Technical

1.
Introduction
Styrene (phenylethene, vinylbenzene, phenylethylene, styrol, cinna-mene), C6H5CH–CH2, is the simplest and by far the most
important member of a series of aromatic monomers. Also known commercially as styrene monomer (SM), styrene is produced in
large quantities for polymerization. It is a versatile monomer extensively used for the manufacture of plastics, including crystalline
polystyrene, rubber-modified impact polystyrene, expandable polystyrene, acry-lonitrile–butadiene–styrene copolymer (ABS),
styrene– acrylonitrile resins (SAN), styrene– butadiene latex, styrene– butadiene rubber (qv) (SBR), and
unsaturated polyester resins (see ACRYLONITRILE POLYMERS, SURVEY AND STYRENE-ACRYLONITRILE (SAN); STYRENE
PLASTICS).
2. History
Styrene was first isolated in the nineteenth century from the distillation of storax, a natural balsam. Although it was known to
polymerize, no commercial applications were attempted for many years because the polymers were brittle and readily cracked.
The development of dehydrogenation processes by I. G. Far-ben in Germany and Dow Chemical in the United States during the
1930s was the first step toward the modern styrene technology. Several plants were built in Germany before World War II to
produce styrene, primarily for making synthetic rubber. It also became a material of strategic importance in the United States
when the supply of nature rubber from South Asia was cut off from the Allied countries’s access, and large-scale plants were built.
After the war the demand for styrene monomer continued to grow, but its main use has shifted from syn-thetic rubber to
polystyrene. Polystyrene (PS) accounts for 65% of the total styr-ene demand. The production of styrene in the United States was
2.0 million metric tons in 1970, which increased to 3.2 Â 106 t in 1980 and 5.8 Â 106 t in 2004. Rapid growth has also been seen
in Western Europe and Japan and, since the 1980s in the Pacific Rim. Many factors contribute to its growth: it is a liquid that can
be handled easily and safely, it can be polymerized and copoly-merized under a variety of conditions by common methods of
plastics technology to a large number of polymers of different properties and applications, polystyr-ene is easy to extrude and
mold and is one of the least expensive thermoplastics volumetrically, the raw materials benzene and ethylene are produced in
very large quantities in refineries and can be supplied to styrene plants through pipe-lines, and the manufacturing technologies
are efficient and plants can be built on a large scale to produce styrene at low cost.
Two process routes are used commercially for the manufacture of styrene: dehydrogenation and coproduction with propylene
oxide. Both routes use ethyl-benzene as the intermediate; ethylbenzene is made from benzene and ethylene. The manufacture of
styrene via ethylbenzene consumes more than 50% of the commercial benzene in the world. The great majority of the
ethylbenzene and styrene plants are based on licensed technologies which are available at rather modest licensing fees. Styrene
is a commodity chemical traded in large volumes domestically and internationally. The product specifications are largely dictated
by the market. The minimum purity is usually 99.8%, which can be easily met in a well-operated plant of modern design. Some
producers choose to have their plants designed to produce high purity styrene at a small incremental investment to gain
marketing advantages and in anticipation of its future demand. Production of 99.95% styrene could become routine as a result of
recent advances in manufacturing technology.
The commodity nature of the product and the easy access to the licensed processes enable new producers, particularly in
developing countries, to enter the global styrene merchant market with little experience in styrene technology. Access to
ethylene, which cannot be easily transported by means other than pipe-lines, is a key factor in considering new styrene facilities.
Timing, or luck, is even more important because the supply and demand of styrene are seldom in balance and the price fluctuates
broadly and rapidly as a result
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3. Industrial production from ethylbenzene
The modern method for production of styrene by dehydrogenation of ethylbenzene was first achieved in the 1930s.[18] The
production of styrene increased dramatically during the 1940s, when it was used as a feedstock for synthetic rubber. Because
styrene is produced on such a large scale, ethylbenzene is in turn prepared on a prodigious scale
(by alkylation of benzene with ethylene).[18] Ethylbenzene is mixed in the gas phase with 10–15 times its volume of high-
temperature steam, and passed over a solid catalyst bed. Most ethylbenzene dehydrogenation catalysts are based on iron(III)
oxide, promoted by several percent potassium oxide or potassium carbonate.
Steam serves several roles in this reaction. It is the source of heat for powering the endothermic reaction, and it removes coke
that tends to form on the iron oxide catalyst through the water gas shift reaction. The potassium promoter enhances this
decoking reaction. The steam also dilutes the reactant and products, shifting the position of chemical equilibrium towards
products. A typical styrene plant consists of two or three reactors in series, which operate under vacuum to enhance the
conversion and selectivity. Typical per-pass conversions are ca. 65% for two reactors and 70-75% for three reactors. Selectivity to
styrene is 93-97%. The main byproducts are benzene and toluene. Because styrene and ethylbenzene have similar boiling points
(145 and 136 °C, respectively), their separation requires tall distillation towers and high return/reflux ratios. At its distillation
temperatures, styrene tends to polymerize. To minimize this problem, early styrene plants added elemental sulfur to inhibit the
polymerization. During the 1970s, new free radical inhibitors consisting of nitrated phenol-based retarders were developed. More
recently, a number of additives have been developed that exhibit superior inhibition against polymerization. However, the nitrated
phenols are still widely used because of their relatively low cost. These reagents are added prior to the distillation.
Improving conversion and so reducing the amount of ethylbenzene that must be separated is the chief impetus for researching
alternative routes to styrene. Other than the POSM process, none of these routes such as obtaining styrene from butadiene have
been commercially demonstrated.
Other industrial routes
3.1 From ethylbenzene hydroperoxide
Styrene is also co-produced commercially in a process known as POSM (Lyondell Chemical Company) or SM/PO (Shell) for styrene
monomer / propylene oxide. In this process ethylbenzene is treated with oxygen to form the ethylbenzene hydroperoxide. This
hydroperoxide is then used to oxidize propylene to propylene oxide. The resulting 1-phenylethanol is dehydrated to give styrene:
3.2 From toluene and methanol

