre
Florentino.
Basilio – ang mag-aaral ng medisina at kasintahan ni Juli.
Kabesang Tales – ang naghahangad ng karapatan sa pagmamay-ari
ng lupang sinasaka na inaangkin ng mga prayle.
Tandang Selo – ama ni Kabesang Tales na nabaril ng kanyang sariling
apo.
Senyor Pasta – Ang tagapayo ng mga prayle sa mga suliraning legal.
Ben Zayb – ang mamamahayag sa pahayagan.
Placido Penitente – ang mag-aaral na nawalan ng ganang mag-aral
sanhi ng suliraning pampaaralan.
Padre Camorra – ang mukhang artilyerong pari.
Padre Fernandez – ang paring Dominikong may malayang
paninindigan.
Padre Salvi – ang paring Franciscanong dating kura ng bayan ng San
Diego.
Padre Florentino – ang amain ni Isagani
Don Custodio – ang kilala sa tawag na Buena Tinta
Padre Irene – ang kaanib ng mga kabataan sa pagtatatag ng
Akademya ng Wikang Kastila
Juanito Pelaez – ang mag-aaral na kinagigiliwan ng mga propesor;
nabibilang sa kilalang angkang may dugong Kastila
Macaraig – ang mayamang mag-aaral na masigasig na nakikipaglaban
para sa pagtatatag ng Akademya ng Wikang Kastila ngunit biglang
nawala sa oras ng kagipitan.
Sandoval – ang kawaning Kastila na sang-ayon o panig sa
ipinaglalaban ng mga mag-aaral
Donya Victorina – ang mapagpanggap na isang Europea ngunit isa
namang Pilipina; tiyahin ni Paulita.
Paulita Gomez – kasintahan ni Isagani ngunit nagpakasal kay Juanito
Pelaez.
Quiroga – isang mangangalakal na Intsik na nais magkaroon ng
konsulado sa Pilipinas.
Juli – anak ni Kabesang Tales at katipan ni Basilio.
Hermana Bali – naghimok kay Juli upang humingi ng tulong kay Padre
Camorra.
Hermana Penchang – ang mayaman at madasaling babae na
pinaglilingkuran ni Juli.
Ginoong Leeds – ang misteryosong Amerikanong nagtatanghal sa
perya.
Imuthis – ang mahiwagang ulo sa palabas ni Ginoong Leeds
Pepay – ang mananayaw na sinasabing matalik na kaibigan daw ni
Don Custodio.
Camaroncocido – isang espanyol na ikinahihiya ng kanyang mga
kalahi dahil sa kanyang panlabas na anyo.
Tiyo Kiko – matalik na kaibigan ni Camaroncocido.
Gertrude – mang-aawit sa palabas.
Paciano Gomez – kapatid ni Paulita.
Don Tiburcio – asawa ni Donya Victorina.
Macbeth - Macbeth is a Scottish general and the thane of Glamis who is led
to wicked thoughts by the prophecies of the three witches, especially after
their prophecy that he will be made thane of Cawdor comes true. Macbeth is
a brave soldier and a powerful man, but he is not a virtuous one. He is easily
tempted into murder to fulfill his ambitions to the throne, and once he
commits his first crime and is crowned King of Scotland, he embarks on
further atrocities with increasing ease. Ultimately, Macbeth proves himself
better suited to the battlefield than to political intrigue, because he lacks the
skills necessary to rule without being a tyrant. His response to every problem
is violence and murder. Unlike Shakespeare’s great villains, such as Iago
in Othello and Richard III in Richard III, Macbeth is never comfortable in his
role as a criminal. He is unable to bear the psychological consequences of
his atrocities.
Read an in-depth analysis of Macbeth.
Lady Macbeth - Macbeth’s wife, a deeply ambitious woman who lusts for
power and position. Early in the play she seems to be the stronger and more
ruthless of the two, as she urges her husband to kill Duncan and seize the
crown. After the bloodshed begins, however, Lady Macbeth falls victim to
guilt and madness to an even greater degree than her husband. Her
conscience affects her to such an extent that she eventually commits suicide.
Interestingly, she and Macbeth are presented as being deeply in love, and
many of Lady Macbeth’s speeches imply that her influence over her husband
is primarily sexual. Their joint alienation from the world, occasioned by their
partnership in crime, seems to strengthen the attachment that they feel to
each another.
Read an in-depth analysis of Lady Macbeth.
The Three Witches - Three “black and midnight hags” who plot mischief
against Macbeth using charms, spells, and prophecies. Their predictions
prompt him to murder Duncan, to order the deaths of Banquo and his son,
and to blindly believe in his own immortality. The play leaves the witches’
true identity unclear—aside from the fact that they are servants of Hecate,
we know little about their place in the cosmos. In some ways they resemble
the mythological Fates, who impersonally weave the threads of human
destiny. They clearly take a perverse delight in using their knowledge of the
future to toy with and destroy human beings.
Read an in-depth analysis of The Three Witches.
Banquo - The brave, noble general whose children, according to the witches’
prophecy, will inherit the Scottish throne. Like Macbeth, Banquo thinks
ambitious thoughts, but he does not translate those thoughts into action. In a
sense, Banquo’s character stands as a rebuke to Macbeth, since he
represents the path Macbeth chose not to take: a path in which ambition
need not lead to betrayal and murder. Appropriately, then, it is Banquo’s
ghost—and not Duncan’s—that haunts Macbeth. In addition to embodying
Macbeth’s guilt for killing Banquo, the ghost also reminds Macbeth that he
did not emulate Banquo’s reaction to the witches’ prophecy.
King Duncan - The good King of Scotland whom Macbeth, in his ambition
for the crown, murders. Duncan is the model of a virtuous, benevolent, and
farsighted ruler. His death symbolizes the destruction of an order in Scotland
that can be restored only when Duncan’s line, in the person of Malcolm, once
more occupies the throne.
Macduff - A Scottish nobleman hostile to Macbeth’s kingship from the start.
He eventually becomes a leader of the crusade to unseat Macbeth. The
crusade’s mission is to place the rightful king, Malcolm, on the throne, but
Macduff also desires vengeance for Macbeth’s murder of Macduff’s wife and
young son.
Malcolm - The son of Duncan, whose restoration to the throne signals
Scotland’s return to order following Macbeth’s reign of terror. Malcolm
becomes a serious challenge to Macbeth with Macduff’s aid (and the support
of England). Prior to this, he appears weak and uncertain of his own power,
as when he and Donalbain flee Scotland after their father’s murder.
Hecate - The goddess of witchcraft, who helps the three witches work their
mischief on Macbeth.
Fleance - Banquo’s son, who survives Macbeth’s attempt to murder him. At
the end of the play, Fleance’s whereabouts are unknown. Presumably, he
may come to rule Scotland, fulfilling the witches’ prophecy that Banquo’s
sons will sit on the Scottish throne.
Lennox - A Scottish nobleman.
Ross - A Scottish nobleman.
The Murderers - A group of ruffians conscripted by Macbeth to murder
Banquo, Fleance (whom they fail to kill), and Macduff’s wife and children.
Porter - The drunken doorman of Macbeth’s castle.

