1.

Curves
1.1. Intro
We think of intuitively of curves as deformed and twisted lines. Straight lines y − ax = b,
circles x2 + y 2 = 1, parabolas y − ax2 − bx − c = 0, sinusoidal figures y − b sin(ax) = 0, . . . are all
examples of curves. These examples are curves described by a Cartesian equation

f (x, y) = c,

where f is a function of (x, y) ∈ R2 and c is a constant real number. From this point of view the actual
curve is the set C ⊂ R2 of points (x, y) on the plane such that f (x, y) = c,

C = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | f (x, y) = c} = f −1 ({c}).

A similar description can be given for curves in R3 . For example the z-axis of the Cartesian system is
given by the equations
x = 0, y = 0,

and more generally a curve C ⊂ R3 can be given by the points in R3 that simultaneously solve a pair
of equations 
f (x, y, z) = c
1 1
f (x, y, z) = c .
2 2

Curves defined this way are called level curves, motivated by the R2 case. This can be easily generalized
to Rn curves, but let us focus on 2 and 3-dimensional curves for the moment.
A different way of thinking of curves is to imagine the trace of particle moving in space,
registering its position all the time, such that its position is given by a function γ(t). Precisely,

Definition 1.1 A parametrized curve in Rn is a map γ : I → Rn , where I is an open interval in

the real line (including possibly I = R).

smooth
Arbitrary curves can behave very oddly, so we will need to restrict ourselves to “well behaved”
curves. First, since we want to do differentiable calculus with curves, we will suppose γ to be smooth
(or C ∞ ), that is, if the derivate γ (n) exists and is continuous for all n ∈ N.
Expressing a parametrized curve γ : I → Rn in its standard components γ1 (t), γ2 (t), . . . , γn (t),
we have
γ(t) = (γ1 (t), γ2 (t), . . . , γn (t)),

and we see that  

(n) (n)
γ (n) (t) = γ1 (t), γ2 (t), . . . , γn(n) (t) ,

therefore is readily seen that γ is smooth if and only if all its components are smooth.

1.2. Tangent
The first derivative of a curve is very important to studying its general behavior.

Definition 1.2 Given a smooth parametrized curve γ : I → Rn , its first derivative γ 0 (t) is called
the tangent vector (or velocity vector) of γ at the point γ(t).

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 When the tangent vector of a curve exists, it defines a tangent line to this curve. If γ 0 (t) is the
tangent vector at the point p = γ(t), the tangent line at p is the straight line p + rγ 0 (t), −∞ < s < ∞.
For a straight line it is readily seen that its tangent vector is constant, by using the standard
parametrization γ(t) = a + tb, a, b ∈ Rn , −∞ < t < ∞. Conversely, if the tangent line of a given
curve γ : I → Rn is constant, this curve is a section of a straight line. For all t ∈ I and a t0 ∈ I, let
b = γ(t0 ), a = γ 0 (t). We have
Z t Z t
dγ
γ(t) − b = γ(t) − γ(t0 ) = dτ = a dτ = a(t − t0 ),
t0 dτ t0

therefore γ(t) = a(t − t0 ) + b.

Having a well-defined, non-zero tangent vector at each point is need for us to be able to study
geometrical proprieties of curves.

Definition 1.3 For a smooth parametrized curve γ : I → Rn , a point γ(t) is called regular if its
tangent vector γ 0 (t) is non-zero. When γ 0 (t) = 0 we say γ(t) is a singular point of γ. The curve is
called regular if it has no singular points.

The importance of curves being regular will appear shortly.

1.3. Arc-length
We denote the usual euclidean inner product between two vectors a, b ∈ Rn as ha, bi =
a1 b1 + · · · + an bn , and the usual euclidean norm of a vector a ∈ Rn as kak = ha, ai. By partitioning a
p

curve in sections and approximating its length by the segment of line connecting each section, this give
us motivation for a way to calculate the length of a curve.

