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Vibration in Phase-Shifting Interferometry: Peter J. de Groot
Vibration in Phase-Shifting Interferometry: Peter J. de Groot
de Groot
Peter J. de Groot
Zygo Corporation, Laurel Brook Road, Middlefield, Connecticut 06455
Received January 14, 1994; revised manuscript received September 15, 1994; accepted September 16, 1994
Unexpected mechanical vibrations can significantly degrade the otherwise high accuracy of phase-shifting
interferometry. Fourier analysis of phase-shift algorithms is shown to provide the analytical means of
predicting measurement errors as a function of the frequency, the phase, and the amplitude of vibrations.
The results of this analysis are concisely represented by a phase-error transfer function, which may be
multiplied by the noise spectrum to predict the response of an interferometer to various forms of vibration.
Analytical forms for the phase error are derived for several well-known algorithms, and the results are
supported by numerical simulations and experiments with an interference microscope.
dLstd .
fstd 4p (3)
l
t fy2p . (4)
Fig. 1. Experimental phase-error map for an interferometer
in the presence of a 1-Hz vibration having an amplitude of
approximately one-quarter fringe. There were approximately The interference pattern is now written as
three fringes in the field of view.
gsu, fd Qf1 1 V cossu 1 fdg . (5)
may be considered to be a special form of filtering process
in the frequency domain, designed to recover the phase of During a PSI acquisition mechanical vibrations will be
a specific heterodyne frequency generated by the phase added to the linear motion of the phase modulator, re-
shifting.11 This Fourier approach to PSI builds on some sulting in a distorted intensity signal g0 su, fd. Using the
of the original concepts introduced into digital inter- phase shift f as the time-variable parameter, we have
ferometry by Bruning et al.12 and provides an ideal
mathematical framework for understanding the propa-
gation of errors. g0 su, fd Qh1 1 V cosff 1 u 2 nsfdgj , (6)
In this paper the sensitivity of a PSI algorithm will be
concisely represented by a phase-error transfer function where nsfd is the phase error that is due to vibration at
in the vibrational frequency domain. The derivation of a time t fy2p. For the purposes of vibration analysis,
a phase-error transfer function is a worthwhile objective. Eq. (6) is considered to be an exact, nonlinear mathe-
Not only does it reveal sources of measurement error by matical model of the interference pattern generated by
explicitly showing the sensitivity of PSI algorithms to par- the instrument. Supplementary sources of error, such as
ticular vibrational frequencies, but the linear approxima- detector nonlinearities, are excluded.
tion makes it possible to predict the effects of continuous, Let us now ponder the effect of intensity errors on
complex noise spectra. The results obtained in this way the phase measurement. In the presence of vibration
are general in the sense that one can analyze most com- it is expected that the phase angle w measured by the
monly known PSI data-acquisition and analysis methods instrument will have an error Dw that will be a function
for vibrational sensitivity without rederiving the funda- of a number of parameters, including the actual phase
mental formulas. This is shown by a series of example angle u:
calculations that clearly show the relative merits of dif-
ferent PSI algorithms.
Dwsu, . . .d wsu, . . .d 2 u . (7)
phase-dependent vibrational noise signal nsfd can be rep- ditive constant or as a ripple in the data at twice the
resented by a noise spectrum frequency of the normal interference variation.