Styrene can be produced from and methanol, which are cheaper raw materials than those in the conventional process. This
process has suffered from low selectivity associated with the competing decomposition of methanol.[19] Exelus Inc. claims to
have developed this process with commercially viable selectivities, at 400-425 °C and atmospheric pressure, by forcing these
components through a proprietary zeolitic catalyst. It is reported[20] that an approximately 9:1 mixture of styrene
and ethylbenzene is obtained, with a total styrene yield of over 60%.[21]
3.3 From benzene and ethane
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Another route to styrene involves the reaction of benzene and ethane. This process is being developed by Snamprogetti S.p.A. Formatted: Font: (Default) Tahoma, 16 pt, Font color:
and Dow. Ethane, along with ethylbenzene, is fed to a dehydrogenation reactor with a catalyst capable of simultaneously Text 1
producing styrene and ethylene. The dehydrogenation effluent is cooled and separated and the ethylene stream is recycled to
2
the alkylation unit. The process attempts to overcome previous shortcomings in earlier attempts to develop production of
styrene from ethane and benzene, such as inefficient recovery of aromatics, production of high levels of heavies and tars, and
inefficient separation of hydrogen and ethane. Development of the process is ongoing
4 Industrial production from Benzene to styrene
4.1 Process description from Benzene to ethylbenzene
In this process we used two reactors in series(R-100 , R-101), two distillation columns (T-100 , T-101) and two liquid recycle
streams. It is a nice example of a multiunit complex process that is typical of many chemical plants found in industry.
The ethylbenzene process involves gaseous ethylene into the liquid phase of the first of two CSTR reactors in series. Both the
reactors operate at high pressure to maintain liquid in the reactor at high temperatures required for reasonable reaction rates. A
large liquid benzene stream is fed to the first reactor. The heat of exothermic reaction is removed by generating steam in this
reactor.
Effluent from first reactor R-100 at 161 C and 20 atm is fed into second reactor along with recycle stream 8 of Di-ethyl benzene.
This reactor is adiabatic. Effluent from second reactor R-101 at 159 C and 19 atm is fed to a distillation column that produces a
distillate that is mostly benzene, which is recycled to first reactor along with fresh feed of make-up benzene. Bottom stream is a
mixture of ethylbenzene and Di-ethyl benzene. It is fed to a second distillation column that produces ethylbenzene that inlet to R-
102 and Di-ethyl benzene bottoms, which is recycled back to second reactor.
4.2 Process description from ethylbenzene to styrene
In this process, styrene is manufactured by the dehydrogenation of ethyl benzene in Unit 100. The reaction is endothermic,
reversible, and limited by equilibrium. Reaction occurs at high temperature (800 - 950 K) and low pressure (0.4 - 1.4 bar) in order
to shift the equilibrium to the right to favor styrene production. Ethylbenzene mixed with steam (produced from the fired heater
E-102) to provide the heat of reaction and to serve as an inert diluent to help shift the reaction to the right. The steam to ethyl
benzene ratio entering R-102 in Stream 6 ranges between 6 and 12. Steam also tends to limit side reactions and helps to extend
catalyst life by reducing coke formation on the catalyst. In reactor R-102 the process uses a proprietary iron catalyst that
minimizes (but does not eliminate) side reactions at higher temperatures. For simplicity, assume that the only side reaction that
occurs in R-102 is the hydrogenation of ethyl benzene to form toluene and methane.
The primary reaction is equilibrium limited and is assumed to approach 80% of equilibrium. The selectivity of the toluene side
reaction is a function of reactor temperature. The reactor effluent, Stream 7, is cooled in E-103 to produce steam and then enters
a three-phase separator (V-100). The bottom phase of V-100 is waste water stream (Stream 11), which must be decanted and
sent for further processing before discharge. Stream 9 leaves the top of the separator and contains all the light gases (methane
and hydrogen) and can be used as a fuel gas. Stream 10 contains most of the toluene, ethyl benzene, and styrene. Stream 10
flows through a pressure reducing valve and then enters a distillation train (T-102 and T-103) where most of the toluene is
removed at the top of first column (T-102) in Stream 17. The remaining toluene and all the ethyl benzene and styrene leaving the
bottom of this column in Stream 15 enter the second column (T-103). From T-103, Stream 20 is recycled and mixed with fresh
ethyl benzene before the reactor. The bottom product of T-103 leaving in Stream 18 contains the styrene leaving Unit 100.
4.21 Process Details
Feed Streams
Stream 11: fresh ethyl benzene, assume available as a liquid at 30 C.
Stream 18: low-pressure process steam available from elsewhere in the plant, to be superheated and used as diluent and heat
source for mixture entering reactor in Stream 13.
Effluent Streams