Definition 1.4 Let γ : I → Rn be a smooth parametrized curve. We define the arc-length of this
curve starting at a point γ(t0 ) and ending at γ(t), where t0 , t ∈ I, as the function
Z t
0
s(t) = γ (τ ) dτ.
t0

We see that the length of a curve is signed, depending if t > t0 or t < t0 . Also, changing the
initial point where we calculate the resulting length differs by a constant, since
Z t Z t0 Z t
0 0 0
γ (τ ) dτ = γ (τ ) dτ + γ (τ ) dτ.
t1 t1 t0

The arc-length function is also differentiable, being the Riemann integral of a differentiable
function, with derivative
ds d t
Z
γ 0 (τ ) dτ = γ 0 (t) .

(t) =
dt dt t0
If t represents the time of a moving particle, ds/dt represent its motion speed (the rate of
change of its distance along the curve). This motivates the next definition.

Definition 1.5 Let γ : I → Rn be a smooth parametrized curve. We call kγ 0 (t)k the speed of this
curve. When kγ 0 (t)k = 1 for all t ∈ I, we say γ is a unit-speed curve.

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 Curves having a unit-speed tangent vector allows for simpler study of its geometrical proprieties.
One interesting consequence follows for unit-speed curves.

Proposition 1.1 Let v : I → Rn be a smooth unit vector function of a parameter t. We have that

hv 0 (t), v(t)i = 0

for all t ∈ I, that is, the derivative of v(t) zero or perpendicular to v(t). In particular, if a curve γ is
unit-speed, either γ 00 is zero or perpendicular to γ 0 .

Proof. Since v is a unit vector, hv(t), v(t)i = 1. Differentiating it with the usual product rule for inner
products, we obtain
hv 0 , vi + hv, v 0 i = 0,

which gives 2hv 0 , vi = 0. The last observation follows directly by setting v(t) = γ 0 (t).

1.4. Reparametrization
Curves don’t have a unique parametrization, therefore we can change their domain without
changing key geometrical proprieties.

Definition 1.6 Let I and J be real open intervals, γ : I → Rn a smooth parametrized curve, and
φ : J → I a smooth (C ∞ ) bijective function with smooth inverse ( called a reparametrization map).
The curve
γ̃ = γ ◦ φ : J → Rn

is called a reparametrization of the curve γ.

We see that γ̃ is still a smooth curve since is the composition of smooth functions, and also
that, since φ−1 is smooth, γ is a reparametrization of γ̃:

γ̃(t̃) = γ̃(φ−1 (t)) = γ(φ(φ−1 (t))) = γ(t), for all t ∈ I.

The ideal curve is unit-speed and regular. As a matter of fact, when a curve is regular we can
find some reparametrization which turns the curve into a unit-speed one. We now work to prove this
fact.

Proposition 1.2 Any reparametrization of a regular curve is regular.

Proof. Let γ : I → Rn and γ̃ : J → Rn be curves related as in definition 1.6, with φ : J → I as the

reparametrization map. For t = φ(t̃), we have t̃ = φ−1 , and by the chain rule

dt dφ(φ−1 (t)) dφ dφ−1

1= = = ,
dt dt dt̃ dt

therefore the derivative of φ is never zero. Since γ̃(t̃) = γ(φ(t̃)),

dγ̃ dγ dφ
= ,
dt̃ dt dt̃
which implies γ̃ 0 is never zero if γ 0 is never zero. If we suppose γ is regular, we have γ̃ regular and
vice-versa.

Proposition 1.3 If γ : I → Rn is a regular curve, the arc-length function s : I → s(I), starting at

any point t0 , is a smooth function bijective function with smooth inverse.

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Proof. We’ve already seen that s0 (t) = kγ 0 (t)k, which is at least continuous. Since γ is regular, s0 (t) > 0,
therefore s is an injective function onto its image s(I) = J, which is an open interval and so it an
invertible function. All these facts follow from standard real analysis.
0 √
qγ (t) is smooth and nonzero for all t ∈ I, and the function f (x) = x
The fact s is smooth follows since
is smooth on (0, ∞), so s0 (t) = γ102 (t) + · · · + γn02 (t) is smooth on I.
Knowing s is smooth, invertible, with positive derivative everywhere on I, the last affirmation follows
directly from the inverse function theorem (appendix A.1).

With this result we see that the arc-length function is a possible reparametrization map. This
reparametrization plays a role in the next result.

Proposition 1.4 A smooth parametrized curve has a unit-speed reparametrization if and only if it is
regular.