To keep the final equations for the examples given in gj gfu, s jpy2 2 py4dg (45)
Section 4 reasonably compact, it is convenient to define
and the bucket length b py2. The data-sampling func-
Bn61 Bsn 6 1d . (39) tions for the three-bucket algorithm are
As a final note to this section regarding the gen- hS sfd dsf 2 5py4d 2 dsf 2 3py4d ,
eral mathematical method, it is useful to note that the
typical PSI algorithm may be described mathematically hC sfd dsf 2 py4d 2 dsf 2 3py4d . (46)
as a weighted, linear sum of intensity samples at discrete
phase intervals fj :
Following Eqs. (42), we find that the corresponding nor-
P malized spectra for these sampling functions work out
hS sfd hS, j dsf 2 fj d , to be
j
P
hC sfd hC, j dsf 2 fj d . (40) p
j HS sn̂d 2i 2 sinsp n̂y4dexps2ip n̂d ,
p
These functions are devised in such a way that, for un- HC sn̂d i 2 sinsp n̂y4dexps2ip n̂y2d . (47)
corrupted intensity data sampled instantaneously at the
indicated phase intervals, The coefficients of the phase-error transfer function
2P 3 P sn, ud for the three-bucket algorithm are
hS, j gsu, fj d
6j 7
u tan21 6
4P
7. (41) i expsi3npy4dcossnp4d
hC, j gsu, fj d 5 P0 snd sBn11 1 Bn21 d
j 2
3 cossnpy4d 1 sBn11 2 Bn21 dsinsnpy4d ,
The Fourier transforms of these discrete sampling func-
tions normalized to qy2p are i expsi3npy4dcossnp4d
P1 snd sBn11 1 Bn21 d
2
1 X 3 cossnpy4d 1 sBn11 2 Bn21 dsinsnpy4d ,
HS sn̂d hS, j exps2ifj n̂d ,
q j
expsi3npy4dsinsnp4d
1 X P2 snd 2 sBn11 2 Bn21 d
HC sn̂d hC, j exps2ifj n̂d , (42) 2
q j
3 cossnpy4d 1 sBn11 1 Bn21 dsinsnpy4d . (48)
where, from Eq. (23),
B. Four-Bucket Algorithm
P P
q hS, j sins2fj d hC, j cossfj d . (43) In terms of overall performance, the four-bucket al-
j j gorithm is a significant improvement over the three-
bucket algorithm, at the cost of slightly greater memory
These observations are useful in the examples given requirements.16 One form of the four-bucket algorithm
below. is represented by the idealized equation
Peter J. de Groot Vol. 12, No. 2 / February 1995 / J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 359
√ !
g2 2 g4 sBn11 1 Bn21 d
u tan 21 , (49) P0 snd cossnpy2dcos2 snpy4d ,
g3 2 g1 2
sBn11 1 Bn21 d
where P1 snd cossnpy2dsin2 snpy4d ,
2
gj gfu, s jpy2 2 pdg (50) sBn11 2 Bn21 d
P2 snd i cossnpy2dsin2 snpy4d . (56)
and the bucket length b py2. The corresponding nor- 2
malized spectra for the sampling functions are
D. Seven-Bucket Algorithm
HS sn̂d i sinsp n̂y2d , One way of further enhancing the performance of PSI is
to use windowing concepts that are very well known in
HC sn̂d sin2 sp n̂y2d 2 siy2dsinsp n̂d . (51) signal-processing disciplines.20 The larger the data set,
the more accurately the data set can be windowed. Thus
The coefficients of the phase-error transfer function it is possible to increase the insensitivity to variations in
P sn, ud for the four-bucket algorithm are the phase increment by using more than five buckets.
∑ A recently introduced seven-bucket algorithm21 based
sBn11 1 Bn21 d on the von Hann window is represented by the idealized
P0 snd cossnpy2dcos2 snpy4d
2 equation
∏
i
2 sinsnpd , " #
4 7sg2 2 g4 d 2 sg0 2 g6 d ,
∑ u tan 21
(57)
sBn11 1 Bn21 d 8g3 2 4sg1 1 g5 d
P1 snd cossnpy2dsin2 snpy4d
2
∏
i where
1 sinsnpd ,
4
∑ gj gfu, s jpy2 2 3py2dg (58)
sBn11 2 Bn21 d
P2 snd cossnpy2dsin2 snpy4d
2
∏ and the bucket length b py2. The corresponding nor-
i
1 sinsnpd . (52) malized spectra for the sampling functions are
4
C. Schwider – Hariharan Algorithm HS sn̂d i sinsp n̂y2d 2 siy8dfsins3p n̂y2d 1 sinsp n̂y2dg ,
A PSI algorithm based on five intensity samples was in-
HC sn̂d sin2 sp n̂y2d . (59)
troduced by Schwider et al.17 and was later popularized
by Hariharan et al.18 and by Greivenkamp and Bruning.19
One of the most attractive features of the method is its The coefficients of the phase-error transfer function
relative insensitivity to variations in the phase incre- P sn, ud for the seven-bucket algorithm are
ment in comparison with traditional three- and four-
bucket algorithms. This advantage is important for ∑
large-aperture interferometry because of the difficulty cossnpy2dcos2 snpy4d
P0 snd sBn11 1 Bn21 d
in precisely calibrating the piezoelectric transducer (PZT) 2
pushers that perform the phase stepping and because of ∏
coss3npy2d 2 cossnpy2d ,
complications that arise with fast spherical cavities. 1
32
The five-bucket algorithm may be represented by the
∑
idealized equation cossnpy2dsin2 snpy4d
P1 snd sBn11 1 Bn21 d
" # 2
2sg2 2 g4 d , ∏
u tan 21
(53) coss3npy2d 2 cossnpy2d ,
2g3 2 g1 2 g5 1
32
∑
where cossnpy2dsin2 snpy4d
P2 snd isBn11 2 Bn21 d
gj gfu, s jpy2 2 3py2dg (54) 2
∏
coss3npy2d 2 cossnpy2d .