Stream 16: light-gas stream of hydrogen and methane with traces of water vapor and small amounts of ethyl benzene and
toluene. Take credit as a fuel gas for hydrogen and methane in this stream only.
Stream 20: 99.5% pure toluene with small amounts of ethyl benzene and styrene. The toluene in Stream 20 is at least 95% of
the toluene produced. This stream can be sold as byproduct, but it should not exceed 2% of styrene production.
Stream 22: styrene crude product of at least 99.5 wt% purity, 100,000 metric tons/yr, with small amounts of ethyl benzene. The
styrene in Stream 22 is at least 98% of the styrene entering the distillation train.
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Stream 20: waste water stream from V-100; assume to be pure water for this design project, but Stream 17 must be processed at
the associated waste-water treatment cost. Formatted: Font: (Default) Tahoma, 16 pt, Font color:
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Recycle Stream.
3
Stream 21: primarily ethyl benzene with some toluene and styrene; assume this stream leaves the top of T-102 as a saturated
liquid at 60 kPa.
5 Health and Safety Factors
Styrene is mildly toxic, flammable, and can be made to polymerize violently under certain conditions. However, handled
according to proper procedures, it is a relatively safe organic chemical. Styrene vapor has an odor threshold of 50–150
ppm (60,61).
Styrene is listed in the U.S. Toxic Substance Control Act (TSCA) Inventory of Chemicals. It is confirmed as a carcinogen.
The recommended exposure limits are OSHA PEL 50 ppm, ACGIH TLV 20 ppm (62). For higher concentrations,
NIOSH/MSHA-approved respiratory protection devices should be used. For skin protection, use of protective garments
and gloves of Viton, Nitrile, or PVA construction should be made. The acute effects of overexposure to styrene are shown
in Table 4 (63) .
Styrene liquid is inflammable and has sufficient vapor pressure at slightly elevated temperatures to form explosive
mixtures with air, as shown in Figure 6. Uninhibited styrene polymerizes slowly at room temperature, and the polymer-
ization rate increases with the temperature. Styrene polymerization is exother-mic and this can cause the reaction to run
awry. Polymerization can be inhibited by the presence of 10 ppm or more of TBC. Oxygen is necessary for effective action
of the inhibitor (64). It is recommended that air be added periodically to the storage vessels, which are blanketed with
an inert gas. Properly inhibited and attended, styrene can be stored for an extended period of time. In climates where
the average daily temperature in excess of 278C is common, refrigeration of bulk storage is recommended (65). Copper
and copper alloys should not be used in the handling or storage of styrene, because copper can dissolve in styrene to
cause discoloration and interferes with polymerization.
6 Uses
(1) Styrene is mainly used as raw material for polystyrene, synthetic rubber, plastics, ion exchange resins, etc.
(2) The most important use is as monomer for synthetic rubber and plastics, it is used to produce styrene-butadiene rubber,
polystyrene, polystyrene foam; it is also used as other copolymerizable monomers to manufacture many different applications of
engineering plastics. For copolymerization of acrylonitrile and butadiene can obtain ABS resin, it is widely used for a variety of
household appliances and industry; SAN which obtained by copolymerization of acrylonitrile is impact-resistant, bright color resin;
SBS which obtained by copolymerization of butadiene is thermoplastic rubber, it is widely used as polyvinyl chloride,
polypropylene modifiers and the like. In addition, small amount of styrene is also used as spice and other intermediates. Styrene
which obtained by chloromethylation cinnamyl chloride is used as non-narcotic analgesics strong pain intermediates, styrene is
also used as antitussive and expectorant cough triazine easy, anticholinergics glycopyrrolate original drug.
(3) It is used for organic synthesis and synthetic resins.
(4) It is used for the preparation of copper brightener, and has effect of leveling and bright.
(5) It is used in table food, cake food, condiments, desserts, snacks, all kinds of canned food, candy. Variety of drinks, especially
yogurt, lactic acid bacteria drinks, carbonated drinks and other acidic beverages.
(6) It is used for electron microscopic analysis, organic synthesis.
(7) it is used for the manufacture of polystyrene (PS), expanded polystyrene (EPS), acrylonitrile-styrene copolymers (SAN)
(8) it is used for the production of unsaturated resin (UPR), synthetic resins and protective coatings.
(9) it is used for the production of styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR), styrene-butadiene latex (SBL), a thermoplastic styrene-
butadiene rubber (SBS), and other products.
(10) it is used for the production of polyethylene, styrene plastics (such as ABS, AAS, etc.), raw material resin,
medicine and other ion exchange.. Uses
Commercial styrene is used almost entirely for the manufacture of polymers. Polystyrene accounts for
61% of the worldwide demand for styrene. The rest is for manufacture of copolymers: ABS/SAN,
14%; SBR and SBR latex, 10%; UPR, 5%; others, 11% (59).