Lady Macduff - Macduff’s wife. The scene in her castle provides our only
glimpse of a domestic realm other than that of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth.
She and her home serve as contrasts to Lady Macbeth and the hellish world
of Inverness.
Donalbain - Duncan’s son and Malcolm’s younger brother.
Titania and Bottom, A Midsummer Night’s Dream
“My mistress with a monster is in love!” reports Puck when he and Oberon succeed
in making the Fairy Queen fall in love with enchanted donkey-man Bottom. They,
and we, spend the better part of Act Two laughing at the antics of many a fool in
love, with Titania and Bottom at the top of the list. However laughable the concept,
the pair are memorable precisely because they are not entirely ridiculous. They
embody the absurdist extreme of love’s madness. It’s not a mocking satire—
Shakespeare shows what it’s like to be in the grip of the kind of intense, if
ultimately transient, love we’ve all experienced. Their delusional
courtship expresses one of love’s eternal, most comic truths: “Reason and love keep
little company together nowadays.”
9.
Add to Bag
Hamlet and Ophelia, Hamlet
There are some who would argue H&O should be ranked higher. Ophelia’s slow
descent into madness and (probable) suicide, not to mention the brawl at
her graveside, when Hamlet declares he “lov’d Ophelia/forty thousand brothers
could not make up my sum,” are unforgettable. But while I believe there waslove
between these characters, something tentative that could have grown into more,
life intervened. Their story is a tragedy because of the possibility of love that never
really was. And if it is romantic, it’s Romantic, with a tragic capital R. RIP, Hamlet
and Ophelia. May flights of angels sing thee to thy rest.
8.
Add to Bag “The Bromances” (Prince Hal/Falstaff, Henry IV; Rosalind/Celia, As You
Like It; Romeo/Mercutio, Romeo and Juliet; Hamlet/Horatio, Hamlet)
A list of memorable romances must give a shoutout to the platonic love between
great friends. Some are famously ambiguous, with one party perhaps down for a
little something more (Hamlet/Horatio, Rosalind/Celia). Sometimes they’re
friendships where one party fills a role the other desperately needs (Falstaff as
Prince Hal’s surrogate ne’er-do-well father). Often, they end tragically, or are never
acknowledged as they should be (I get you, Mercutio!). But the deep love between
these characters, and how far they go for one another, can never be questioned.
7.
Macbeth and Lady Macbeth, Macbeth
Okay, stay with me. Yes, they’re memorable, but where is the romance part again?
This a pair that murdered and schemed their way to one of the highest body counts
in all of Shakespeare, right? Don’t we recognize Lady Macbeth as lit’s most
manipulative spouse? Perhaps. But what’s not in doubt is that, ultimately, this is
Shakespeare’s best depiction of a couple as a true team. We know each is the less
without the other. The game isn’t worth playing without their partner in crime. And
not for nothing are we still inspired to watch couples modeled on them today (I see
you, House of Cards binge-watchers).
6.
Antony and Cleopatra, Antony and Cleopatra
So, yes, these people are kind of horrible. But hold on. There’s a reason we still tell
their story, thousands of years later. It’s Shakespeare’s best depiction of a romance
taking place at the center of state politics, constraints that would challenge the
survival of any relationship. Sometimes, like the flawed people they are, they
work against love. But despite it all, in the end, they each make the choice that life
without the other would be worse than nothing. If only these two crazy kids had
figured it out sooner.
5.
Kate and Petruchio, The Taming of the Shrew
There are two ways you can go on this one. Either Shakespeare really believes the
message he’s pushing in Kate’s submissive final monologue (in which case this play
should be utterly dismissed as a relic from another era). Or you can read it like I do,
as a subversive statement about compromise in marriage, and a private joke
between a couple that has come a long way together. The latter interpretation
makes it, at long last, a romance. For most of the play, we watch two people
unaccustomed to making accommodations for others fight tooth and nail to
maintain their independence and dominance. But if the ending means what I think
it means, then by the final curtain, they’ve both learned to consider someone else,
to swallow their pride and publicly proclaim their love. That’s romance.
4.
Viola/Orsino/Olivia/Sebastian/Antonio, Twelfth Night
I might as well have written “the whole cast, entangled in a love
octa/hexa/nonagon.” In this show, even the romances are ensembles.
Ostensibly it’s the story of the shipwrecked Viola’s cross-dressing, secret love for
the Duke Orsino, who’s in love with the deeply uninterested Lady Olivia. Viola’s
attempts to woo Olivia for Orsino result in the one time anybody ever had to warn
someone not to fall in love with the messenger. It’s a story about love found in
unexpected places, with people (and genders) that take everyone involved by
surprise. What’s memorable is how honestly the characters confront that feeling, or
pursue it, exploring the boundaries of social expectation and their own notions
of sexuality. Of course, the farce is resolved in the end, but the weight of all those
possibilities remains.
3.
Rosalind and Orlando, As You Like It
What a dream this play is for an actress, not only because Rosalind is perhaps the
strongest of Shakespeare’s heroines, but because it’s an amazing exploration of the
process of falling in love. She makes an intellectual game of it, taking advantage of
one of those wonderful Shakespearean coincidences to playact the extremes of
deep feeling, the sort of feelings we never get to show, lest we lose the object of
our affections. She’s allowed the time to evaluate her lover slowly. She’s
memorable because she hits the nail on the head, over and over: yes,
that’s exactly what it’s like to be in love. Despite the madness, she takes a chance
and reveals herself anyway. That is love.
2.
Add to Bag
See All Formats & Editions ›
Romeo and Juliet, Romeo and Juliet
I have a horrible confession to make: There was a time when I thought I was over
R+J, too good for that teenaged cliché. I was so wrong. You never really get over
Romeo and Juliet. The words of it are a gorgeous thing, filled with agelessly
beautiful images and ideas. We can be cynical about it, scoff that they need to wait
a few years and try again. But it’s because we care about them—we know what’s
coming, and we’re filled with rage at the thought of all that beauty going down the
toilet. The critic Marc van Doren once wrote that “few other plays, even by
Shakespeare, engage the audience so intimately. The hearts of the hearers,
surrendered early, are handled with the greatest care until the end, and with the
greatest human respect.” We owe that respect in return to this tale of star-cross’d
lovers we can never truly forget.
1.
Beatrice and Benedick, Much Ado About Nothing
No contest. Beatrice and Benedick are absolutely the all-time most memorable
Shakespearean romance. They are the basis of most modern will-they-won’t-they
romance plots (whether in romcoms or not). Their imitators are legion, and
deservedly so. They are Kate and Petruchio with more respect, a version of Rosalind
and Orlando who have already taken the plunge without realizing it, bound up with
the loves of the ensemble, a la Twelfth Night, and, yes, kept apart by pride and a
longstanding battle, as in Romeo and Juliet. They are as lovable separately as they
are together, and each of them has the power to turn the other into the best (or
worst) version of themselves. Beatrice and Benedick and their “merry war” is the
romance that remains romantic every time.
Neil Richard MacKinnon Gaiman[4] (/ˈɡeɪmən/;[5] born Neil Richard
Gaiman,[4] 10 November 1960)[6] is an English author of short fiction, novels,
comic books, graphic novels, audio theatre, and films. His notable works
include the comic book series The Sandman and novels Stardust, American
Gods, Coraline, and The Graveyard Book. He has won numerous awards,
including the Hugo, Nebula, and Bram Stoker awards, as well as
the Newbery and Carnegie medals. He is the first author to win both the
Newbery and the Carnegie medals for the same work, The Graveyard
Book (2008).[7][8] In 2013, The Ocean at the End of the Lane was voted Book
of the Year in the British National Book Awards.[9]
Cleo Virginia Andrews (June 6, 1923 – December 19, 1986), better known
as V. C. Andrews or Virginia C. Andrews, was an American novelist. She
was born in Portsmouth, Virginia. Andrews died of breast cancer at the age
of 63.
Andrews' novels combine Gothic horror and family saga, revolving around
family secrets and forbidden love (frequently involving themes of
consensual incest, most often between siblings), and they often include
a rags-to-riches story. Her best-known novel is the bestseller Flowers in the
Attic (1979), a tale of four children locked in the attic of a wealthy Virginia wrote and directed the Marvel Cinematic Universe superhero films The
family for over three years by their estranged pious grandmother. Avengers (2012) and its sequel Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015), and also co-
wrote the script for the DC Extended Universe superhero film Justice
Her novels were so successful that after her death her estate hired a ghost
League(2017), for which he also served as director on reshoots.
writer, Andrew Neiderman, to write more stories to be published under her
name. In assessing a deficiency in her estate tax returns, the Internal
Revenue Service argued (successfully) that Virginia Andrews's name was a
Thomas Bulfinch (July 15, 1796 – May 27, 1867[1]) was an American writer
valuable commercial asset, the value of which should be included in her
born in Newton, Massachusetts, best known for the book Bulfinch's
gross estate.[1]
Mythology.
Her novels have been translated
into Czech, French, Italian, German, Spanish, Dutch, Japanese, Korean, Tur Emily Elizabeth Dickinson (December 10, 1830 – May 15, 1886) was an
kish, Greek, Finnish, Hungarian, Swedish, Polish, Portuguese, Lithuanian, C American poet.
hinese, Russian and Hebrew . Dickinson was born in Amherst, Massachusetts. Although part of a prominent
family with strong ties to its community, Dickinson lived much of her life in
reclusive isolation. After studying at the Amherst Academy for seven years in
Howard Phillips Lovecraft (August 20, 1890 – March 15, 1937) was an her youth, she briefly attended the Mount Holyoke Female Seminary before
American writer who achieved posthumous fame through his influential works returning to her family's house in Amherst. Considered an eccentric by
of horror fiction. He was virtually unknown and published only in pulp locals, she developed a noted penchant for white clothing and became
magazines before he died in poverty, but he is now regarded as one of the known for her reluctance to greet guests or, later in life, to even leave her
most significant 20th-century authors in his genre. bedroom. Dickinson never married, and most friendships between her and
Lovecraft was born in Providence, Rhode Island, where he spent most of his others depended entirely[2]upon correspondence. Dickinson was a recluse for
life. Among his most celebrated tales are "The Rats in the Walls", "The Call the later years of her life.
of Cthulhu", At the Mountains of Madness, The Shadow over Innsmouth, While Dickinson was a prolific private poet, fewer than a dozen of her nearly
and The Shadow Out of Time, all canonical to the Cthulhu Mythos. Lovecraft 1,800 poems were published during her lifetime.[3] The work that was
was never able to support himself from earnings as an author and editor. He published during her lifetime was usually altered significantly by the
saw commercial success increasingly elude him in this latter period, partly publishers to fit the conventional poetic rules of the time. Dickinson's poems
because he lacked the confidence and drive to promote himself. He are unique for the era in which she wrote; they contain short lines, typically
subsisted in progressively strained circumstances in his last years; an lack titles, and often use slant rhyme as well as unconventional capitalization
inheritance was completely spent by the time he died, at age 46.[1] and punctuation.[4] Many of her poems deal with themes of death and
immortality, two recurring topics in letters to her friends.

Joseph Hill Whedon (/ˈhwiːdən/; born June 23, 1964) is an American
screenwriter, director, producer, comic book writer, and composer. He is the
founder of Mutant Enemy Productions and co-founder of Bellwether Pictures,
and is best known as the creator of several television series, including Buffy
the Vampire Slayer (1997–2003), Angel (1999–
2004), Firefly (2002), Dollhouse (2009–10), and Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (from
2013).
Whedon co-wrote the Pixar animated film Toy Story (1995), wrote and
directed the Firefly film continuation Serenity (2005), co-wrote and directed
the Internet miniseries Dr. Horrible's Sing-Along Blog (2008), and co-wrote
and produced the horror comedy film The Cabin in the Woods (2012). He
Although Dickinson's acquaintances were most likely aware of her writing, it
was not until after her death in 1886—when Lavinia, Dickinson's younger
sister, discovered her cache of poems—that the breadth of her work became
apparent to the public. Her first collection of poetry was published in 1890 by
personal acquaintances Thomas Wentworth Higginson and Mabel Loomis
Todd, though both heavily edited the content. A complete, and mostly
unaltered, collection of her poetry became available for the first time when
scholar Thomas H. Johnson published The Poems of Emily Dickinson in
1955.
Edith Hamilton (August 12, 1867 – May 31, 1963) was an American
educator and internationally-known author who was one of the most
renowned classicist of her era.[citation needed] A graduate of Bryn Mawr College, It is generally accepted that the poems were composed at some point around
she also studied in Germany at the University of Leipzig and the University of the late 8th or early 7th century BC.[5] The poems are in Homeric Greek, also
Munich. Hamilton began her career as an educator and head of the Bryn known as Epic Greek, a literary language which shows a mixture of features
Mawr School, a private college preparatory school for girls of the Ionic and Aeolic dialects from different centuries; the predominant
in Baltimore, Maryland; however, Hamilton is best known for her essays and influence is Eastern Ionic.[6][7] Most researchers believe that the poems were
best-selling books on ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. originally transmitted orally.[8]
Hamilton's second career as an author began after her retirement from Bryn From antiquity until the present day, the influence of the Homeric epics
Mawr School in 1922. She was sixty-two years old when her first book, The on Western civilization has been great, inspiring many of its most famous
Greek Way, was published in 1930. It was an immediate success and a works of literature, music, art and film.[9] The Homeric epics were the greatest
featured selection by the Book-of-the-Month Club in 1957. Hamilton's other influence on ancient Greek culture and education; to Plato, Homer was
notable works include The Roman Way (1932), The Prophets of simply the one who "has taught Greece" – ten Hellada pepaideuken.[10][11]
Israel (1936), Mythology(1942), and The Echo of Greece (1957).
Critics have acclaimed Hamilton's books for their lively interpretations of
ancient cultures, and she is described as the classical scholar who "brought Donatello (1386-1466)
into clear and brilliant focus the Golden Age of Greek life and thought ... with Donatello was a Renaissance artist born in Florence, Italy. He was famous for
Homeric power and simplicity in her style of writing".[2] Her works are said to his artwork in bas relief, a type of shadow relief sculpture.
influence modern lives through a "realization of the refuge and strength the o St. Mark o The Feast of Herod o Equestrian Monument
past" to those "in the troubled present."[3] Hamilton's younger sister was Alice
o Zuccone o David of Gattamelata
Hamilton, an expert in industrial toxicology and the first woman appointed to
o Judith and Holofernes
the faculty of Harvard University.
Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510)
Homer (/ˈhoʊmər/; Greek: Ὅμηρος [hómɛːros], Hómēros) is the name Botticelli was an Italian painter of the Early Renaissance. He hailed from
ascribed by the ancient Greeks to the legendary author of the Iliadand Florence, Italy.
the Odyssey, two epic poems which are the central works of ancient Greek
literature. The Iliad is set during the Trojan War, the ten-year siege of the city o Fortitude o Primavera o Venus and Mars
of Troy by a coalition of Greek kingdoms. It focuses on a quarrel between o Adoration of the Magi o Cestello Annunciation o Mystical Nativity
King Agamemnon and the warrior Achilleslasting a few weeks during the last o The Birth of Venus o St. Augustine o Temptation of Christ
year of the war. The Odyssey focuses on the journey home of Odysseus, Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)
king of Ithaca, after the fall of Troy. Da Vinci was someone who was skilled and knowledgeable in many, many
Many accounts of Homer's life circulated in classical antiquity, the most subjects, including science, mathematics, music, and most importantly, art.
widespread being that he was a blind bard from Ionia, a region of central He was the epitome of a Renaissance man if there never was one.
coastal Anatolia in present-day Turkey. Modern scholars consider them o The Last Supper o Ginevra de’ Benci
o The Baptism of Christ
legends.[2][3][4] o Mona Lisa o Annunciation o Adoration of the Magi
The Homeric Question—concerning by whom, when, where and under what o Vitruvian Man o Lady with an Ermineo St. Jerome in the
circumstances the Iliad and Odyssey were composed—continues to be Wilderness
debated. Broadly speaking, modern scholarly opinion falls into two groups. Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564)
One holds that most of the Iliad and (according to some) the Odyssey are the Also known as Michelangelo, he was an Italian Renaissance artist. He is often
works of a single poet of genius. The other considers the Homeric poems to considered a contender for the title of the archetypal Renaissance man,
be the result of a process of working and re-working by many contributors, alongside Leonardo da Vinci.
and that "Homer" is best seen as a label for an entire tradition.[4]
o Sistine Chapel ceiling o Doni Tondo o David
 o Creation of Adam o The Torment of Saint o Pietà Beggar
o The Last Judgment Anthony o Bacchus
o The Conversion of
Saul Caravaggio (1571-1610)
Raphael Sanzio (1483-1520) Caravaggio was an artist of the Baroque style, which emerged out of
Better known as just Raphael, an Italian architect and painter of the High Mannerism. With the threat of Protestantism, the Roman Catholic Church
Renaissance. He was best known for the perfection and grace in his artwork. sought for new art. Caravaggio’s radical naturalism and dramatic style
Raphael was considered a master, among Leonardo da Vinci, and offered them what they thought they needed..
Michelangelo..
o David with the Head o Conversion of St Paul o Judith Beheading
o School of Athens o Resurrection of Christ o Ezekiel’s Vision of Goliath o Ecce Homo Holofernes
o The Transfiguration o Self-portrait o The Sistine Madonna o Medusa o Narcissus o Supper at Emmaus
o The Marriage of the o La belle jardinière o Madonna and Child o Bacchus o Sacrifice of Isaac
Virgin Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640)
Titian (1488-1576) Peter Paul Rubens was a Baroque painter who specialized in painting color,
Titian was known as an Italian painter, one of the most versatile. He was sensuality, and movement. He was famous for many Counter-Reformation
equally adept with landscape paintings, portraits, and mystical subjects. artworks.
o Rape of Europa o Assumption of the o Allegory of Prudence o Samson and Delilah o Prometheus Bound o Adoration of the Magi
o Sacred and Profane Virgin o The Worship of Venus o The Descent From o The Raising of the o Consequences of War
Love o Christ Carrying the o Self-portrait the Cross Cross
o Pastoral Concert Cross Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680)
o The Flaying of Marsyas Gian Lorenzo Bernini was an Italian artist who was skilled in sculpting,
architecture, playwriting, stage-setting, and painting. His abilities as a
sculptor set him apart from other artists of his age..
Albrecht Durer (1471-1528)
o Apollo and Daphne o Ecstasy of Saint Teresa
o Fontana dei Quattro
Durer was an important Northern Renaissance man from Germany. He was
prominent in painting, printmaking, mathematics, engraving, and theory.. o David o Bust of Louis XIV Fiumi
o Medusa
o Young Hare o Praying Hands o Self-Portrait Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (1606-1669)
o Rhinoceros o Knight, Death and the o Melencolia I Rembrandt’s artworks gave way to what historians refer to as the Dutch
o Adam and Eve Devil o Adoration of the Golden Age. Rembrandt was an excellent painter and etcher, one of the
o Apocalypse Trinity greatest in European art history..
El Greco (1541-1614) o The Night Watch o The Jewish Bride o The Storm on the Sea
El Greco was a Spanish Renaissance artist of Greek descent. He became a
o Return of the Prodigal o Danaë of Galilee
master in Post-Byzantine art before moving to Rome. In Italy, his style was
Son o The Mill o The Blinding of
embellished with components of Venetian Renaissance and Mannerism..
o Self-Portrait Samson
o The Disrobing of Christ o The Burial of the o Christ Healing the o The Three Trees
(El Espolio) Count of Orgaz Blind
o Opening of the Fifth o View of Toledo o The Entombment of
Seal o The Adoration of the Christ Francisco de Goya (1746-1828)
o Dormition of the Virgin Shepherds o Saint Martin and the
Francisco de Goya was a Spanish romantic artist known for his dark prints, Winslow Homer was an American landscape painter and printmaker. He was
and paintings, and for being cruelly realistic in each one of them. He never a freelance illustrator who was very prominent in American art during his
tried to beautify a personal portrait, and he portrayed things as he saw them, time.
not how people wanted them.
o Saturn Devouring o The Sleep of Reason o La Cometa o Snap the Whip o Right and Left o The Life Line
His Son Produces Monsters o The Forge o The Gulf Stream o The Fox Hunt o The Herring Net
o The Third of May o Witches’ Sabbath o The Dog o Breezing Up (A Fair o Eight Bells o The Blue Boat
1808 o La Maja Vestida Wind)
o La Maja Desnuda Paul Cézanne (1839-1906)
Camille Pissarro (1830-1903) Cezanne was a French Post-Impressionist painter who contributed to the
Camille Pissarro was a French Impressionist painter. He was an important transition from the 19th century’s Impressionism to the 20th century’s new
contributor to both Impressionism and Post-Impressionism during his time. line of artistic enquiry: Cubism.
o Two Women o Old Chelsea Bridge, o Washerwoman, Study o Pyramid of Skulls o The Card Players o Rideau, Cruchon et
Chatting By The London o Conversation o The Bathers o The Basket of Apples Compotier
Sea o The garden of o The Harvest o A Modern Olympia
o Le chemin Pontoise
Oscar Claude Monet (1840-1926)
o Jallais Hill, o The Côte des Bœufs Oscar Claude Monet was a founder of French Impressionist painting. Monet
Pontoise at L’Hermitage lived by the philosophy of Impressionism that emphasizes the expression of
one’s perceptions before nature.