and the bucket length b py2. The corresponding nor- 1 (60)
32
malized spectra for the sampling functions are
the intensity spectrum. However, these algorithms also corresponds to the superposition of three vibrations of
have a high sensitivity to odd-harmonic distortions. Re- different frequency, phase, and amplitude. One can use
cently, Larkin and Oreb proposed a new algorithm that, artificial signals of this kind to verify numerically the va-
without sacrificing insensitivity to even-order harmonics, lidity of the equations derived by the linear approach. To
is specifically designed to be insensitive to intensity dis- this end, the vibration shown in Fig. 2 is added to a pure
tortions having a frequency of n̂ 3.22 The algorithm sinusoidal signal, and the resulting error is calculated nu-
has excellent performance when used in projection moiré merically by use of the Schwider –Hariharan algorithm as
interferometry. it appears in Eq. (53). The numerical calculation takes
The Larkin – Oreb algorithm is represented by the ide- into account the effect of the integrating buckets by aver-
alized equation aging ten values for each intensity sample gj over a phase
range of 6py4 in the neighborhood of each sample phase
( " #) f. The resulting phase error Dwsud for the numerical
p g2 1 g3 2 g5 2 g6 1 sg7 2 g1 dy3
u tan 21
3 , simulation is plotted in Fig. 3. Also shown in Fig. 3 is
2g1 2 g2 1 g3 1 2g4 1 g5 2 g6 2 g7
the result of the analytical approach, based on the vibra-
(61) tional noise spectrum and the phase-error transfer func-
tion P sn, ud. The close correspondence to the numerical
where calculation is typical for phase errors below 1 rad. Simu-
lations of this type confirm the usefulness of the linear ap-
gj gfu, s jpy3 2 4py3dg (62) proximation for complex vibrations.
and the bucket length b py3. The corresponding nor- 7. VIBRATIONS OF RANDOM PHASE
malized spectra for the sampling functions are
In many practical situations we know something about
p ∑ ∏ the frequency content of vibrational noise in a given en-
3 1
HS sn̂d i sinsp n̂d 2 sinsp n̂y3d 2 sinsp2n̂y3d ,
3 3
∑ ∏
1
HC sn̂d 2cossp n̂d 2 cossp2n̂y3d 1 1 1 cossp n̂y3d .
3
(63)
sBn11 1 Bn21 d
P0 snd fcossnpy3d 1 cossn2py3d
6
p
3 sBn11 2 Bn21 d
1 cos2 snpy2dg 1 sinsnpd ,
36
sBn11 1 Bn21 d
P1 snd fcossnpy3d 1 cossn2py3d
12
p
3 sBn11 2 Bn21 d Fig. 2. Vibrational noise signal used for a numerical simulation
2 2 cos snpy2dg 1
2
of phase error.
36
3 fsinsnpd 2 3 sinsn2py3d 1 3 sinsnpy3dg ,
sBn11 2 Bn21 d
P2 snd i fcossnpy3d 1 cossn2py3d
12
p
i 3 sBn11 1 Bn21 d
2 2 cos2 snpy2dg 1
36
3 fsinsnpd 2 3 sinsn2py3d 1 3 sinsnpy3dg . (64)
6. NUMERICAL SIMULATION
Now that the phase-error transfer functions P sn, ud for
a few common PSI algorithms have been calculated, it is
straightforward to predict the response to various types
of vibration. The small-amplitude, linear approach to vi-
brational noise contributions to PSI measurement errors
can be used for any noise source that can be represented
Fig. 3. Comparison of a numerical simulation of phase error
by a spectrum of complex coefficients Nsnd. with the theoretical predictions based on the phase-error transfer
An example of a vibrational noise is provided by the function P sn, ud. The close correspondence is typical of phase
computer-generated signal nsfd shown in Fig. 2, which errors of less than 1 rad.