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Packaging applications are the main use for PS. Food
containers, and disposable tableware; toys; furniture, appliances, television cabinets, and sports
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goods; and electrical and electronic parts are the remaining markets. For some of these applications,
4
PS is modified by blending or graft poly-merization with SBR to form impact polystyrene, which is less
sensitive to break-age. Expandable polystyrene is widely used in construction for thermal insulation.
ABS are in sewer pipes, vehicle parts, appliance parts, business machine casings, sports goods,
luggage, and toys.
SB latex is used in paper coatings, car-
pet backing, paper adhesives, cement additives, and latex paint.
8.4. Styrene–Butadiene Rubber (SBR). This elastomer is used pri-marily in tires, vehicle parts,
industrial hose and belting, and consumer goods.
8.5. Unsaturated Polyester Resins (UPR). The principal uses are in putty, coatings, and
adhesives. Glass-reinforced UPR is used for marine con-struction, and vehicle materials, as well as for
electrical parts.
7 physical properties of inlet and effluent

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Physical properties of Hydrogen
Phase at STP gas
Melting point 13.99 K (−259.16 °C, −434.49 °F) Formatted: Font: (Default) Tahoma, 16 pt, Font color:
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Boiling point 20.271 K (−252.879 °C,
−423.182 °F)
Density (at STP) 0.08988 g/L
when liquid 0.07 g/cm3(solid: 0.0763 g/cm3)[1]

(at m.p.)
when liquid 0.07099 g/cm3

(at b.p.)
Triple point 13.8033 K, 7.041 kPa
Critical point 32.938 K, 1.2858 MPa
Heat of fusion (H2) 0.117 kJ/mol
Heat of (H2) 0.904 kJ/mol

vaporization
Molar heat (H2) 28.836 J/(mol·K)

capacity
Physical properties of carbon dioxide
Chemical formula CO2
Molar mass 44.01 g·mol−1
Appearance Colorless gas
 Low concentrations: none

Odor
 High concentrations: sharp;
acidic[1]
Density  1562 kg/m3 (solid at 1 atm and

−78.5 °C)
 1101 kg/m3 (liquid at saturation
−37°C)
 1.977 kg/m3 (gas at 1 atm and
0 °C)
Melting point −56.6 °C; −69.8 °F; 216.6 K Text 1
(Triple point at 5.1 atm) Formatted: Font: (Default) Tahoma, 16 pt, Font color:
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Sublimation −78.5 °C; −109.2 °F; 194.7 K (1
conditions
atm)
Solubility in water 1.45 g/L at 25 °C (77 °F), 100

kPa
Vapor pressure 5.73 MPa (20 °C)
Acidity (pKa) 6.35, 10.33
Magnetic −20.5·10−6 cm3/mol

susceptibility (χ)
Refractive index(nD) 1.00045
Viscosity 0.07 cP at −78.5 °C
Physical properties of Benzene
Chemical formula C6H6
Appearance Colorless liquid
Odor Aromatic, gasoline-like
Density 0.8765(20) g/cm3[2]
Melting point 5.53 °C (41.95 °F; 278.68 K)
Boiling point 80.1 °C (176.2 °F; 353.2 K)
Solubility in water 1.53 g/L (0 °C)

1.81 g/L (9 °C)
1.79 g/L (15 °C)[3][4][5]
1.84 g/L (30 °C)
2.26 g/L (61 °C)
3.94 g/L (100 °C)
21.7 g/kg (200 °C, 6.5 MPa)
17.8 g/kg (200 °C, 40 MPa)[6]
Solubility Soluble
in alcohol, CHCl3, CCl4, diethyl
ether, acetone, acetic acid[6]
Solubility in ethanediol 5.83 g/100 g (20 °C)

6.61 g/100 g (40 °C)
7.61 g/100 g (60 °C)[6] Formatted: Font: (Default) Tahoma, 16 pt, Font color:
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Solubility in ethanol 20 °C, solution in water:
1.2 mL/L (20% v/v)[7]
Solubility in acetone 20 °C, solution in water:

7.69 mL/L (38.46% v/v)
49.4 mL/L (62.5% v/v)[7]
Solubility in diethylene 52 g/100 g (20 °C)[6]

glycol
log P 2.13
Vapor pressure 12.7 kPa (25 °C)

24.4 kPa (40 °C)
181 kPa (100 °C)[8]
UV-vis (λmax) 255 nm
Magnetic -54.8·10−6 cm3/mol

susceptibility (χ)
Refractive index(nD) 1.5011 (20 °C)

1.4948 (30 °C)[6]
Viscosity 0.7528 cP (10 °C)

0.6076 cP (25 °C)
0.4965 cP (40 °C)
0.3075 cP (80 °C)
Physical properties of Ethylene
Molar mass 28.05 g/mol
Appearance colorless gas
Density 1.178 kg/m3 at 15 °C, gas[1]
Melting point −169.2 °C (−272.6 °F;