Édouard Manet (1832-1883) o Impression, Sunrise o San Giorgio Maggiore o Beach in Pourville
Édouard Manet was an important artist in the transition from Realism to o The Magpie at Dusk o Bridge over a Pond of
Impressionism. He was one of the first nineteenth century artists to approach o Woman with a Parasol o Women in the Garden Water Lilies
modern-life subjects. o Snow at Argenteuil o Garden at Sainte-
o Le déjeuner sur o A Bar at the Folies- o The Railway Adresse
l’herbe Bergère o The Spanish Singer Pierre Auguste Renoir (1841-1919)
o Olympia o The Balcony o The Old Musician Pierre-Auguste Renoir was a French artist who contributed to the
o Nana o The Fifer development of the Impressionist style. He emphasized beauty in his
artwork, especially of feminine sensuality.
o Le déjeuner des o The Swing (La o A Girl with a
Canotiers Balançoire) Watering Can
o Bal du moulin de la o Two Sisters (On the o Dance in the Country
Edgar Degas (1834-1917) Galette Terrace) o By the Seashore
Edgar Degas was a famous French artist regarded as one of the founders of
o La Grenouillère o Young Girls at the
Impressionism, though he rejected the term and regarded himself a realist.
Piano
o A Cotton Office in New o Place de la Concorde o Interior Henri Rousseau (1844-1910)
Orleans o Miss Lala at the o The Bellelli Family Henri Rousseau was a French Post-Impressionist painter who specialized in
o The Dance Class Cirque Fernando o Young Spartans Naïve or Primitive manner. His best paintings depict jungle scenes despite
o L’Absinthe o At the Races Exercising the fact that he never left France or saw a jungle.
Winslow Homer (1836-1910) o Tiger in a Tropical o A Carnival Evening o The Snake Charmer
 Storm (Surprised!) o The Sleeping Gypsy o Boy on the Rocks Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec (1864-1901)
o The Hungry Lion o The Football Players o Exotic Landscape Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec was a French artist who was regarded as one of
Throws Itself on the the best painters from the Post-Impressionist era, alongside Gauguin, Van
Antelope Gogh, and Cezanne.
o The Dream o In Bed: The Kiss o Moulin Rouge: La o La Toilette
Mary Cassatt (1844-1926) o In Bed Goulue o At the Moulin Rouge,
Mary Cassatt was an American painter and printmaker. Most of her adult life o At the Moulin Rouge The Dance
was spent in France, where she met Edgar Degas and later became one of the
Impressionists. Her paintings emphasized intimate and private lives of
women, especially of those pertaining to the relationship between mothers
and children. Henri Matisse (1869-1954)
Henri Matisse was a French painter, draughtsman, sculptor, and printmaker.
o The Boating Party o The Child’s Bath o Jules Being Dried by He is known alongside Picasso and Marcel Duchamp as the three artists who
o Tea o Under the Horse His Mother contributed to the revolutionary developments of plastic arts in the early
o Summertime Chestnut Tree o Mother and Child twentieth century.
o Children on the Beach o Young Woman in
o L’Atelier Rouge o The Dance o Beasts of the Sea
Green, Outdoors in
o The Conversation o The Snail o The Open Window
the Sun
o Woman Reading o Green Stripe o Woman with a Hat
Paul Gauguin (1848-1903)
Eugene Henri Paul Gauguin was a prominent French Post-Impressionist Paul Klee (1879-1940)
painter, print-maker, writer, sculptor, and ceramist. Paul Klee was a Swiss and German painter who found inspiration in
expressionism, surrealism, cubism, and orientalism.
o Spirit of the Dead o The Yellow Christ o Tahitian Women on the
o Twittering Machine o Ad Parnassum o Fish Magic
Watching o The Green Christ Beach
o Where Do We Come o Vision After the Sermon o Cat and Bird o Castle and Sun o Insula Dulcamara
From? What Are We? o Senecio o Red Balloon o Dream City
Where Are We Going? Pablo Picasso (1881-1973)
Edvard Munch (1853-1944) Pablo Ruiz Picasso was a Spanish draughtsman, sculptor, and painter who
Edvard Munch was a Norwegian Symbolist painter and printmaker. He was spent most of his life in France. Picasso was particularly skilled from
an important figure in expressionist art. childhood and into adolescence, and in his twenties he experimented with
Alphonse Mucha (1860-1939): Alphonse Mucha was a Czech Art Nouveau different ideas and techniques. His accomplishments in art brought him
artist known for his unique techniques. much fame.

o The Scream o The Dance of Life o Anxiety o Guernica o Three Musicians o Ma Jolie
o The Sick Child o Madonna o Ashes o Dora Maar au Chat o The Old Guitarist o The Three Dancers
o Death in the Sickroom o Vampire o Puberty o La Lecture o The Weeping Woman o Les Demoiselles
Gustav Klimt (1862-1918) d’Avignon
Gustav Klimpt was known as one of the most important Austrian Symbolist Edward Hopper (1882-1967)
artist of the Vienna Secession movement. Edward Hopper was an American printmaker and realist painter. He was
most skilled with oil painting and proficient in water-coloring and
o The Kiss o The Three Ages of o Beethoven Frieze printmaking.
o Adele Bloch-Bauer I Woman o Danaë
o Adele Bloch-Bauer II o Nighthawks o Room in New York o Office at Night
 o Automat o Hotel Lobby o Office in a Small City Vincent van Gogh was a Dutch Post-Impressionist artist whose works carried
o Early Sunday Morning o Chop Suey o Girl at Sewing lots of influence on 20th century art due to their portrayal of colors and
Machine emotions.
Wassily Kandinsky (1866-1944) o The Starry Night o Irises o Café Terrace at Night
Wassily Kandinsky was a Russian art theorist and painter. He was one of the o Sunflowers o The Potato Eaters o The Red Vineyard
first artists to experiment with abstract art.
o Starry Night Over the o Yellow House o Outskirts of Paris
o Der Blaue Reiter o On White II o Yellow, Red, Blue Rhone
o Composition IV o Composition VI o Black and Violet Joan Miró (1893-1983)
o Composition VII o Composition VIII o Composition X Joan Miro was a Spanish artist. His works have been interpreted as
Diego Rivera (1886-1957) Surrealism.
Diego Rivera was a famous Mexican painter and husband of the artist Frida o The Tilled Field o Dona i Ocell o Portrait of Vincent
Kahlo. He was an active communist during his time. o The Farm o Still Life with Old Nubiola
o Man, Controller of the o En el Arsenal o The Flower Carrier Shoe o Hands flying off toward
Universe o Frozen Assets o Agrarian Leader Zapata the constellations
o La mujer del pozo Norman Rockwell (1894-1978)
Marc Chagall (1887-1985) Norman Rockwell was an American illustrator and painter.
Marc Chagall was a Russian-French Jewish artist with many art styles. He o Freedom of Speech o Freedom from Fear o Russian Schoolroom
was an early modernist and was one of the most successful artists of the
o Freedom from Want o The Problem We All o Rosie the Riveter
twentieth century.
o Freedom of Worship Live With
o I and the Village o The Fiddler o Over the Town o Breaking Home Ties
o The Birthday o La Mariée o White Crucifixion René Magritte (1898-1957)
Georgia O’Keeffe (1887-1986) Rene Magritte was a Belgian Surrealist artist. His goal was to challenge
Georgia O’Keeffe was an American artist who distinguished herself as one of viewers’ preconceptions of reality and force them to become hypersensitive to
America’s most prominent modern artists, which is significant because the their surroundings.
American art community was dominated by men during her time.
o The Son of Man o Golconda o Elective Affinities
o Cow’s Skull: Red, o Pineapple Bud o Red Canna o The Treachery of o The Listening Room o The Mysteries of the
White, and Blue o Black Iris o Blue Morning Glories Images o The False Mirror Horizon
o Blue and Green Music o The Human Condition o The Empty Mask
Georges Seurat (1859-1891) M.C. Escher (1898-1972)
Georges Seurat was a French Post-Impressionist painter. His most famous M.C. Escher was a Dutch graphic artist. He was famous for his
painting, “A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte,” ushered mathematically inspired lithographs, mezzotints, and woodcuts, featuring
modern art into Neo-Impressionism. constructions such as tessellations, architecture, and infinity.