Peter J. de Groot Vol. 12, No. 2 / February 1995 / J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 361
1 Z pZ p
fEn scd g2 RefAn P0 sn, udexpsiadg2 duda .
4p 2 2p 2p
(68)
srd 2 1 Z pZ p
fEn g RehAn fP sn, ud 2 P0 sn, udg
4p 2 2p 2p
3 expsiadj2duda . (69)
1 Z pZ p
Csnd2 csn, a, ud2 duda , (70)
4p 2 2p 2p
1 Z pZ p
Rsnd2 rsn, a, ud2 duda , (71)
Fig. 4. Predicted rms phase-measurement errors for the three- 4p 2 2p 2p
bucket algorithm with instantaneous phase sampling sb 0d.
The vertical scale is normalized to the vibrational amplitude,
and the horizontal scale is normalized to the phase-shift rate, in
units of 2p radyunit time. The upper graph refers to the errors
En srd periodic in the phase angle, whereas the lower graph refers
to the constant offset error En scd .
9. EXPERIMENT
A suitable apparatus for experimental verification of the
theoretical method is shown in Fig. 10. Two different
PZT translators control the position of the objective in
an interference microscope. The first PZT provides the
conventional phase-shift ramp, whereas the second intro-
duces additional motion that mimics the effects of me-
chanical vibration. The waveform generator in the figure
determines the frequency and the amplitude of the vibra-
tion. The camera acquires data at 25 Hz, so the ramp
covers 2p rad of interference phase 6.25 timesys. For
this camera a vibrational frequency of 6.25 Hz is there-
fore normalized to 1.
Figure 11 shows the experimentally determined sensi-
tivity of the interferometer to vibration as a function of
frequency when the five-bucket algorithm is used. Given
the small size of the errors and the difficulty of isolat-
Fig. 8. Predicted rms phase-measurement errors for the seven- ing the various error sources, the agreement is quite
bucket algorithm calculated with an integrating bucket of length good. We can see all the important characteristics of
b py2. This algorithm has the lowest overall sensitivity to
vibration, particularly in the low-frequency region sn , 1d.
10. CONCLUSIONS
A generally acknowledged drawback of phase-shifting in-
terferometry is its sensitivity to vibration. The present
study both confirms and qualifies this assertion. It is
true that for most common forms of PSI there are certain
vibrational frequencies that will invariably introduce er- Fig. 12. Experimental demonstration of the improvement in
performance when the seven-bucket algorithm is used. This is
rors, and the best insurance against these errors is me- the phase-error map for an interferometer in the presence of the
chanical isolation. However, if the frequency spectrum same 1-Hz vibration used when generating Fig. 1. The periodic
of the vibration is reasonably well defined, it is often pos- error is suppressed, as predicted by the theory.
Peter J. de Groot Vol. 12, No. 2 / February 1995 / J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 365
much to improve PSI performance without substantially 11. K. Freischlad and C. L. Koliopoulos, “Fourier description of
changing the hardware. digital phase-measuring interferometry,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A
7, 542 – 551 (1990).
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to write, but it is even more difficult to review. I had the symmetrical phase-shifting algorithms,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A
9, 1740 – 1748 (1992).
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the quality and the consistency of the mathematical treat- “An optical profilometer for surface characterization of mag-
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Proc. Soc. Photo-Opt. Instrum. Eng. 680, 19 – 28 (1986). 23. The orthogonality of the functions P1 snd, P2 snd in phase
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5082 – 5089 (1988). a simultaneous phase shift of both P1 snd and P2 snd.
ERRATA
Peter J. de Groot
Zygo Corporation, Laurel Brook Road, Middlefield, Connecticut 06455
REFERENCE
1. P. J. de Groot, “Vibration in phase-shifting interferometry,”
J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 12, 354 – 365 (1995).