104.0 K)
Boiling point −103.7 °C (−154.7 °F;

169.5 K)
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Solubility in water 3.5 mg/100 mL (17 °C); [citation
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2.9 mg/L[2]
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Solubility in ethanol 4.22 mg/L[2]
Solubility in diethyl good[2]

ether
Acidity (pKa) 44

susceptibility (χ)
Properties of Water
Chemical H2O
formula
Molar mass 18.01528(33) g/mol
Appearance White solid or almost colorless, transparent, with a slight hint of blue, crystalline solid or liquid[2]
Odor None
Density Liquid:[3]
0.9998396 g/mL at 0 °C
0.9970474 g/mL at 25 °C
0.961893 g/mL at 95 °C
Solid:[4]
0.9167 g/ml at 0 °C
Melting point 0.00 °C (32.00 °F; 273.15 K) [a]
Boiling point 99.98 °C (211.96 °F; 373.13 K) [5][a]
Solubility Poorly soluble in haloalkanes, aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, ethers.[6] Improved solubility
in carboxylates, alcohols, ketones, amines. Miscible
with methanol, ethanol, propanol, isopropanol, acetone, glycerol, 1,4-
dioxane, tetrahydrofuran, sulfolane, acetaldehyde, dimethylformamide, dimethoxyethane, dimethyl
sulfoxide, acetonitrile. Partially miscible with Diethyl ether, Methyl Ethyl
Ketone, Dichloromethane, Ethyl Acetate, Bromine.
Vapor 3.1690 kilopascals or 0.031276 atm[7]

pressure
Acidity (pKa) 13.995[8][9][b]

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Basicity (pKb) 13.995
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Conjugate Hydronium
acid
Conjugate Hydroxide
base
Thermal 0.6065 W/(m·K)[12]

conductivity
Refractive 1.3330 (20 °C)[13]

index(nD)
Viscosity 0.890 cP[14]
Properties of Toluene
Appearance Colorless liquid[2]
Odor sweet, pungent, benzene-

like[3]
Density 0.87 g/mL (20 °C)[2]
Melting point −95 °C (−139 °F; 178 K)[2]
Boiling point 111 °C (232 °F; 384 K)[2]
Solubility in water 0.52 g/L (20 °C)[2]
log P 2.68[4]
Vapor pressure 2.8 kPa (20°C)[3]

susceptibility (χ)
Refractive index(nD) 1.497 (20 °C)
Properties of Methane Formatted: Font: (Default) Tahoma, 16 pt, Font color:

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Chemical Formatted: Font: (Default) Tahoma, 16 pt, Font color:

CH4 Text 1
formula
11
Appearance Colorless gas
Odor Odorless
 0.657 g·L−1 (gas, 25 °C, 1 atm)

Density
 0.717 g·L−1 (gas, 0 °C, 1 atm)
 422.62 g·L−1 (liquid, −162 °C)[2]
Melting point −182.5 °C; −296.4 °F; 90.7 K
Boiling point −164.00 °C; −263.20 °F; 109.15 K[3]
Solubility in 22.7 mg·L−1

water
Solubility Soluble in ethanol, diethyl

ether, benzene, toluene, methanol, acetone and
insoluble in water
log P 1.09
Henry's law 14 nmol·Pa−1·kg−1

constant (kH)
Magnetic −12.2×10−6 cm3·mol−1

susceptibility (χ)
Properties Ethylbenzene
Appearance colorless liquid
Odor aromatic[1]
Density 0.8665 g/mL
Melting point −95 °C (−139 °F; 178 K)
Boiling point 136 °C (277 °F; 409 K)
Solubility in water 0.015 g/100 mL (20 °C)
log P 3.27

Vapor pressure 9.998mmHg Text 1
Magnetic susceptibility (χ) -77.20·10−6 cm3/mol Text 1
12
Refractive index(nD) 1.495
Viscosity 0.669 cP at 20 °C
Physical properties of oxygen
Phase at STP gas
Melting point 54.36 K (−218.79 °C,

−361.82 °F)
Boiling point 90.188 K (−182.962 °C,

−297.332 °F)
Density (at STP) 1.429 g/L
when liquid 1.141 g/cm3

(at b.p.)
Heat of fusion (O2) 0.444 kJ/mol
Heat of (O2) 6.82 kJ/mol

vaporization
Molar heat (O2) 29.378 J/(mol·K)

capacity

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8. Uses Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", Line spacing: Exactly 10
Formatted: Line spacing: Exactly 10 pt

Commercial styrene is used almost entirely for the manufacture of polymers. Polystyrene Formatted: Left, Indent: Left: 0", Right: 0", Line
accounts for 61% of the worldwide demand for styrene. The rest is for manufacture of
copolymers: ABS/SAN, 14%; SBR and SBR latex, 10%; UPR, 5%; others, 11% (59). spacing: Exactly 10 pt

Packaging applications are the main use for PS. Food containers, and disposable tableware; Formatted: Left, Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0", Right:
toys; furniture, appliances, television cabinets, and sports goods; and electrical and
electronic parts are the remaining markets. For some of 0", Line spacing: Exactly 10 pt
these 8.1. Polystyrene (PS). applications, PS is modified by blending
or graft polymerization with SBR to form impact
polystyrene, which is less sensitive to break-age. Expandable polystyrene is widely used in
construction for thermal insulation.
ABS are in sewer pipes, vehicle parts, appliance parts, business machine casings, sports Formatted: Left, Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0", Right:
goods, luggage, and toys.
0", Line spacing: Exactly 10 pt
8.2. Acrylonitrile–Butadiene–Styrene Copolymer (ABS).
SB latex is used in paper coatings, car- Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", Line spacing: Exactly 10
pet backing, paper adhesives, cement Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", Line spacing: Exactly 10
additives, and latex paint.
8.4. Styrene–Butadiene Rubber (SBR). This elastomer is used pri-marily in tires, vehicle Formatted: Left, Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0", Right:
parts, industrial hose and belting, and consumer goods.
0", Line spacing: Exactly 10 pt
8.5. Unsaturated Polyester Resins (UPR). The principal uses are in putty, coatings, and Formatted: Left, Indent: Left: 0", First line: 0", Right:
adhesives. Glass-reinforced UPR is used for marine con-struction, and vehicle materials, as
well as for electrical parts. 0", Line spacing: Exactly 10 pt