o A Sunday Afternoon o Bathers at Asnières o Circus Sideshow (or o Waterfall o Drawing Hands o House of Stairs
on the Island of La o Le Chahut Parade de Cirque) o Relativity o Sky and Water I o Belvedere
Grande Jatte o The Circus o Ascending and o Three Worlds o Another World
o The Eiffel Tower Descending
Vincent Willem van Gogh (1853-1890) Ansel Adams (1902-1984)
Ansel Adams was an American photographer best known for his photographs o No. 1 (Lavender Mist)o Blue Poles o The Key
of the American West, particularly in Yosemite. o Number 8 o Mural o Stenographic Figure
o In Glacier National Park o The Tetons and the Snake River Andy Warhol (1928-1987)
o Church, Taos Pueblo Andy Warhol made Pop Art. His use of immediate culture in all his work is
what brought him fame and glory.
o Evening, McDonald Lake, Glacier
National Park o Campbell’s Soup Cans o Eight Elvises o Camouflage Self-
Mark Rothko (1903-1970) o Moon Museum o Marilyn Diptych Portrait
Mark Rothko was a Russian-born American painter who was interpreted as o Portrait of Seymour H.
an abstract expressionist. Knox
o White Center (Yellow, o Untitled (Black on o Orange, Red, Yellow Jack Vettriano (Born November 17, 1951)
Jack Vettriano is a Scottish painter. He did not take up painting until the 70s,
Pink and Lavender on Grey) o Black on Maroon
when his girlfriend bought him a set of watercolors for his 21st birthday.
Rose) o No. 3/No. 13 (Magenta,
o Four Darks in Red Black, Green on o The Singing Butler o The Picnic Party o Dance Me to the End of
Orange) Love
Salvador Dalí (1904-1989)
Salvador Dali was a prominent Spanish Catalan surrealist painter. Dali was
very imaginative and had an affinity for unusual and grandiose behavior.
Top 10 Most Famous Classical Music Composers
o The Persistence of o Landscape Near o Apparatus and Hand
Memory Figueras o The Discovery of
Classical music may not enjoy as much popularity as it used to in its golden
o The Disintegration of o Christ of Saint John of America by Christopher
the Persistence of the Cross Columbus age from 17th to the early 20th century. But it continues to impress and
Memory o Lobster Telephone o Morphological Echo inspire, especially the works by the greatest composers of all times. Some of
o The Face of War o Swans Reflecting o The First Days of Spring them may have lived hundreds of years ago but their masterpieces simply
o The Ecumenical Elephants
Council remain unsurpassed.
Frida Kahlo (1907-1954)
Frida Kahlo was a Mexican painter. She was best known for her self-portraits. Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)
Her art has been celebrated in Mexico as representative of national and
indigenous tradition, and by feminists for their forthright depiction of the
female form.
o The Suicide of o The Bus o The Broken Column German organist, composer, violist and violinist is widely regarded as one of
Dorothy Hale o Moses o Without Hope the best classical composers of all times. He wrote over 1100 compositions
o Roots o The Wounded Deer o What the Water Gave which include cantatas, songs and arias, chorales, passions and oratorios,
o The Two Fridas Me organ works, works for harpsichord, concertos,… Best known works by Bach
Jackson Pollock (1912-1956) include the Brandenburg Concertos, Air on the G String, Toccata and Fugue
Jackson Pollock was an American painter who spearheaded the abstract
expressionist movement. in D minor and Arioso, to mention only a few.

o No. 5, 1948 o Male and Female o The She-Wolf

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791)
Austrian composer impressed his contemporaries already as a child. At the
age of 5, he mastered keyboard and violin, and entertained the social elites
including royalty throughout Europe. Mozart composed more than 600
works in all music genres known in his time. Some of most famous and most
widely performed Mozart’s works include Requiem, Symphony No. 40,
operas The Magic Flute and The Marriage of Figaro, Piano Sonata No 16 in C
Major, Symphony No. 25, Piano Concerto No. 21 and Piano Sonata No. 11
(Mov. 3 - Turkish March).
Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827)
German composer and pianist was the most outstanding figure in the
transition between Classical and Romantic periods, and one of the most
famous classical music composers of all times. Some of his best works
including the 9th symphony were created after he became almost completely
deaf. Other notable works by Beethoven include Sonata No. 14 (Moonlight
Sonata), 5th Symphony, 6th Symphony, Bagatelle No. 25 (Für Elise) and
Piano Concerto No. 5 in E-flat major, Op.73.
Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901)
The celebrated Italian composer is best known for his operas that remain
popular to this day. His musical career, however, didn’t start smoothly. After
his wife’s death and failure of his second opera (Un giorno di regno), he fell
into despair and nearly give up composing. Fortunately, La Scala’s
impressario convinced him to write Nabucco which was a huge success.
Soon, more followed and Verdi established himself as the dominant figure of
the 19th century Italian classical music. Verdi’s most famous operas besides
Nabucco include La traviata, Rigoletto, Aida, Don Carlos, Otello and Falstaff.
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840-1893)
Most famous Russian classical music composer wrote in a variety of genres.
He composed symphonies, operas, concertos, chamber music, sacred choral
music, overtures, suites and ballets. Some of his best known works include
his three ballets The Nutcracker, Swan Lake and the Sleeping Beauty,
Marche Slave, First Piano Concerto No. 1 in B-flat minor, Overture 1812,
Symphony No. 6, Fantasy Overture (Romeo and Juliet), Serenade for Strings
and opera Eugene Onegin.
Frederic Chopin (1810-1849)
Just like Mozart, Chopin was a very gifted child and established himself as
one of the foremost Polish composers at a very young age. One of the best
piano composers and virtuoso pianists in history wrote almost exclusively
for solo piano. But he also wrote two piano concertos and three sonatas.
Chopin is also credited with the invention of the instrumental ballade and
several musical innovations. Some of his best known works include
Nocturne in E-flat major, Op. 9 No. 2, Funeral March (Prelude in C minor),
Minute Waltz (Waltz in D-flat major), Revolutionary Etude (Op.10, No.12)
and Fantasie-Impromptu (Op. Posth. 66).
Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741)
Italian Baroque composer and violin virtuoso continues to be admired
throughout the globe for his works, especially for his instrumental concertos
for violin. His greatest masterpiece is a series of violin concertos called Le
quattro stagioni (The Four Seasons). In total, Vivaldi composed more that 500
concertos of which more than half are for solo instruments and strings,
mainly for violin. Other works include operas, sacred choral music,
symphonies, sonatas and chamber music. Of these is probably best known
choral composition Gloria.
Giacomo Puccini (1858-1924)
He is widely referred to as “the greatest Italian opera composer after Verdi”
and “the last of Italy’s great opera composers”. His works – La Boheme,
Tosca, Madama Butterfly, Il trittico and Turandot are indeed masterpieces
and are among the most widely performed operas in the standard repertoire.
The mentioned operas also contain a number of outstanding stand-alone
arias including Mi chiamano Mimi, O soave fanciulla, Che gelida manina, E
lucevan le stelle, Un bel di vedremo, O mio babbino caro and Nessun Dorma.
George Frideric Handel (1685-1759)
German-born British composer is widely considered one of the greatest
masters of the Baroque era and one of Britain’s foremost classical composers.
He wrote over 40 operas, 29 oratories, more than 100 cantatas, duets and
trios, 16 organ concertos and a number of arias, ecumenical pieces, chamber
music, odes and serenatas. His greatest works include the Messiah,
Sarabande, Water Music and Music for the Royal Fireworks, to mention only
a few.
Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971)
Russian born French and then American composer, conductor and pianist is
one of the most outstanding and influential 20th century composers. He was
and still is admired worldwide for the novelty of his works which, however,
also caused a great deal of controversy in his time. Stravinsky’s greatest
works include The Firebird, Petrushka, The Rite of Spring, A Soldier’s Tale,
The Song of the Nightingale, Mavra, Oedipus Rex, the Symphony in C and
the Symphony in Three Movements.
In biology, Kingdoms are the highest taxonomic groups of living organisms.
Biologists since the time of Aristotle (384-322 BC) have divided the living
world into two kingdoms, Plants and animals.
The word “plant” suggests grasses, bushes, shrubs, creepers, climbers, vines
and trees and “animal” suggests cats, dogs, lions, tigers, birds, frogs and fish.
Further thought brings to mind such forms as ferns, mosses, mushrooms and
pond scrums (algae), quite different but recognizable as “plants” and insects,
lobsters, clams, worms and snails that are definitely animals.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
But if you have ever had the pleasure of climbing over the rocky shore of the
sea coast, looking at the organisms that cling to the rocks or live in a tide
pool, you undoubtedly found some things that were difficult to recognize as
animals and plants. The one-celled organisms visible under the microscope
cannot easily be assigned to the plant or animal kingdom.
The German biologist Earnst Haeckel (1866) in his book Generelle
Morphologie der Organismen suggested a three-kingdom system (Protista,
Plantae and Animalia). In the third kingdom Protista he grouped all the
single-celled organisms that are intermediate in many respects between
plants and animals. Herbert Copeland (1956) have suggested establishing a
fourth kingdom, originally called Mycota but later referred to as the Monera,
to include the prokaryotes like bacteria and blue-green algae, which have
many characteristics is common.
They have a single membrane system without a nucleus, and membrane
bounded sub-cellular organelles such as mitochondria or chloroplasts. All
other organisms are eukaryotes have a more complex structure with a
nucleus and other organelles divided by intracellular membranes. R. H.
Whittaker (1969) recognized an additional kingdom for the Fungi. The
resulting five- kingdom system suggested by him has received wide
acceptance. However, this may not be the end of the story. Some scientists
have proposed that organisms be divided into even more (may be as many as
8) kingdoms.
Currently most biologists recognize six kingdoms: two prokaryotic kingdoms
(Archaebacteria and Bacteria), a large unicellular eukaryotic kingdom
(Protista) and three Multicellular eukaryotic kingdoms (Fungi, Plantae and
Animalia). Viruses are not included in any of the present 5 kingdoms –
mainly due to their many nonliving characteristics (for example, viruses are
not cells).
[Note that the equivalences in this table are not perfect. For example,
Haeckel placed the red algae (Haeckel’s Florideae; modern Floridiophyceae)
and blue-green algae (Haeckel’s Archephyta; modern Cyanobacteria) in his
Plantae, but in modern classifications they are considered protists and
bacteria respectively. However, despite this and other failures of equivalence,
the table gives a useful simplification]
I. Two Kingdoms Classification:
In his Systema Naturae, first published in 1735, Carolus Linnaeus
distinguished two kingdoms of living things: Animalia for animals and
Plantae (Vegetabilia) for plants. He classified all living organisms into two
kingdoms – on the basis of nutrition and locomotion (mobility).
Linnaeus placed unicellular protozoans and multicellular animals
(metazoans) under animal kingdom because of their compact body, holozoic
nutrition (ingestion of food) and locomotion. All other organisms were
grouped under plant kingdom because of their immobility, spread out
appearance and autotrophic mode of nutrition. Thus, the traditional plant
kingdom comprised bacteria, algae, plants and fungi
Demerits or Limitations:
(a) The two kingdom system of classification did not indicate any
evolutionary relationship between plants and animals.
(b) It grouped together the prokaryotes (bacteria, BGA) with other
eukaryotes.
(c) It also grouped unicellular and multi-cellular organisms together.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
(d) This system did not distinguish the heterotrophic fungi and the
autotrophic green plants.
(e) Dual organisms like Euglena and lichens did not fall into either kingdom.
(f) Slime mould, a type of fungi, can neither be grouped in fungi nor plants. (d) Cell wall usually present (except Mycoplasma) which composed of
This is because they are wall less and holozoic in vegetative stage, but develop peptidoglycan or murein.
cell wall in the reproductive stage.
(e) True nucleus and other membrane bounded organelles absent.
(g) It did not mention some acellular organisms like viruses and viroids.
(f) Genetic material is a circular naked DNA (without histone proteins) lies
II. Five Kingdoms Classification: coiled near the centre of cell called nucleoid.
R.H. Whittaker (1969), an American Taxonomist, classified all organisms
into five kingdoms: Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animal. (g) More than one structural genes (cistrons) arranged together and
regulated in units called operons.
He used following criteria for classification:
(i) Complexity of cell structure (h) Ribosomes 70s type. (30S + 50S type)

(ii) Complexity of body organization (i) Cytoskeleton (microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filaments)
absent.
(ii) The mode of nutrition
(j) Flagella if present consists of flagellant proteins.
(iv) Life style (ecological role) and
(k) Nutrition may be autotrophic (photoautotrophic or chemoautotrophic).
(v) Phylogenetic relationship. Saprot-rophic, parasitic or symbiotic.

1. Monera (Kingdom of Prokaryotes): (l) Reproduction mainly occurs by binary fission. Sexual reproduction
(a) The members of this kingdom are microscopic prokaryotes. (Gamete formation) absent. In some cases genetic recombination occurs.

(b) Monerans are mostly unicellular. But some are mycelial, filamentous (e.g. (m) They are the important decomposers and mineralizes and help in
Nostoc) or colonial. recycling of nutrients in biosphere.