Proof. Suppose the smooth curve γ : I → Rn admits a unit-speed reparametrization γ̃ : J → Rn , with

reparametrization map φ : J → I. For t = φ(t̃), we have γ̃(t̃) = γ(t), so
 
dγ̃ dγ dt dγ̃ dγ  dt 
= dt̃ = dt  dt̃  .
=⇒  
dt̃ dt dt̃

Since γ̃ is unit-speed, dγ/dt is never zero, proving its regularity.

Now, if γ is regular, by proposition 1.3 its arc-length function is a reparametrization map. We will
actually use its inverse to reparametrize γ, so we let φ = s−1 : J → I, where J = s(I). We have the
reparametrization γ̃ = γ ◦ φ : J → Rn , so γ̃(s(t)) = γ(t). Then

dγ dγ̃ ds dγ̃ dγ
.
= =
dt ds dt ds dt

Since γ is regular, it follows the reparametrization by arc-length is unit speed.

This last proof illustrate how to get a unit-speed reparametrization for a regular curve, simply
use its arc-length! As a matter of fact, this reparametrization is essentially the only unit-speed one.

Corollary 1.1 Let γ : I → Rn be a regular curve, and γ̃ : J → Rn be a unit-speed reparametrization

of γ :
γ̃(u(t)) = γ(t), for all t ∈ I,

with u : I → J is a smooth function (the inverse of the reparametrization map). Then, if s(t) is the
arc-length of γ staring at any point t0 ∈ I, we have

u = ±s + c (1.1)

where c is a constant determined by the starting point. Conversely, if u is given as in equation (1.1)
for some constante c, then γ̃ is a unit-speed reparametrization of γ.

Proof. By doing the same calculations of proposition 1.4 we get

du dγ ds
= ±
dt = ± dt ⇐⇒ u = ±s + c

dt

where c is the integration constant.

Therefore, from now on we will use unit-speed and arc-length parametrized interchangeably,
and, unless specified, curves will always be regular.

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1.5. Closed Curves
Some curves like circles and ellipses return to their starting point at some parameter, while
others never do, like parabolas or straight lines. Some return to a given point but still doesn’t have the
same behavior as circles, so we need to give a good definition of a closed curve.

Definition 1.7 For a number T ∈ R, a curve γ : R → Rn is said to be T -periodic if

γ(t + T ) = γ(t) for all t ∈ R.

If γ isn’t constant and is T -periodic for some T 6= 0, γ is a closed curve.

When a curve is T -periodic, a particle moving along the curve returns to the same point when
the parameter moves by T. Also, as a trivial case, every curve is 0-periodic.

2. Curvature
Curvature quantifies how much a curve is, well, curving along its path. This notion of “how
much a curve curves” is slightly different for each dimension, so we’ll first start with plane curves, then
analyze space (3-dimensional) curves, and finally look at the general Rn case. In all cases it is clear
that a straight line doesn’t curve, so our curvature has to be such that it is zero for the straight line.

2.1. Plane Curves

Let γ : I → R2 be an unit-speed curve, which we parametrize by its arc-length, starting at
some point (we abuse notation by denoting its parameter by s). Setting γ(s) = (γ1 (s), γ2 (s)), its
tangent vector at any point has unit length, and we’ll denote it by t(s) = γ 0 (s) = (γ10 (s), γ20 (s)).
Let n(s) be the normal unitary vector to t(s) such that {t, n} has the same orientation as the
canonical {e1 , e2 } basis of R2 . Then n is simply the rotation of t by π/2, with n(s) = (−γ20 (s), γ10 (s)).
This set {t, n} is called the Frenet frame of the curve γ.
n(s)

t(s)

γ(s)

Since γ is a smooth curve, both t and n are smooth vector functions I → R2 , so t0 and n0
are linear combinations of t and n. Also, since kt(s)k = 1 for all s ∈ I, t0 (s) is orthogonal to t(s) by
proposition 1.1, therefore t0 is proportional to n, and we write

Definition 2.1 For a unit-speed plane curve γ : I → R2 , the curvature κ(s) : I → R is the
proportionality constant that relates t0 (s) with n(s), that is

t0 (s) = κ(s)n(s).