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Physical properties of Hydrogen Formatted: Left, Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
spacing: Exactly 10 pt
Phase at STP gas
Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
Melting point 13.99 K (−259.16 °C, −434.49 °F) spacing: Exactly 10 pt
Boiling point 20.271 K (−252.879 °C, spacing: Exactly 10 pt
−423.182 °F)
Density (at STP) 0.08988 g/L spacing: Exactly 10 pt
when liquid 0.07 g/cm3(solid: 0.0763 g/cm3)[1] spacing: Exactly 10 pt
(at m.p.)
when liquid 0.07099 g/cm3 spacing: Exactly 10 pt
(at b.p.) Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
Critical point 32.938 K, 1.2858 MPa spacing: Exactly 10 pt
Heat of fusion (H2) 0.117 kJ/mol spacing: Exactly 10 pt
Heat of (H2) 0.904 kJ/mol
vaporization spacing: Exactly 10 pt
Molar heat (H2) 28.836 J/(mol·K) spacing: Exactly 10 pt
capacity

Physical properties of carbon dioxide Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
Chemical formula CO2
Molar mass 44.01 g·mol−1 spacing: Exactly 10 pt
Appearance Colorless gas spacing: Exactly 10 pt, No bullets or numbering
Odor  Low concentrations: none
Text 1
 High concentrations:
sharp; acidic[1] Formatted: Font: (Default) Tahoma, 16 pt, Font color:
Text 1
16
Density  1562 kg/m3 (solid at Formatted: Line spacing: Exactly 10 pt
1 atm and −78.5 °C)
 1101 kg/m3 (liquid at spacing: Exactly 10 pt, No bullets or numbering
saturation −37°C)
 1.977 kg/m3 (gas at
1 atm and 0 °C)
Melting point −56.6 °C; −69.8 °F; 216.6 K Formatted: Line spacing: Exactly 10 pt
(Triple point at 5.1 atm)
Sublimation −78.5 °C; −109.2 °F; 194.7 K (1 Formatted: Line spacing: Exactly 10 pt
conditions atm)
Solubility in water 1.45 g/L at 25 °C (77 °F), 100 Formatted: Line spacing: Exactly 10 pt
kPa
Vapor pressure 5.73 MPa (20 °C) Formatted: Line spacing: Exactly 10 pt
Acidity (pKa) 6.35, 10.33 Formatted: Line spacing: Exactly 10 pt
Magnetic −20.5·10 −6
cm /mol
3
susceptibility (χ)
Refractive index(nD) 1.00045 Formatted: Line spacing: Exactly 10 pt
Viscosity 0.07 cP at −78.5 °C Formatted: Line spacing: Exactly 10 pt

Physical properties of Benzene Formatted: Left, Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
Chemical formula C 6 H6 Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
Appearance Colorless liquid spacing: Exactly 10 pt
Odor Aromatic, gasoline-like spacing: Exactly 10 pt
Density 0.8765(20) g/cm3[2] Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
Melting point 5.53 °C (41.95 °F; 278.68 K) Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
Boiling point 80.1 °C (176.2 °F; 353.2 K)
Solubility in water 1.53 g/L (0 °C) spacing: Exactly 10 pt
1.81 g/L (9 °C) Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
1.79 g/L (15 °C)[3][4][5] spacing: Exactly 10 pt
1.84 g/L (30 °C)
2.26 g/L (61 °C) Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
3.94 g/L (100 °C) spacing: Exactly 10 pt
21.7 g/kg (200 °C, 6.5 MPa)
17.8 g/kg (200 °C, 40 MPa)[6] Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
Solubility Soluble
in alcohol, CHCl3, CCl4, diethyl Formatted: Font: (Default) Tahoma, 16 pt, Font color:
ether, acetone, acetic acid[6] Text 1
Text 1
17
Solubility in ethanediol 5.83 g/100 g (20 °C) Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
6.61 g/100 g (40 °C)
7.61 g/100 g (60 °C)[6] spacing: Exactly 10 pt
Solubility in ethanol 20 °C, solution in water: Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
1.2 mL/L (20% v/v)[7] spacing: Exactly 10 pt
Solubility in acetone 20 °C, solution in water: spacing: Exactly 10 pt
7.69 mL/L (38.46% v/v)
49.4 mL/L (62.5% v/v)[7] Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
Solubility in diethylene 52 g/100 g (20 °C) [6]
glycol Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line

