FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

VSI

 The VSI records the rate of change of static pressure

 Is a capsule fed with static pressure in a case also fed with static.
 The metering unit, a very small gap ( hole ), permit the retard needed for the
differential pressure between the capsule and the case
 The differential pressure is maintained as long as the aircraft continues to climb
or descent but once level, the pressures equalize and returns again to zero
 The difference in pressure ( since the gap is capillary ) persist for about 6-9
seconds. So is unreliable
 A change in static pressure can lead to a false judgment giving an indication of
climbing or descending ( particularly during take-off, go-around and in
turbulence )
 A static blockage will cause the VSI to read zero during climb or descent
 The IVSI ( inertial VSI ) differ from the simple VSI. It counters the lag including in
the static line two weights with springs. This acceleration is also sensed during
normal accelerations so is a disadvantage
 Not reliable in more than 40’ banking turns or while changing the load factor in
turn but is reliable in a steady turn
 Most VSI and IVSI displays a logarithmic scale
 On start-up it must read zero and within the specified limit
 If there is an ADC ( air data computer ) the barometric height is displayed as
vertical velocity
 A modern aircraft can also use IRS
 Pilots in modern aircraft can program the autopilot and the flight director
system APFDS, the flight management system FMS, the ground proximity
warning system GPWS
 All this is converted into electronic display EFIS

 ALTIMETER

 Indicate the altitude by detecting changes in static air pressure

 1) simple altimeter 2) sensitive altimeter 3) servo altimeter

 In the simple altimeter static pressure is fed to the instrument casing by a tube
and the capsule inside the case expands as the aircraft climb since there is less
pressure and vice versa. The capsule is connected to a rotating needle by a
system of linkages. You can set the correct pressure trough a subscale

 Simple altimeters are calibrated to read only under ISA conditions at all heights

 At high altitudes, where the pressure change is small, simple altimeters is

unreliable. The linkages fail to transmit changes in static pressure instantly so
there is a time lag in recording rapid altitude changes

 The capsule itself is not perfectly elastic so will distort differently for large
increases and decreases in altitude  HYSTERESIS ERROR

 Any change of sea level pressure from the datum set on the altimeter subscale,
will give an incorrect altitude reading  BAROMETRIC ERROR

 When temperature differs from ISA, there can also be an error 

TEMPERATURE ERROR

 If the static line becomes blocked, the pressure inside the instrument cannot
change so whether climbing whether descending no changes in altitude are
displayed

 There are 5 pressure datum:

 QFE: when you put in the subscale a value that zeros the altimeter on the
airfield datum or if you put the actual pressure at the airfield elevation

 QNH: when the subscale setting permits the altimeter to read aircraft altitude
above MSL and therefore airfield elevation. Is like QFE reduced to a sea level
with ISA temperature values.

 Airfield QNH must be set on the altimeter when departing from an aerodrome
in controlled airspace. There is also regional QNH.

 QFF: like QNH except it uses the actual station temperature to calculate the sea
level pressure, not ISA

 QNE: is not an altimeter setting but is the height shown at touchdown on the
altimenter with 1013mb set on the subscale
 Standard setting is 1013,25mb or the equivalent 29.92 inches

 The sensitive altimeter uses the same principles as the simple altimeter but
increases the sensitivity by having more pointers

 Later instruments have a digitiser box to send flight level information to the ATC
transponder ( is a sensitive altimeter )

 Servo assisted altimeters increase the accuracy of the system

 When the I bar is disturbed, one of the E bar produces a greater voltage than
the other one. This resulting voltage difference is fed to an amplifier then to a
servomotor which through a feedback system repositions the I bar so that the
air gaps are once again equal. The servomotor displacement is a measure of the
capsule expansion.

 Simple altimeters usually are single pointer; sensitive altimeters began with 3-
needle displays but since they are difficult to read by pilots under stress, later
types and servo assisted altimeters have a digital and single needle redout.

 TEMPERATURE

 At temperatures above ISA separation will be greater and vice versa

 Calculate barometric and temperature errors separately and first the barometric
errors

 In air temperature that differ from ISA, the altimeter error will be approximately
4ft per 1000ft of height above the pressure datum for every degree of deviation
from ISA

 It is only in temperatures below ISA that the altimeter will overread and the
error will be dangerous

 In temperatures of ISA -15’ C or lower corrections must be applied for DH/DA or

MDH/MDA or for MSA….

 Ground elevation will be touchdown elevation

 MACHMETER

 Approaching the speed of sound, the airflow around changes dramatically and if
the aircraft is not designed for supersonic flight it can have a loss of control,
instability or stall

 The speed of sound MACH 1.0 does not remain constant. It’s speed decreases
with decreasing temperature

 So it cannot be measured against TAS or IAS

 Machmeter gives the pilots an indication of his speed relative to the speed of
sound so that the dangerous area can be avoided

 At high altitudes it is usual to cruise not at an IAS but at an indicated Mach

number, often around 0.82 to 0.87

 That’s why Mach number indications are often incorporated in the ASI

 LSS = Local speed of sound

 LSS = 38.94 x radice quadrata di T  the answer is a TAS

 Is also possible to do Mach Number = TAS/LSS

 The second method involves navigation computer

 The Machmeter suffers only from instrument and pressure error

 Density and temperature error are self-compensated

 If the pitot source becomes blocked, it shows the same error as an ASI. The
mach number will remain unchanged until static pressure changes in a climb or
descent. In a climb the airspeed capsule will have excess static pressure trapped
so will over read and vice versa

 If is the static sources that is blocked, during climb excess static pressure is
trapped in the case and the Macheter will under read