(c) The cells are prokaryotic with one envelope system or organisation. (n) Most are found in deep ocean floor, hot deserts, hot springs and even
inside other organisms.
Monera includes archeabacteria, bacteria, cyanobacteria (BGA), and
filamentous actinomycetes.
2. Protista (Kingdom of Unicellular eukaryotes):
(a) The members are unicellular and colonial eukaryotes.
(b) Most of them are aquatic and constitute plankton.
(c) Their eukaryotic cell body contains membrane bounded cell organelles
like nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi complex etc.
(d) They may have cilia or flagella for their movements which show 9 + 2
arrangements of microtubules.
(e) On the basis of nutrition, the protists are grouped as: (a) Photosynthetic
protists (protistan algae) like diatoms, dinoflagellates and euglenoids. They
are known as phytoplankton’s. (b) Consumer- decomposer protists (slime
moulds) and (c) Predator protists (Protozoans).
(f) Both asexual and sexual modes of reproduction are present.
3. Fungi (Kingdom of Multi-cellular decomposers):
(a) The members are achlorophyllus, spore-bearing eukaryotic thallophytes.
(b) It includes unicellular yeasts and multi-cellular mycelial forms but not
slime moulds.
(c) Cell wall composed of chitin (fungal cellulose), a nitrogen containing
carbohydrate.
(d) Their mode of nutrition is saprobiotic or parasitic. They can also live as
symbionts in association with algae as Lichens and with roots of higher
plants as mycorrhiza.
(e) They help in decomposition of organic matter and help in recycling of
minerals.
(f) Vegetative reproduction takes place by fragmentation, fission and
budding.
(g) Asexual reproduction takes place by motile spores (zoospores) or non-
motile spores (condia, oidia, aplanospores or chlamydospores).
(h) Sexual reproduction occurs by oospores, ascospores and basidiospores.
Sexual reproduction involves three steps: (a) Plasmogamy (fusion of
protoplasm between motile or non-motile gametes, (b) karyogamy (fusion of
two nuclei) and (c) Meiosis in Zygote producing haploid spores.
Fungi include Phycomycetes (e.g. Mucor,Rhizopus, Albugo etc.),
Ascomycetes (e.g. Sacbaromyces, Penicillium, Aspergillus, Claviceps,
Neurospora etc.), Basidiomycetes (e.g. Agaricus, Mushrooms; Ustilago,
Smuts; and Puccinia, rust fungi), Deuteromycetes.
4. Plantae (Kingdom of Multicellular Producers):
1. Their members are Multicellular, eukaryotic, chlorophyll-containing
organisms. A few are parasitic (e.g. Cuscuta) or partially heterotrophic such
as insectivorous plants (e.g. bladderwort, Venus fly trap, Sun few, Pitcher
Plant etc.)
2. Their cells are eukaryotic with plastids and cell wall composed of cellulose.
3. Life cycle exhibit alternation between diploid sporophyte and the haploid
gametophyte. This Phenomenon is called alternation of generation.
Plantae includes Green algae, brown algae, Red algae, bryophytes,
pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms.
5. Animalia (Kingdom of Multicellular consumers):
1. The members are eukaryotic Multicellular heterotrophic consumers.
2. Cells lack cell walls. They contain glycogen or fat as reserve food.
3. The organization may be cellular level (porifera), tissue level
(colenterates), organ level (Platyhelminthes and Nemathelminthcs) and
Organ system level (Annelids, Arthropods, Molluscs, Echinoderms and
Chordates).
4. Symmetry may be radial, biradial, bilateral or asymmetrical.
5. On the basis of number of germ layers in embryonic gastrula, animals are
diploblastic and triploblastic.
6. On the basis of presence of absence of coelom (body cavity) the animals are
coelornates, pseudocoelomates or acoelomates.
Merits and Demerits of Five Kingdom:
Merits:
1. Kingdom animalia become more homogenous with the separation of
protozoa.
2. Kingdom plantae also become more homogeneous with the exclusion of
bacteria, fungi and some unicellular algal forms.
3. Separation of prokaryotes into a separate kingdom – Monera is due for
long time.
4. Separation of fungi from plants is a wise step.
5. Separation of intermediate or transitional forms of unicellular eukaryotes
into kingdom – Protista is well thought out. So that the plant and animal
kingdoms become more systematic.
6. It brings our phylogenetic relationships in the living world.
Demerits:
1. The Monera and Protista kingdoms are still heterogenous because both
include autotrophic and heterotrophic forms and some with or without cell
wall.
2. Phyolgeny in lower organisms is not fully reflected.
3. Slime moulds don’t fit in kingdom protista.
4. Red and brown algae are not related to other members of kingdom plantae.
5. Viruses have not been included in this system of classification.
III. Six Kingdoms and Three Domains Classification (3) Bacteria absorb food form the medium in the form of sap (solution)
In the years around 1980 there was an emphasis on phylogeny and redefining through their general surface.
the kingdoms to be monophyletic. The Animalia, Plantae, and Fungi were
generally reduced to core groups of closely related forms, and the others (4) Some bacteria, like green plants, have the capability of carbon

thrown into the Protista. Based on rRNA studies Carl Woese divided the assimilation (photosynthesis) and form organic food.

prokaryotes into two kingdoms, called Eubacteria and Archaebacteria.

(5) Bacteria also synthesize some enzymes and vitamins.

Such six-kingdom systems have become standard in many works. In 1990,

Fungi-like characters of bacteria:
Carl Woese proposed that the Eubacteria, Archaebacteria, and Eukarvota
(1) Cell wall contains N-acetylglucosamine (NAG).
represent three primary lines of descent and accordingly he promoted them
to domains, naming them Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. This three-domain
(2) Chlorophyll is absent
classification has received notable criticism but has generally displaced the
older two-empire system as a way of organizing kingdoms together. (3) Nutrition is parasitic or saprophytic.

Status of Bacteria: (4) They reproduce by fission. Hence, related to fission fungi.
Initially bacteria were considered as primitive animals by some, primitive
plants by the others and a few considered them as primitive fungi. But, now, Animal-like characters of bacteria:
bacteria are considered as the simplest prokaryotic organisms which evolved (1) Chlorophyll absent.
about 3.5 billion years ago and treated solely under Kingdom- Monera. On
the basis of molecular homology of 16S RNA, monerans are divided into two (2) Absence of true vacuole.

major groups: the Archaebacteria and the Eubacteria.

(3) Nutrition heterotrophic.

Plant-like characters of bacteria:

(4) Reserve food is glycogen.
(1) Cell wall is rigid.

(5) Motility through flagella.

(2) Some bacterial cells join together to form algae like simple filament.

Biological Status of Viruses:

The status of viruses is uncertain and highly debatable as they exhibit the 5. They cannot be cultured in a non-living culture medium.
characteristics of both non-living and living. As viruses are metabolically
inert outside the host cells, they cannot be regarded as organism. They can be 6. They lack any evolutionary or phylogenetic relationship.

crystallized, but they cannot be reduced to the status of chemicals, because

Because of their acellular nature, viruses are not included under any of the
they have the capability to multiply and infect the living cells. Therefore,
five kingdoms of Whittaker. However, in 1962, Lowff, Home and Tourneir
Andre Lwoff, a Nobel laureate and the former Director of Pasture Research
proposed LHT system which was adopted by the International Committee on
Institute once said “A virus is a virus” which means they have both Living and
Taxonomy of viruses (ICTV). LHT system grouped all viruses under a
non-living nature instead of being either of the two.
separate phylum ‘Vira’ and divided in form of Linnaean hierarchy.

Living properties:
1. They have genetic material carrying heritable characters.
Generally, research is understood to follow a certain structural process.
2. They can multiply only inside the living host cell. Though step order may vary depending on the subject matter and
researcher, the following steps are usually part of most formal research, both
basic and applied:
3. They can mutate.
1. Observations and formation of the topic: Consists of the subject area
of one's interest and following that subject area to conduct subject
4. They respond to external stimuli like heat, chemical, UV radiation etc.
related research. The subject area should not be randomly chosen
since it requires reading a vast amount of literature on the topic to
5. They are strictly obligate parasites. determine the gap in the literature the researcher intends to narrow.
A keen interest in the chosen subject area is advisable. The
research will have to be justified by linking its importance to already
Non-living properties: existing knowledge about the topic.
2. Hypothesis: A testable prediction which designates the relationship
1. They can be crystallized. between two or more variables.
3. Conceptual definition: Description of a concept by relating it to other
2. They lack protoplasm and cellular organization. concepts.
4. Operational definition: Details in regards to defining the variables and
how they will be measured/assessed in the study.
3. Respiration and metabolism absent. 5. Gathering of data: Consists of identifying a population and selecting
samples, gathering information from or about these samples by
using specific research instruments. The instruments used for data
4. Energy storing or utilizing device absent. collection must be valid and reliable.
6. Analysis of data: Involves breaking down the individual pieces of
data to draw conclusions about it.
 7. Data Interpretation: This can be represented through tables, figures,
and pictures, and then described in words.
8. Test, revising of hypothesis
9. Conclusion, reiteration if necessary
10. Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through the Earth's
layers, and are a result of earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, magma
movement, large landslides and large man-made explosions that
give out low-frequency acoustic energy. Many other natural and
anthropogenic sources create low-amplitude waves commonly
referred to as ambient vibrations. Seismic waves are studied
by geophysicists called seismologists. Seismic wave fields are
recorded by a seismometer, hydrophone (in water),
or accelerometer.
11. The propagation velocity of the waves depends
on density and elasticity of the medium. Velocity tends to increase
with depth and ranges from approximately 2 to 8 km/s in the
Earth's crust, up to 13 km/s in the deep mantle.[2]
12. Earthquakes create distinct types of waves with different velocities;
when reaching seismic observatories, their different travel times help
scientists to locate the source of the hypocenter. In geophysics the
refraction or reflection of seismic waves is used for research into the
structure of the Earth's interior, and man-made vibrations are often
generated to investigate shallow, subsurface structures.
Body waves[edit]
Body waves travel through the interior of the Earth along paths controlled by
the material properties in terms of density and modulus(stiffness). The
density and modulus, in turn, vary according to temperature, composition,
and material phase. This effect resembles the refraction of light waves. Two
types of particle motion result in two types of body
waves: Primary and Secondary waves.
Primary waves[edit]
Main article: P-wave
Primary waves (P-waves) are compressional waves that are longitudinal in
nature. P waves are pressure waves that travel faster than other waves
through the earth to arrive at seismograph stations first, hence the name
"Primary". These waves can travel through any type of material, including
fluids, and can travel at nearly 1.7 times faster than the S waves. In air, they
take the form of sound waves, hence they travel at the speed of sound.
Typical speeds are 330 m/s in air, 1450 m/s in water and about 5000 m/s
in granite.
Secondary waves[edit]
Main article: S-wave
Secondary waves (S-waves) are shear waves that are transverse in nature.
Following an earthquake event, S-waves arrive at seismograph stations after
the faster-moving P-waves and displace the ground perpendicular to the
direction of propagation. Depending on the propagational direction, the wave
can take on different surface characteristics; for example, in the case of
horizontally polarized S waves, the ground moves alternately to one side and
then the other. S-waves can travel only through solids, as fluids (liquids and
gases) do not support shear stresses. S-waves are slower than P-waves,
and speeds are typically around 60% of that of P-waves in any given
material.
Surface waves[edit]
Seismic surface waves travel along the Earth's surface. They can be
classified as a form of mechanical surface waves. They are called surface
waves, as they diminish as they get further from the surface. They travel
more slowly than seismic body waves (P and S). In large earthquakes,
surface waves can have an amplitude of several centimeters.[4]
Rayleigh waves[edit]
Main article: Rayleigh wave
Rayleigh waves, also called ground roll, are surface waves that travel as
ripples with motions that are similar to those of waves on the surface of water
(note, however, that the associated particle motion at shallow depths is
retrograde, and that the restoring force in Rayleigh and in other seismic
waves is elastic, not gravitational as for water waves). The existence of these
waves was predicted by John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh, in 1885. They
are slower than body waves, roughly 90% of the velocity of S waves for
typical homogeneous elastic media. In the layered medium (like the crust and
upper mantle) the velocity of the Rayleigh waves depends on their frequency
and wavelength. See also Lamb waves.
Love waves[edit]
Main article: Love wave
Love waves are horizontally polarized shear waves (SH waves), existing only
in the presence of a semi-infinite medium overlain by an upper layer of finite
thickness.[5] They are named after A.E.H. Love, a British mathematician who
created a mathematical model of the waves in 1911. They usually travel
slightly faster than Rayleigh waves, about 90% of the S wave velocity, and
have the largest amplitude.
Stoneley waves[edit]
Main article: Stoneley wave
A Stoneley wave is a type of boundary wave (or interface wave) that
propagates along a solid-fluid boundary or, under specific conditions, also
along a solid-solid boundary. Amplitudes of Stoneley waves have their
maximum values at the boundary between the two contacting media and
decay exponentially towards the depth of each of them. These waves can be
generated along the walls of a fluid-filled borehole, being an important source
of coherent noise in VSPs and making up the low frequency component of
the source in sonic logging.[6] The equation for Stoneley waves was first
given by Dr. Robert Stoneley (1894–1976), Emeritus Professor of
Seismology, Cambridge.[7]
Free oscillations of the Earth[edit]
The sense of motion for toroidal 0T1oscillation for two moments of time.
The scheme of motion for spheroidal 0S2 oscillation.Dashed lines give nodal
(zero) lines. Arrows give the sense of motion.
Free oscillations of the Earth are standing waves, the result of interference
between two surface waves traveling in opposite directions. Interference of
Rayleigh waves results in spheroidal oscillation S while interference of Love
waves gives toroidal oscillation T. The modes of oscillations are specified by
three numbers, e.g., nSlm, where l is the angular order number (or spherical
harmonic degree, see Spherical harmonics for more details). The
number m is the azimuthal order number. It may take on 2l+1 values from -
l to +l. The number n is the radial order number. It means the wave
with n zero crossings in radius. For spherically symmetric Earth the period for
given n and l does not depend on m.
Some examples of spheroidal oscillations are the "breathing" mode 0S0,
which involves an expansion and contraction of the whole Earth, and has a
period of about 20 minutes; and the "rugby" mode 0S2, which involves
expansions along two alternating directions, and has a period of about 54
minutes. The mode 0S1 does not exist because it would require a change in
the center of gravity, which would require an external force.[2]
Of the fundamental toroidal modes, 0T1 represents changes in Earth's
rotation rate; although this occurs, it is much too slow to be useful in
seismology. The mode 0T2 describes a twisting of the northern and southern
hemispheres relative to each other; it has a period of about 44 minutes.[2]
The first observations of free oscillations of the Earth were done during the
great 1960 earthquake in Chile. Presently periods of thousands modes are
known. These data are used for determining some large scale structures of
the Earth interior.
P and S waves in Earth's mantle and core[edit]
When an earthquake occurs, seismographs near the epicenter are able to
record both P and S waves, but those at a greater distance no longer detect
the high frequencies of the first S wave. Since shear waves cannot pass
through liquids, this phenomenon was original evidence for the now well-
established observation that the Earth has a liquid outer core, as
demonstrated by Richard Dixon Oldham. This kind of observation has also
been used to argue, by seismic testing, that the Moon has a solid core,
although recent geodetic studies suggest the core is still molten[citation needed].
Earthquake-A sudden ground motion or vibration produced by a
rapid release of stored-up energy.
Epicenter-The point on the Earth's surface located directly above
the focus of an earthquake.
Focus-The location where the earthquake begins. The ground
ruptures at this spot, then seismic waves radiate outward in all
directions.
Magnitude: Earthquake size is a quantitative measure of the size of the
earthquake at its source. The Richter Magnitude Scale measures the amount
of seismic energy released by an earthquake.