log P 2.13 Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
Vapor pressure 12.7 kPa (25 °C)
24.4 kPa (40 °C) Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
181 kPa (100 °C)[8] spacing: Exactly 10 pt
UV-vis (λmax) 255 nm
Magnetic -54.8·10−6 cm3/mol Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
susceptibility (χ) spacing: Exactly 10 pt
Refractive index(nD) 1.5011 (20 °C) Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
1.4948 (30 °C)[6] spacing: Exactly 10 pt
Formatted: Left, Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
Viscosity 0.7528 cP (10 °C) spacing: Exactly 10 pt
0.6076 cP (25 °C)
0.4965 cP (40 °C) Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
0.3075 cP (80 °C) spacing: Exactly 10 pt
Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, Line spacing: Exactly
10 pt
10 pt
Physical properties of Ethylene Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, Line spacing: Exactly
10 pt
Chemical formula C 2 H4
10 pt
Molar mass 28.05 g/mol
Appearance colorless gas 10 pt
Density 1.178 kg/m3 at 15 °C, gas[1]
10 pt
Melting point −169.2 °C (−272.6 °F; Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, Line spacing: Exactly
104.0 K) 10 pt
Boiling point −103.7 °C (−154.7 °F; Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, Line spacing: Exactly
169.5 K) 10 pt
Solubility in water 3.5 mg/100 mL (17 °C);[citation 10 pt
needed]
2.9 mg/L[2]
Solubility in ethanol 4.22 mg/L[2] Text 1
Solubility in diethyl good[2] Text 1
ether
18
Acidity (pKa) 44 Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, Line spacing: Exactly
10 pt
Magnetic -15.30·10−6
cm /mol
3
susceptibility (χ) Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, Line spacing: Exactly

10 pt
Properties of Water Formatted: Left, Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
Chemical H2O
formula Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
Molar 18.01528(33) g/mol Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, Line spacing: Exactly
mass
10 pt
Appearan White solid or almost colorless, transparent, with a slight hint of blue, Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, Line spacing: Exactly
ce crystalline solid or liquid[2] 10 pt
Odor None Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, Line spacing: Exactly

10 pt
Density Liquid:[3] Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, Line spacing: Exactly
0.9998396 g/mL at 0 °C 10 pt
0.9970474 g/mL at 25 °C
0.961893 g/mL at 95 °C Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, Line spacing: Exactly
Solid:[4] 10 pt
0.9167 g/ml at 0 °C
Melting 0.00 °C (32.00 °F; 273.15 K) [a]

point
10 pt
Boiling 99.98 °C (211.96 °F; 373.13 K) [5][a]
point
10 pt
Solubility Poorly soluble Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, Line spacing: Exactly
in haloalkanes, aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, ethers.[6] Improved
solubility in carboxylates, alcohols, ketones, amines. Miscible 10 pt
with methanol, ethanol, propanol, isopropanol, acetone, glycerol, 1,4-
dioxane, tetrahydrofuran, sulfolane, acetaldehyde, dimethylformamide, dimet
hoxyethane, dimethyl sulfoxide, acetonitrile. Partially miscible with Diethyl Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, Line spacing: Exactly
ether, Methyl Ethyl Ketone, Dichloromethane, Ethyl Acetate, Bromine. 10 pt
Vapor 3.1690 kilopascals or 0.031276 atm[7] Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, Line spacing: Exactly
pressure 10 pt
Acidity (p 13.995[8][9][b] 10 pt
Ka)
Basicity (p 13.995 10 pt
Kb)
10 pt
Conjugate Hydronium
acid Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, Line spacing: Exactly
10 pt
Conjugate Hydroxide
base Formatted: Font: (Default) Tahoma, 16 pt, Font color:
Text 1
Thermal 0.6065 W/(m·K)[12] Formatted: Font: (Default) Tahoma, 16 pt, Font color:
conductivi
ty Text 1
19
Refractive 1.3330 (20 °C)[13] Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, Line spacing: Exactly
index(nD) 10 pt
Viscosity 0.890 cP[14] Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, Line spacing: Exactly
10 pt
Properties of Toluene spacing: Exactly 10 pt
Chemical formula C 7 H8 spacing: Exactly 10 pt
Molar mass 92.14 g·mol−1 Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
Appearance Colorless liquid[2] Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
Odor sweet, pungent, benzene-
like[3] Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
Density 0.87 g/mL (20 °C)[2] Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
Melting point −95 °C (−139 °F; 178 K) [2]
Boiling point 111 °C (232 °F; 384 K)[2] spacing: Exactly 10 pt
Solubility in water 0.52 g/L (20 °C)[2] spacing: Exactly 10 pt
log P 2.68[4] Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line

Vapor pressure 2.8 kPa (20°C)[3] Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
Magnetic -66.11·10 −6
cm /mol
3
susceptibility (χ) Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line

Refractive index(nD) 1.497 (20 °C) Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
Properties of Methane
Chemical CH4 spacing: Exactly 10 pt
formula Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
Molar mass 16.04 g·mol −1
Formatted ...
Appearance Colorless gas Formatted ...
Odor Odorless Formatted ...