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 We’ll soon relate this definition with geometrical aspects of the curve. For now, let us check
the consistency of this definition. For any other unit-speed reparametrization of γ, say γ̃(u). We have,
by corollary 1.1, u = ±s + c, and by the chain rule

dγ dγ̃
t= =± = ±t̃,
ds du
and
d2 γ d2 γ̃
t0 = = = t̃0
ds2 du2
therefore κ(s) = ±κ̃(u), that is, the sign of the curvature is dependent on the orientation of the curve.
By taking the inner product of t0 with n, it follows from the definition that

κ(s) = ht0 (s), n(s)i = hγ 00 (s), n(s)i,

which gives, by computing the inner product,

κ(s) = γ10 (s)γ200 (s) − γ100 (s)γ20 (s).

Since n(s) is also a unit vector, its derivative n0 (s) is orthogonal to n(s), therefore proportional
to t(s). We have
hn0 (s), t(s)i = γ100 (s)γ20 (s) − γ10 (s)γ200 (s) = −κ(s),

which gives
n0 (s) = −κ(s)t(s).

We see that, for a regular unit-speed curve, its Frenet frame satisfies the equations

t0 = κn
n0 = −κt

the so-called Frenet formulas for a plane curve.

Now lets relate curvature to the behavior of a curve. For the unit-speed curve γ, its tangent
0
vector γ has a direction which can be measured by an angle θ(s), that is

γ 0 (s) = (cos θ(s), sin θ(s)). (2.1)

Such a choice of angle θ(s) is not unique, but it is up to a integer multiple of 2π. However, we can
guarantee a smooth choice of angle:

Proposition 2.1 Let γ : I → R2 be a unit-speed curve, s0 ∈ I, and θ0 such that

γ 0 (s0 ) = (cos θ0 , sin θ0 ).

Then, there is a unique smooth function θ : I → R such that θ(s0 ) = θ0 , and that equation (2.1) holds
for all s ∈ I.

Proof. Denote γ 0 (s) = (f (s), g(s)). Since γ is unit-speed, f (s)2 + g(s)2 = 1 for all s ∈ I. Now define
Z s
θ(s) = θ0 + (f (ξ)g 0 (ξ) − f 0 (ξ)g(ξ)) dξ.
s0

Then θ(s0 ) = θ0 , and since f and g are smooth functions, so is θ, with θ0 = f g 0 − f 0 g.

Define
F = f cos θ + g sin θ, G = f sin θ − g cos θ.

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Differentiating, we get
F 0 = (f 0 + gθ0 ) cos θ + (g 0 − f θ0 ) sin θ.

Now, using θ0 = f g 0 − f 0 g and f f 0 + gg 0 = 0,

f 0 + gθ0 = f 0 + g(f g 0 − f 0 g) = f 0 (1 − g 2 ) + f gg 0 = f (f f 0 + gg 0 ) = 0,

and similarly g 0 − f θ0 = 0, which implies F 0 = 0 on all I, therefore F is constant. Similar calculations

show G is also constant. Now

F (s0 ) = f (s0 ) cos θ0 + g(s0 ) sin θ0 = cos2 θ0 + sin2 θ0 = 1,

and also G(s0 ) = 0. It follows that

f cos θ + g sin θ = 1, f sin θ − g cos θ = 0,

for all s ∈ I, which implies f = cos θ and g = sin θ, showing the smooth function θ satisfies equation
(2.1).
As for uniqueness, suppose there is another smooth function ϕ such that ϕ(s0 ) = θ0 and γ 0 (s) =
(cos ϕ(s), sin ϕ(s)) for all s ∈ I. We then have θ(s) − ϕ(s) = 2πk(s), where k(s) a smooth function of s.
k has to be constant, because, if there where some s1 ∈ I with k(s1 ) 6= k(s0 ), by the intermediate value
theorem, k(s) takes all values between k(s0 ) and k(s1 ), for some s between s0 and s1 , which would in
turn implies k(s) takes non-integer values. Therefore k is constant, and since θ(s0 ) = θ0 = ϕ(s0 ), so
k = 0, giving θ(s) = ϕ(s) for all s ∈ I.

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A. Calculus
A.1. Inverse Function Theorem