When an earthquake occurs, its magnitude can be given a single numerical
value on the Richter Magnitude Scale. However the intensity is variable over
the area affected by the earthquake, with high intensities near the epicentre
and lower values further away. These are allocated a value depending on the
effects of the shaking according to the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale.
In an example, Magnitude can be likened to the power of radio or television
waves sent out from a broadcasting station. Intensity is how well you receive
the signal, which can depend on your distance from the energy source, the
local conditions, and the pathway the signal has to take to reach you.
Introduction
The urinary system is comprised of the kidney, ureter, urinary bladder, and urethra.
The kidney produces urine, which contains excess water, electrolytes and waste
products of the body. It then flows down the ureter into the bladder where it is
temporarily stored. The bladder is then emptied via the urethra.
Kidney
The kidney has several important homeostatic, hormonal, and metabolic functions
that include:
 The maintenance of water and electrolyte homeostasis
 Regulation of acid-base balance in conjunction with the respiratory system
 Excretion of metabolic waste products, especially the toxic nitrogenous
compounds
 Production of renin for blood pressure control and erythropoietin, which
stimulates red blood cell production in the bone marrow
 Conversion of vitamin D into active form for the regulation of calcium balance
The kidney is composed of an outer cortex and inner medulla. Portions of the
medulla extend into the cortex as the medullary rays, collections of straight renal
tubules. The medulla contains multiple cone-shaped lobes, known as medullary
pyramids. These urinary lobes are fused in the cortex. The urine drains into the renal
pelvis, which is the initial part of the ureter. The hilum of the kidney is the site of
entry and exit for renal artery, renal vein, and ureter.
Nephron
The nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney. There are about two
million nephrons in each kidney. Nephrons begin in the cortex; the tubules dip down
to the medulla, then return to the cortex before draining into the collecting duct. The
collecting ducts then descend towards the renal pelvis and empty urine into the
ureter.
The components of a single nephron include:
 renal corpuscle
 proximal convoluted tubule
 loop of Henle
 distal convoluted tubule
Different sections of nephrons are located in different parts of the kidney:
 The cortex contains the renal corpuscle, proximal, and distal convoluted
tubules.
 The medulla and medullary rays contain the loops of Henle and collecting
ducts.
Throughout the length of the nephron, capillaries called peritubular capillaries lie
adjacent to all segments of the tubule. They originate from the efferent arteriole and
are important for solute transport throughout the tubule.
Renal Corpuscle
The renal corpuscle is responsible for the filtration of the plasma. It contains two
structures: the glormerulus and Bowman's capsule. The glomerulus is a cluster of
capillary loops enclosed by Bowman's capsule, which is part of the renal tubule.
Bowman's capsule has two layers:
 The visceral layer is in contact with the glormerulus, and is composed of
specialized epithelial cells known as podocytes.
 The parietal layer is the outer layer, and is composed of simple squamous
epithelial cells. This layer is continuous with the epithelium of the proximal
convoluted tubule.
The space between the two layers is named Bowman's space, and this space contains
the ultrafiltrate of plasma. The plasma has to pass through a filtration barrier of three
layers to enter Bowman's space: the capillary endothelium, the podocyte layer, and
their fused basement membrane. Bowman's space is continuous with the proximal
convoluted tubule.
Blood enters the renal corpuscle via afferent arterioles and then leaves via efferent
arterioles. The part of renal corpuscle where afferent and efferent arterioles are
located is known as the vascular pole. On the opposite end of the vascular pole is
where the renal tubule begins and is known as the urinary pole.
Mesangial cells can also be found within the glomerulus. These cells secrete a matrix
of basement membrane-like material to support the structure of the glomerulus.
Promixal Convoluted Tubule
The proximal convoluted tubule is the first segment of renal tubule. It begins at the
urinary pole of the glomerulus. This is where the majority (65%) of the glomerular
filtrate is reabsorbed. The convoluted portion of the tubule leads into a straight
segment that descends into the medulla within a medullary ray and becomes the loop
of Henle.
Loop of Henle
The loop of Henle forms a hair-pin structure that dips down into the medulla. It
contains four segments: the pars recta (the straight descending limb of proximal
tubule), the thin descending limb, the thin ascending limb, and the thick ascending
limb. The turn of the loop of Henle usually occurs in the thin segment within the
medulla, and the tubule then ascends toward the cortex parallel to the descending
limb. The end of the loop of Henle becomes the distal convoluted tubule near its
original glomerulus. The loops of Henle run in parallel to capillary loops known as
the vasa recta. Recall from Physiology that the loop of Henle serves to create high
osmotic pressure in the renal medulla via the counter-current multiplier system. Such
high osmotic pressure is important for the reabsorption of water in the later segments
of the renal tubule.
Distal Convoluted Tubule
The distal convoluted tubule is shorter and less convoluted than the proximal
convoluted tubule. Further reabsorption and secretion of ions occur in this segment.
The initial segment of the distal convoluted tubule lies right next to the glomerulus
and forms the juxtaglomerular apparatus.
Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
The juxtaglomerular apparatus is a specialized structure formed by the distal
convoluted tubule and the glomerular afferent arteriole. It is located near the vascular
pole of the glomerulus. The main function of the apparatus is the secretion of renin,
which regulates systemic blood pressure via the renin-angiotensin-alodosterone
system. The juxtaglomerular apparatus is composed of:
 The macula densa, a collection of specialized epithelial cells of the distal
convoluted tubule. These cells are enlarged as compared to surrounding tubular
cells. The cells of the macula densa sense sodium chloride concentration in the
tubule, which in turn reflects the systemic blood pressure.
 The juxtaglomerular cells of the afferent arterioles, which are responsible for
secreting renin. These cells are derived from smooth muscles cells of afferent
arterioles.
 The extraglomerular mesangial cells, which are flat and elongated cells located
near the macula densa. Their function is currently unclear.
Collecting Ducts
The terminal portion of the distal tubule empties through collecting tubules into a
straight collecting duct in the medullary ray. The collecting duct system is under the
control of antidiuretic hormone (ADH). When ADH is present, the collecting duct
becomes permeable to water. The high osmotic pressure in the medulla (generated by
the counter-current multiplier system/loop of Henle) then draws out water from the
renal tubule, back to vasa recta.
Renal Pelvis and Ureter
Numerous collecting ducts merge into the renal pelvis, which then becomes the
ureter. The ureter is a muscular tube, composed of an inner longitudinal layer and an
outer circular layer. The lumen of the ureter is covered by transitional epithelium
(also called urothelium). Recall from the Laboratory on Epithelia that the transitional
epithelium is unique to the conducting passages of the urinary system. Its ability to
stretch allows the dilation of the conducting passages when necessary. The ureter
connects the kidney and the urinary bladder.
Urinary Bladder
The ureter empties the urine into the bladder. The transitional epithelium continues
over the surface of this organ. The thickened muscular layers become interwoven
and cannot be clearly identified at this point.
Urethra
Neurons usually have several dendrites (from the Greek dendron, for tree
branches) are the input to a neuron. Dendrites are designed both in shape
and function to combine information the information they get (integration).
Most neurons have several dendrites, each of which may branch up to six
times to collect signals from the axon terminals from other neurons that cover
it. They are covered with synapses (connections) from many other neurons
and combine the signals they get from these synapses.

The urethra carries the urine away from the bladder to the outside of the body. In the
male, it is joined by the genital system. The epithelium changes from transitional to
stratified or pseudostratified columnar in the urethra, and to stratified squamous in
the distal end of the urethra.

Neurons

Like all organ systems, the nervous system can do its specialized functions
because the cells that make up the nervous system are specialized. The
cells in the nervous system are specialized both in how they work individually
and how they are connected to each other. The nervous system contains two
kinds of cells:

 neurons are the cell type (primarily) responsible

for communication and integration in the nervous system.
 glia, which protect the neurons, but also modify their action.

Neurons (nerve cells) have three parts that carry out the functions of
communication and integration: dendrites, axons, and axon terminals.
They have a fourth part the cell body or soma, which carries out the basic life
processes of neurons. The figure at the right shows a "typical" neuron.