Formatted ...
Density  0.657 g·L −1
(gas, 25 °C, 1 atm)
Formatted ...
 0.717 g·L−1 (gas, 0 °C, 1 atm)
 422.62 g·L−1 (liquid, −162 °C)[2]
Melting point −182.5 °C; −296.4 °F; 90.7 K Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Boiling point −164.00 °C; −263.20 °F; 109.15 K [3]
20
Solubility in 22.7 mg·L−1 Formatted: Line spacing: Exactly 10 pt
water
Solubility Soluble in ethanol, diethyl Formatted: Line spacing: Exactly 10 pt

ether, benzene, toluene, methanol, acetone and Formatted: Line spacing: Exactly 10 pt
insoluble in water
log P 1.09 Formatted: Line spacing: Exactly 10 pt
Henry's law 14 nmol·Pa−1·kg−1 Formatted: Left, Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
constant (kH) spacing: Exactly 10 pt
Magnetic −12.2×10−6 cm3·mol−1
susceptibility (χ) spacing: Exactly 10 pt
Properties Ethylbenzene
Chemical formula C8H10 spacing: Exactly 10 pt
Appearance colorless liquid Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
Odor aromatic[1] Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
Density 0.8665 g/mL
Melting point −95 °C (−139 °F; 178 K) spacing: Exactly 10 pt
Boiling point 136 °C (277 °F; 409 K) spacing: Exactly 10 pt
Solubility in water 0.015 g/100 mL (20 °C) Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
log P 3.27 Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
Vapor pressure 9.998mmHg
Magnetic susceptibility (χ) -77.20·10−6 cm3/mol spacing: Exactly 10 pt
Refractive index(nD) 1.495 spacing: Exactly 10 pt
Viscosity 0.669 cP at 20 °C Formatted: Left, Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
Physical properties of oxygen
Phase at STP gas Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
Melting point 54.36 K (−218.79 °C, Formatted: Font: (Default) Tahoma, 16 pt, Font color:
−361.82 °F)
Text 1
Boiling point 90.188 K (−182.962 °C, Formatted: Font: (Default) Tahoma, 16 pt, Font color:
−297.332 °F) Text 1
21
Density (at STP) 1.429 g/L Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
when liquid 1.141 g/cm 3
(at b.p.) Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line

Triple point 54.361 K, 0.1463 kPa Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
Heat of fusion (O2) 0.444 kJ/mol spacing: Exactly 10 pt
Heat of (O2) 6.82 kJ/mol spacing: Exactly 10 pt
vaporization
Molar heat (O2) 29.378 J/(mol·K) spacing: Exactly 10 pt
capacity Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 8 pt, Line
8.3. Styrene–Butadiene Latex.
Formatted: Line spacing: Exactly 10 pt, Position:
Horizontal: Left, Relative to: Column, Vertical: In line,
Relative to: Margin, Width: Auto, Height: Auto
Formatted: Space After: 8 pt, Line spacing: Exactly 10
pt, Adjust space between Latin and Asian text, Adjust
space between Asian text and numbers

Text 1
Text 1
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3.2 From toluene and methanol

4.1 Process description from Benzene to ethylbenzene

4.2 Process description from ethylbenzene to styrene

4.21 Process Details

5 Health and Safety Factors

Formatted: Font: (Default) Tahoma, 16 pt, Font color:

SB latex is used in paper coatings, car-

pet backing, paper adhesives, cement additives, and latex paint.

7 physical properties of inlet and effluent

Formatted: Font: (Default) Tahoma, 16 pt, Font color:

Phase at STP gas

Density (at STP) 0.08988 g/L

when liquid 0.07 g/cm3(solid: 0.0763 g/cm3)[1]

when liquid 0.07099 g/cm3

Triple point 13.8033 K, 7.041 kPa

Critical point 32.938 K, 1.2858 MPa

Heat of fusion (H2) 0.117 kJ/mol

Heat of (H2) 0.904 kJ/mol

Molar heat (H2) 28.836 J/(mol·K)

Physical properties of carbon dioxide

Chemical formula CO2

Molar mass 44.01 g·mol−1

Appearance Colorless gas

 Low concentrations: none

Density  1562 kg/m3 (solid at 1 atm and

Solubility in water 1.45 g/L at 25 °C (77 °F), 100

Vapor pressure 5.73 MPa (20 °C)

Acidity (pKa) 6.35, 10.33

Magnetic −20.5·10−6 cm3/mol

Refractive index(nD) 1.00045

Viscosity 0.07 cP at −78.5 °C

Physical properties of Benzene

Chemical formula C6H6

Molar mass 78.11 g·mol−1

Appearance Colorless liquid

Odor Aromatic, gasoline-like

Density 0.8765(20) g/cm3[2]

Melting point 5.53 °C (41.95 °F; 278.68 K)

Boiling point 80.1 °C (176.2 °F; 353.2 K)

Solubility in water 1.53 g/L (0 °C)

Solubility in ethanediol 5.83 g/100 g (20 °C)

Solubility in acetone 20 °C, solution in water:

Solubility in diethylene 52 g/100 g (20 °C)[6]

Vapor pressure 12.7 kPa (25 °C)

UV-vis (λmax) 255 nm

Magnetic -54.8·10−6 cm3/mol

Refractive index(nD) 1.5011 (20 °C)

Viscosity 0.7528 cP (10 °C)

Physical properties of Ethylene

Chemical formula C2H4

Molar mass 28.05 g/mol

Appearance colorless gas

Density 1.178 kg/m3 at 15 °C, gas[1]

Melting point −169.2 °C (−272.6 °F;

Boiling point −103.7 °C (−154.7 °F;

Solubility in diethyl good[2]

Magnetic -15.30·10−6 cm3/mol

Molar mass 18.01528(33) g/mol

Melting point 0.00 °C (32.00 °F; 273.15 K) [a]

Boiling point 99.98 °C (211.96 °F; 373.13 K) [5][a]

Vapor 3.1690 kilopascals or 0.031276 atm[7]