Trajectory

in exterior ballistics, the curve traced in space by the center of mass of a shell or rocket from the
moment the projectile leaves the muzzle of the gun or the guide or barrel of the launcher and loses
contact with the muzzle, guide, or barrel. The shape of a trajectory depends on the earth’s gravity and
rotation as well as on the aerodynamic and reaction forces acting on the shell or rocket in flight.

Figure 1. Elements of a trajectory

Shells move along ballistic trajectories (Figure 1). In the case of small angles of fall (up to 20°), we
speak of shallow trajectories and very low-angle fire; for angles of fall greater than 20°, we speak of
steep trajectories and high-angle fire. When fired at airborne targets, antiaircraft shells—unlike
artillery shells—have trajectories with only an ascending branch; the trajectories of rocket shells and
rocket-assisted projectiles (for example, antitank rockets) have one or more powered phases, in
which the rocket engines operate, and several free-flight phases. When the total length of the
powered phases is small compared with the whole trajectory, the trajectory differs little from a ballistic
trajectory; if the flight is controlled over the entire length of the trajectory or a substantial part of it, the
trajectory differs considerably from a ballistic one.
The trajectories of ballistic missiles have powered and free-flight phases (Figure 2). In the powered
phase of a trajectory the specified speed and tilt angle that a ballistic missile should have at the end of
this phase are imparted to the missile. The free-flight phase consists of two segments, a segment
outside the atmosphere, in which the missile’s nose cone moves like a freely thrown body, and an
atmospheric segment, in which the nose cone is stabilized and approaches the target nose first.

the continuous curve described by a point in motion. If the trajectory is a straight line, the motion of
the point is said to be rectilinear; otherwise, it is said to be curvilinear. The shape of a trajectory of a
free material particle depends on the forces acting on the particle, the initial conditions of the motion,
and the reference frame used. For a constrained particle the trajectory depends also on the
constraints that are imposed (seeCONSTRAINT).
For example, a vertical line is the trajectory with respect to the earth (if we neglect its diurnal rotation)
of a free particle that is released without an initial velocity and moves under the influence of gravity. If,
however, an initial velocity v0 not directed along the vertical is imparted to the particle, then, in the
absence of air resistance, the trajectory is a parabola (Figure 1).

Figure 1. A parabolic trajectory

Depending on the initial velocity, the trajectory of a particle moving in a central gravitational field may
be an ellipse, a parabola, or a hyperbola; in special cases, the trajectory may be a straight line or a
circle. If we regard the earth’s gravitational field as a central field and neglect atmospheric resistance,
then the trajectory of a particle given a horizontally directed initial velocity v0 near the surface of the
earth (Figure 2) is a circle when (orbital velocity), an ellipse when
, a parabola when (escape velocity), and a
hyperbola when . Here, R is the earth’s radius, g is the acceleration of gravity near the
earth’s surface, and the motion is considered with respect to axes that are undergoing translational
motion, together with the center of the earth, relative to the stars.
In the case of a body, such as a satellite, all the above remarks apply to the trajectory of the body’s
center of gravity. If, however, the direction of v0 is neither horizontal nor vertical and , the
trajectory of the particle is an arc of an ellipse; this arc intersects the earth’s surface. The center of
gravity of a ballistic missile has such a trajectory.
An example of a constrained particle is a small bob suspended on a string (seePENDULUM). If the string
is deflected from the vertical and released without an initial velocity, the trajectory of the bob is an arc
of a circle. If, however, an initial velocity that does not lie in the plane of the string’s deflection is
imparted to the bob, the trajectories of the bob may be curves of rather complicated shape that lie on
the surface of a sphere; such trajectories are characteristic of a spherical pendulum.
The trajectories of the points of a rigid body depend on the law of the body’s motion. For a
translational motion of the body the trajectories of all its points are identical, but in all other cases the
trajectories are generally different for the various points of the body. For example, for an automobile
wheel on a rectilinear segment of a road, the trajectory of a point on the wheel’s rim relative to the
highway is a cycloid, but the trajectory of the wheel’s center is a straight line. Relative to the
automobile’s body, the trajectory of a point on the rim is a circle, but the wheel’s center is a fixed
point.
The determination of trajectories is important both in theoretical studies and in the solution of many
practical problems.