Neurons have a single axon is the output of the neuron. Axons are long (up
to several feet long), but thin - - sort of like a wire. They are designed both in
shape and function to carry information reliably and quickly over long
distances (communication). Axons usually branch to connect to go to
different neurons. Axon terminals at the end of axons make the actual
connection to other neurons.
Axons carry information from the senses to the CNS (Central Nervous
System, brain and spinal cord), from one part of the CNS to another, or from
the CNS to muscles and glands, which generate the behaviors you do.
What Are the Parts of the Cell?
Have you ever wondered what the inside of a cell looks like? If you think about the
rooms in our homes, the inside of any animal or plant cell has many similar room-
like structures called organelles. Each organelle is a place where specific jobs are
done.
Plant and animal cells have many of the same organelles. But in some cases, the
organelles in cells are different. For example, in plant cells, there are more types of
organelles than are found in animal cells. Below are some names and descriptions of
organelles commonly found in cells. There is also an interactive cell viewer and
game that can be used to learn about the parts of animal and plant cells.
Plasma membrane- The membrane enclosing a cell is made up of two lipid layers
called a "bilipid" membrane. The lipids that are present in the plasma membrane are
called "phospholipids."
These lipid layers are made up of a number of fatty acid building blocks. The fatty
acid that makes up this membrane has two different parts to it- a small water loving
head- hydrophilic head. Hydro stands for water and philic means liking or loving.
The other part of this fatty acid is a long water-repelling or water hating tail.
This tail is hydrophobic- Hydro stands for water and phobicmeans fear. The plasma
membrane is arranged in such a way so that the tails face each other on the inside
and the heads face towards the outside of the membrane.
Channels/pores- A channel in the cell's plasma membrane. This channel is made up
of certain proteinsthat control the movement of molecules, including food and water,
into the cell.
Nucleus- The nucleus is the control center of the cell. It is the largest organelle in the
cell and it contains the DNA of the cell.
DNA and Nucleolus
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) contains all the information for cells to live, perform
their functions and reproduce.
Inside the nucleus is another organelle called the nucleolus. The nucleolus is
responsible for making ribosomes.
The circles on the surface of the nucleus are the nuclear pores. These are where
ribosomes, and other materials move in and out of the nucleus.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)- It is a network of membranes throughout the
cytoplasm of the cell. There are two types of ER.
When ribosomes are attached it is called rough ER and smooth ER when there are no
ribosomes attached.
The rough endoplasmic reticulum is where most protein synthesis occurs in the cell.
The function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum is to synthesize lipids in the cell.
The smooth ER also helps in the detoxification of harmful substances in the cell.
Ribosomes- Organelles that help in the synthesis of proteins. Ribosomes are
made up of two parts, called subunits.
Ribosomes are made of one large and one small subunit.
They get their names from their size. One unit is larger than the other so they are
called large and small subunits.
Both these subunits are necessary for protein synthesis in the cell. When the two
units are docked together with a special information unit called messenger RNA,
they make proteins.
Some ribosomes are found in the cytoplasm, but most are attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum. While attached to the ER, ribosomes make proteins that the
cell needs and also ones to be exported from the cell for work elsewhere in the body.
Golgi complex- It is the organelle in the cell that is responsible for sorting and
correctly shipping the proteins produced in the ER. Just like our postal packages,
which should have a correct shipping address, the proteins produced in the ER
should be correctly sent to their respective address. It is a very important step in
protein synthesis. If the Golgi complex makes a mistake in shipping the proteins to
the right address, certain functions in the cell may stop.
This organelle was named after an Italian physician-Camillo Golgi. He was the first
person to describe this organelle in the cell. It is also the only organelle that is
capitalized.
Mitochondrion- This is the cell’s powerhouse. This organelle packages the energy
from the food you eat into ATP molecules.
Every type of cell has a different amount of mitochondria (plural). There are more
mitochondria in cells that have to perform lots of work, for example- your leg muscle
cells, heart muscle cells etc. Other cells need less energy to do their work and have
less mitochondria.
Chloroplast- This is the organelle in which photosynthesistakes place. In this
organelle the light energy of the sun is converted into chemical energy.

 
 Chloroplasts are found only in plant cells not animal cells. The chemical energy
that is produced by chloroplasts is finally used to make carbohydrates like starch that
get stored in the plant.
Chloroplasts contain tiny pigments called chlorophylls. Chlorophylls are responsible
for trapping the light energy from the sun.
esicles- This term literally means "small vessel". This organelle helps store and
transport products produced by the cell.
The vesicles are the transport and delivery vehicles like our mail and Federal Express It also helps things move around in the cell. For artistic purposes, the cytoskeleton is
trucks. Some vesicles deliver materials to parts of the cell and others transport
materials outside the cell in a process called exocytosis.
Vacuole- Plant cells have what looks like a very large empty space in the middle.
This space is called the vacuole.
Don't be fooled, the vacuole contains large amounts of water and stores other
important materials such as sugars, ions and pigments.
Cytoplasm- A term for all the contents of a cell other than the nucleus. Even though network along with structural proteins to form the cell wall. Plant cells that are
the cartoon drawings do not look like it, the cytoplasm contains mostly water.
Some fun facts about water and the human body:
 Adult bodies are about 50 to 65 percent water.
 A child’s body has a little more water at 75 percent.
 The human brain is about 75 percent water.
 ell wall and Plasmodesmata- In addition to cell membranes, plants have
cell walls. Cell walls provide protection and support for plants. In land
plants, the cell wall is mostly made of cellulose.
 Unlike cell membranes, materials cannot get through cell walls. This would
be a problem for plant cells if not for special openings called
plasmodesmata.
 These openings are used to communicate and transport materials between
plant cells because the cell membranes are able to touch and therefore
exchange needed materials.
Peroxisomes- These collect and safely break down chemicals that are toxic to the
cell.
Centrioles- These are found only in animal cells and come into action when the cells
divide, helping with the organization of chromosomes
Cytoskeleton- Made up of filaments and tubules, it helps shape and support the cell.
shown in just one place when in reality it is found throughout the entire cell.
Plant Cell Walls
The main component of the plant cell wall is cellulose, a carbohydrate that
forms long fibers and gives the cell wall its rigidity. Cellulose fibers group
together to form bundles called microfibrils. Other important carbohydrates
include hemicellulose, pectin, and liginin. These carbohydrates form a
in the process of growing have primary cell walls, which are thin. Once the
cells are fully grown, they develop secondary cell walls. The secondary cell
wall is a thick layer that is formed on the inside of the primary cell wall. This
layer is what is usually meant when referring to a plant’s cell wall. There is
also another layer in between plant cells called the middle lamella; it is
pectin-rich and helps plant cells stick together.
The cell walls of plant cells help them maintain turgor pressure, which is the
pressure of the cell membrane pressing against the cell wall. Ideally, plants
cells should have lots of water within them, leading to high turgidity. Whereas
a cell without a cell wall, such as an animal cell, can swell and burst of too
much water diffuses into it, plants need to be in hypotonic solutions (more
water inside than outside, leading to lots of water entering the cell) to
maintain turgor pressure and their structural shape. The cell wall efficiently
holds water in so that the cell does not burst. When turgor pressure is lost, a
plant will begin to wilt. Turgor pressure is what gives plant cells their
characteristic square shape; the cells are full of water, so they fill up the
space available and press against each other.
Algae Cell Walls
Algae are a diverse group, and the diversity in their cell walls reflects this.
Some algae, such as green algae, have cell walls that are similar in structure
to those of plants. Other algae, such as brown algae and red algae, have
cellulose along with other polysaccharides or fibrils. Diatoms have cell walls
that are made from silicic acid. Other important molecules in algal cell walls
include mannans, xylans, and alginic acid
general identification of bacteria; bacteria with thick cell walls are gram-
positive, while bacteria with thinner cell walls are gram-negative.
While archaea are similar in many ways to bacteria, hardly any archaeal
walls contain peptidoglycan. There are several different types of cell walls in
archaea. Some are composed of pseudopeptidoglycan, some have
polysaccharides, some have glycoproteins, and others have surface-layer
proteins (called an S-layer, which can also be found in bacteria).
Major Invertebrate Phyla
Table below gives an overview of the eight invertebrate phyla with the
greatest number of species.

fungi Cell Walls

The cell walls of fungi contain chitin, which is a glucose derivative that is
similar in structure to cellulose. Layers of chitin are very tough; chitin is the Major Invertebrate Phyla
same molecule found in the rigid exoskeletons of animals such as insects
and crustaceans. Glucans, which are other glucose polymers, are also found Table below gives an overview of the eight invertebrate phyla with the
in the fungal cell wall along with lipids and proteins. Fungi have proteins greatest number of species.
called hydrophobins in their cell walls. Found only in fungi, hydrophobins give
the cells strength, help them adhere to surfaces, and help control the
movement of water into the cells. In fungi, the cell wall is the most external Notable
Phylum (includes) Example
layer, and surrounds the cell membrane. Characteristics

Bacteria and Archaea Cell Walls multicellularity,

specialized cells but
The cell walls of bacteria usually contain the polysaccharide peptidoglycan, no tissues,
which is porous and lets small molecules through. Together, the cell Porifera (sponges) sponges
asymmetry,
membrane and cell wall are referred to as the cell envelope. The cell wall is incomplete digestive
an essential part of survival for many bacteria. It provides mechanical
system
structure to bacteria, which are single-celled, and it also protects them from
internal turgor pressure. Bacteria have higher concentration of molecules
such as proteins within themselves as compared to their environment, so the
cell wall stops water from rushing into the cell. Differences in cell wall radial symmetry, true jellyfish
Cnidaria (jellyfish,
thickness also make Gram staining possible. Gram staining is used for the tissues, incomplete
 Notable
Phylum (includes) Example
Characteristics KINGDOM

For a long time, all life was separated into five or six kingdoms. These
corals) digestive system
included kingdoms such as animals, plants, fungi, protists, archaea, and

bacteria.
cephalization,
Platyhelminthes (flatw With new genetic data, we now know that some protists are more closely
bilateral symmetry,
orms, tapeworms, flatworm
mesoderm, complete related to animals, plants, and fungi than they are to other protists. This
flukes)
digestive system
suggests that the protist kingdom could be separated into multiple kingdoms.

Thoughts are similar for the bacteria and archaea kingdoms.

pseudocoelom,
Nematoda (roundworm PHYLUM
complete digestive roundworm
s)
system
A phylum (plural phyla) is still a very broad classification but it splits

kingdoms into multiple groups. An example of phyla from the animal kingdom
true coelom, organ
Mollusca (snails, is Arthropoda which includes all insects, spiders, crustaceans, and more. All
systems, some with snail
clams, squids)
primitive brain vertebrate animals belong to one phylum called ‘Chordata’. Invertebratesare

separated into many different phyla.

Annelida (earthworms, segmented body, CLASS
earthworm
leeches, marine worms) primitive brain
A class is the next level down. As mentioned earlier some classes from the

phylum Chordata include mammals, reptiles, and amphibians. Arthropod

Arthropoda (insects, segmented body,
spiders, crustaceans, jointed appendages, insect (dragonfly) classes include the likes of insects and arachnids (spiders, mites, and
centipedes) exoskeleton, brain
scorpions).
ORDER AND FAMILY
complete digestive
Echinodermata (sea From class, organisms are placed into an Order and then a Family. Using
system, coelom,
stars, sea urchins, sand sea urchin
spiny internal grasses as an example from the plant kingdom, they belong to the order
dollars, sea cucumbers)
skeleton
Poales and the family Poaceae.
GENUS AND SPECIES
system that we use to name new species called ‘binomial nomenclature’.
The final two categories are genus and species. The genus and species that
Linnaeus is credited with identifying over 10,000 different plant and animal
an organism belongs to are how an organism receives its scientific name.
species in his lifetime, more than any other biologist.
This naming system is called ‘binomial nomenclature’ and was invented by a SYSTEMA NATURAE

brilliant biologist named Carl Linnaeus. When Linnaeus developed his system of hierarchical categories, he called it

An identified species is placed into a specific group in each of these ‘Systema Naturae’. It contained three kingdoms, classes, orders, genera, and

categories. For example, the taxonomic classification of humans is: species. We have since added two more categories – domains and phyla.

Domain: Eukaryota Linnaeus’s original classification had three kingdoms – animals, plants, and

Kingdom: Animalia minerals (natural, non-living elements). We now only use this system for

Phylum: Chordata classifying organisms and we have since separated all of life into more than

Class: Mammalia two kingdoms.

BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE
Order: Primates
Binomial nomenclature is the method that we use to uniquely name every
Family: Hominidae
different organism on Earth, living or extinct. All organisms have a scientific
Genus: Homo
name that includes two Latin words.
Species: Homo sapiens
The two words are made from the names of the genus the species belongs
To remember the order of the taxonomic hierarchy from domain to species,
to and a second word to separate each of the species within the same
people often use mnemonics to make it easier. The phrase that I was taught
genus. The second word is known as the ‘specific epithet’. Hence, the
and still use to help me remember is ‘King Phillip Came Over From Germany
scientific names of all organisms are made from the name of their genus and
Swimming’. There are many different phrases people have come up with. If
a specific epithet.
you’re not keen on the sentence I use and want another one, take a look at
For example, the scientific name given to humans includes their
these taxonomy mnemonics.
CARL LINNAEUS genus Homo and the specific epithet sapiens. The overall name is Homo
Carl Linnaeus was a Swedish naturalist from the 18th century and is sapiens.
considered the father of taxonomy. It was Linnaeus who first began to Scientific names are also written in either italics or underlined.
separate organisms into hierarchical categories. He also developed the
 Taxonomy is not a perfect science and, as you will find out, there is a lot of
disagreement and uncertainty about the structure of taxonomic
classifications. In general, however, taxonomy is a great way to quickly learn
The apical surface of these epithelial cells is exposed to
the "external environment", the lumen of the organ or
the air. [View example]

about how an organism slots into the tree of life.

 Mesothelia. These are derived from mesoderm.
Subphylum Vertebrata o pleura — the outer covering of the lungs and the
inner lining of the thoracic (chest) cavity.
 Class Agnatha (jawless fishes)
o peritoneum — the outer covering of all the
 Class Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fishes)
 Class Osteichthyes (bony fishes)
abdominal organs and the inner lining of the
 Class Amphibia (amphibians) abdominal cavity.
 Class Reptilia (reptiles) o pericardium — the outer lining of the heart.
 Class Aves (birds)  Endothelia. The inner lining of the heart, all blood and
 Class Mammalia (mammals) lymphatic vessels — derived from mesoderm.
1. Epithelial The basolateral surface of all epithelia is exposed to the
internal environment (ECF). The entire sheet of epithelial cells
Epithelial tissue is made of closely-packed cells arranged in is attached to a layer of extracellular matrix that is called the
flat sheets. Epithelia form the surface of the skin, line the basement membrane or, better (because it is not a membrane in
various cavities and tubes of the body, and cover the internal the biological sense), the basal lamina. [View example]
organs.
View showing relationship between the apical and basolateral surfaces of
Subsets of Epithelia epithelial cells and how they maintain their distinction.

 Epithelia that form the interface between the internal

and external environments.
o Skin as well as the lining of the mouth and nasal
cavity. These are derived from ectoderm.
o Inner lining of the GI tract, lungs, urinary
bladder, exocrine glands, vagina and more.
These are derived from endoderm.
The function of epithelia always reflects the fact that they are
boundaries between masses of cells and a cavity or space.
Some examples:
 The epithelium of the skin protects the underlying
tissues from
o mechanical damage
 o ultraviolet light
o dehydration
o invasion by bacteria
 The columnar epithelium of the intestine
o secretes digestive enzymes into the intestine;
o absorbs the products of digestion from it.
 An epithelium also lines our air passages and the alveoli
of the lungs. It secretes mucus which keeps it from
drying out and traps inhaled dust particles. Most of its
cells have cilia on their apical surface that propel the
mucus with its load of foreign matter back up to the
throat.
2. Muscle
Three kinds of muscle are found in vertebrates:
 Skeletal muscle is made of long fibers whose
contraction provides the force of locomotion and
other voluntary body movements.
 Smooth muscle lines the walls of the hollow structures Often called fibrous connective tissue.
of the body, such as the intestine, urinary bladder,
uterus, and blood vessels. Its contraction, which
is involuntary, reduces the size of these hollow organs.
 The heart is made of cardiac muscle.
Link to page devoted to the structure and properties of the three kinds of
muscles.
3. Connective
The cells of connective tissue are embedded in a great amount
of extracellular material. This matrix is secreted by the cells.
It consists of protein fibers embedded in an amorphous
mixture of protein-polysaccharide ("proteoglycan") molecules.
Supporting connective tissue
Gives strength, support, and protection to the soft parts of
the body.
 cartilage. Example: the outer ear
 bone. The matrix of bone contains collagen fibers and
mineral deposits. The most abundant mineral is
calcium phosphate, although magnesium, carbonate,
and fluoride ions are also present. [More on bone]
Dense connective tissue
 Tendons connect muscle to bone. [View] The matrix is
principally Type I collagen, and the fibers are all
oriented parallel to each other. Tendons are strong but
not elastic.
 Ligaments attach one bone to another. They contain
both collagen and also the protein elastin. Elastin
permits ligaments to be stretched.
Loose connective tissue
It is distributed throughout the body. It serves as a packing and
binding material for most of our organs. Sheets of loose
connective tissue that bind muscles and other structures
together are called fascia. Collagen, elastin, and other proteins
are found in the matrix of loose connective tissue.
Both dense and loose connective tissue are derived from cells
called fibroblasts [View], which secrete the extracellular
matrix.
Adipose tissue
Adipose tissue is "fat". There are two kinds found in
mammals:
 white adipose tissue (WAT) in which the cells,
called adipocytes, have become almost filled with oil.
The oil is confined within a single membrane-enclosed
droplet. Virtually all of the "fat" in adult humans is
white adipose tissue.
 brown adipose tissue (BAT) in which the adipocytes
contain many small droplets of oil as well as many
mitochondria.
White adipose tissue and brown adipose tissue differ in
function as well as cellular structure. These differences are
described on a separate page. Link to it.
New adipocytes in white adipose tissue are formed throughout
life from a pool of precursor cells. These are needed to replace
those that die (after an average life span of 10 years). Whether The tips of axons meet:
the total number of these adipocytes increases in humans
becoming fatter as adults is still uncertain. If not, why do so
many of us get fatter as we age? Because of the
increased size of individual adipocytes as they become filled
with oil.
The adipocytes of white adipose tissue secrete several
hormones, including leptin and adiponectin.
4. Nerve
Nerve tissue is composed of
 nerve cells called neurons and
 glial cells.
Neurons
Neurons are specialized for the conduction of nerve impulses.
A typical neuron consists of
 a cell body which contains the nucleus;
 a number of short fibers — dendrites — extending
from the cell body
 a single long fiber, the axon.
The nerve impulse is conducted along the axon.
Link to a page devoted to neuron structure.
  other neurons at junctions called synapses
Link to a page describing the properties of synapses.
 muscles (called neuromuscular junctions)
Link here to a page describing the neuromuscular junction.
 glands
Link here to a page describing how neurons work.
Link here to a page describing the types and organization of neurons in the
peripheral nervous system.
Glia
Glial cells surround neurons. Once thought to be simply
support for neurons (glia = glue), they turn out to serve
several important functions.
There are three types:
 Schwann cells. These produce the myelin sheath that
surrounds many axons in the peripheral nervous
system.
 Oligodendrocytes. These produce the myelin sheath
that surrounds many axons in the central nervous
system (brain and spinal cord).
 Astrocytes. These — often star-shaped — cells are
clustered around synapses and the nodes of
Ranvier where they perform a variety of functions:
o modulating the activity of neurons [An example]
[Another example];
o supplying neurons with materials
(e.g. glucose and lactate) as well as some
signaling molecules;
o regulating the flow of blood to their region of
the brain. It is primarily the metabolic activity of
astrocytes that is being measured in brain
imaging by positron-emission tomography (PET)
and functional magnetic resonance
imaging (fMRI).
o pruning away (by phagocytosis) weak synapses.
In addition, the central nervous system contains
many microglia — mobile cells (macrophages) that respond to
damage (e.g., from an infection) by
 engulfing cell debris
 secreting inflammatory cytokines like tumor necrosis
factor (TNF-α) and interleukin-1 (IL-1)
Microglia are also active in the healthy brain, at least in young
mice where, like astrocytes, they engulf synapses thus
reducing the number of synapses in the developing brain.
 5. Blood
The bone marrow is the source of all the cells of the blood.
These include:
 red blood cells (RBCs or erythrocytes)
 five kinds of white blood cells (WBCs or leukocytes)
 platelets (or thrombocytes)
 BiologyBiomolecules
Top
Biomolecules
Although there is vast diversity of living organisms. The chemical compositon and
metabolic reactions of the organisms appear to be similar. The composition of living
tissues and non-living matter also appear to be similar in qualitative analysis.Closer
analysis reveals that the relative abundance of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen is
higher in living system.
All forms of life are composed of biomolecules only. Biomolecules are organic
molecules especially macromolecules like carbohydrates, proteins in living
organisms. All living forms bacteria, algae, plant and animals are made of
similar macromolecules that are responsible for life. All the carbon compounds we get
from living tissues can be called biomolecules.
Biomolecules Definition
Back to Top
Biomolecules are molecules that occur naturally in living organisms. Biomolecules
include macromolecules like proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids. It also
includes small molecules like primary and secondary metabolites and natural
products. Biomolecules consists mainly of carbon and hydrogen with nitrogen,
oxygen, sulphur, and phosphorus. Biomolecules are very large molecules of many
atoms, that are covalently bound together.
Classes of Biomolecules
Back to Top
There are four major classes of biomolecules:
 Carbohydrates
 Lipids
 Proteins
 Nucleic acids
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are good source of energy. Carbohydrates (polysaccharides) are long
chains of sugars. Monosaccharides are simple sugars that are composed of 3-7
carbon atoms. They have a free aldehyde or ketone group, which acts as reducing
agents and are known as reducing sugars. Disaccharides are made of two
monosaccharides. The bonds shared between two monosaccharides is the glycosidic
bonds. Monosaccharides and disaccharides are sweet, crystalline and water soluble
substances.Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides. They are unsweet,
and complex carbohydrates.They are insoluble in water and are not in crystalline
form.
Example: glucose, fructose, sucrose, maltose, starch, cellulose etc.
Lipids
Lipids are composed of long hydrocarbon chains. Lipid molecules hold a large
amount of energy and are energy storage molecules. Lipids are generally esters of
fatty acids and are building blocks of biological membranes. Most of the lipids have a
polar head and non-polar tail. Fatty acids can be unsaturated and saturated fatty
acids.
Lipids present in biological membranes are of three classes based on the type of
hydrophilic head present:
  Glycolipids are lipids whose head contains oligosaccharides with 1-15
saccharide residues.
 Phospholipids contain a positively charged head which are linked to the
negatively charged phosphate groups.
 Sterols, whose head contain a steroid ring. Example steroid.
Example of lipids: oils, fats, phospholipids, glycolipids, etc.
Proteins
Proteins are heteropolymers of stings of amino acids. Amino acids are joined together
by the peptide bond which is formed in between the carboxyl group and amino group
of successive amino acids. Proteins are formed from 20 different amino acids,
depending on the number of amino acids and the sequence of amino acids.
There are four levels of protein structure:
 Primary structure of Protein - Here protein exist as long chain of amino acids
arranged in a particular sequence. They are non-functional proteins.
 Secondary structure of protein - The long chain of proteins are folded and
arranged in a helix shape, where the amino acids interact by the formation of
hydrogen bonds. This structure is called the pleated sheet. Example: silk
fibres.
 Tertiary structure of protein - Long polypeptide chains become more
stabilizes by folding and coiling, by the formation of ionic or hydrophobic
bonds or disulphide bridges, this results in the tertiary structure of protein.
 Quaternary structure of protein - When a protein is an assembly of more
than one polypeptide or subunits of its own, this is said to be the quaternary
structure of protein. Example: Haemoglobin, insulin.
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are organic compounds with heterocyclic rings. Nucleic acids are made
of polymer of nucleotides. Nucleotides consists of nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar
and a phosphate group. A nucleoside is made of nitrogenous base attached to a
pentose sugar. The nitrogenous bases are adenine, guanine, thyamine, cytosine and
uracil. Polymerized nucleotides form DNA and RNA which are genetic material.
Functions of Biomolecules
Back to Top
Carbohydrates provide the body with source of fuel and energy, it aids in proper
functioning of our brain, heart and nervous, digestive and immune system. Deficiency
of carbohydrates in the diet causes fatigue, poor mental function.
Each protein in the body has specific functions, some proteins provide structural
support, help in body movement, and also defense against germs and infections.
Proteins can be antibodies, hormonal, enzymes and contractile proteins.
Lipids, the primary purpose of lipids in body is energy storage. Structural membranes
are composed of lipids which forms a barrier and controls flow of material in and out
of the cell. Lipid hormones, like sterols, help in mediating communication between
cells.
Nucleic Acids are the DNA and RNA, they carry genetic information in the cell. They
also help in synthesis of proteins, through the process of translation and transcription.
Structure of Biomolecules
Back to Top
Structure of biomolecule is intricate folded, three-dimensional structure that is formed
by protein, RNA, and DNA. The structure of these molecules are in different forms,
primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure. The scaffold for this is provided
by the hydrogen bonds within the molecule.
 Primary structure of a biomolecule is the exact specification of its atomic
composition and and the chemical bonds connecting the atoms.
 Secondary structure of the biomolecule is the three-dimensional form of
biopolymers, secondary structure is defined by the hydrogen bonds of the
biomolecules.
 Tertiary structure of the biomolecule is the three-dimensional
structure,defined by its atomic coordinates, by the formation of hydrogen,
ionic or sulphide bonds.
 Quaternary structure is the arrangement of multiple folds of complex, in a
mutli-subunit complex.