Abū Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariyyā al-Rāzī (‫ ابوبكر مح ّمد زکرياى رازى‬Abūbakr Mohammad-

e Zakariyyā-ye Rāzī, also known by his Latinized name Rhazes or Rasis) (854 CE – 925 CE),
was a Persian[3][4][5] polymath, physician, alchemist, philosopher, and important figure in the
history of medicine.

A comprehensive thinker, Razi made fundamental and enduring contributions to various fields,
which he recorded in over 200 manuscripts, and is particularly remembered for numerous
advances in medicine through his observations and discoveries.[6] An early proponent of
experimental medicine, he became a successful doctor, and served as chief physician of
Baghdad and Ray hospitals.[2][7] As a teacher of medicine, he attracted students of all
backgrounds and interests and was said to be compassionate and devoted to the service of his
patients, whether rich or poor.[8]

According to the Encyclopædia Britannica (1911), he was among the first to use humoral theory
to distinguish one contagious disease from another, and wrote a pioneering book about smallpox
and measles providing clinical characterization of the diseases.[9] He also discovered numerous
compounds and chemicals including alcohol and kerosene, among others.[10][11]

Through translation, his medical works and ideas became known among medieval European
practitioners and profoundly influenced medical education in the Latin West.[2] Some volumes
of his work Al-Mansuri, namely "On Surgery" and "A General Book on Therapy", became part
of the medical curriculum in Western universities.[2] Edward Granville Browne considers him
as "probably the greatest and most original of all the Muslim physicians, and one of the most
prolific as an author".[12] Additionally, he has been described as a doctor's doctor,[13] the father
of pediatrics,[14] and a pioneer of ophthalmology.

Biography

Razi was born in the city of Ray (modern Rey) situated on the Great Silk Road that for centuries
facilitated trade and cultural exchanges between East and West.[15] His nisba, Râzī (‫)رازی‬,
means "from the city of Ray" in Persian.[16] It is located on the southern slopes of the Alborz
mountain range situated near Tehran, Iran.

In his youth, Razi moved to Baghdad where he studied and practiced at the local bimaristan
(hospital). Later, he was invited back to Rey by Mansur ibn Ishaq, then the governor of Rey,
and became a bimaristan's head.[2] He dedicated two books on medicine to Mansur ibn Ishaq,
The Spiritual Physic and Al-Mansūrī on Medicine.[2][17][18][19] Because of his newly acquired
popularity as physician, Razi was invited to Baghdad where he assumed the responsibilities of
a director in a new hospital named after its founder al-Muʿtaḍid (d. 902 CE).[2] Under the reign
of Al-Mutadid's son, Al-Muktafi (r. 902-908) Razi was commissioned to build a new hospital,
which should be the largest of the Abbasid Caliphate. To pick the future hospital's location,
Razi adopted what is nowadays known as an evidence-based approach suggesting having fresh
meat hung in various places throughout the city and to build the hospital where meat took
longest to rot.[20]

He spent the last years of his life in his native Rey suffering from glaucoma. His eye affliction
started with cataracts and ended in total blindness.[21] The cause of his blindness is uncertain.
One account mentioned by Ibn Juljul attributed the cause to a blow to his head by his patron,
Mansur ibn Ishaq, for failing to provide proof for his alchemy theories;[22] while Abulfaraj and
Casiri claimed that the cause was a diet of beans only.[23][24] Allegedly, he was approached by

1
a physician offering an ointment to cure his blindness. Al-Razi then asked him how many layers
does the eye contain and when he was unable to receive an answer, he declined the treatment
stating "my eyes will not be treated by one who does not know the basics of its anatomy".[25]

The lectures of Razi attracted many students. As Ibn al-Nadim relates in Fihrist, Razi was
considered a shaikh, an honorary title given to one entitled to teach and surrounded by several
circles of students. When someone raised a question, it was passed on to students of the 'first
circle'; if they did not know the answer, it was passed on to those of the 'second circle', and so
on. When all students would fail to answer, Razi himself would consider the query. Razi was a
generous person by nature, with a considerate attitude towards his patients. He was charitable
to the poor, treated them without payment in any form, and wrote for them a treatise Man La
Yaḥḍuruhu al-Ṭabīb, or Who Has No Physician to Attend Him, with medical advice.[26] One
former pupil from Tabaristan came to look after him, but as al-Biruni wrote, Razi rewarded him
for his intentions and sent him back home, proclaiming that his final days were approaching.[27]
According to Biruni, Razi died in Rey in 925 sixty years of age.[28] Biruni, who considered Razi
as his mentor, among the first penned a short biography of Razi including a bibliography of his
numerous works.[28]

Ibn al-Nadim recorded an account by Razi of a Chinese student who copied down all of Galen's
works in Chinese as Razi read them to him out loud after the student learned fluent Arabic in 5
months and attended Razi's lectures.[29][30][31][32]

After his death, his fame spread beyond the Middle East to Medieval Europe, and lived on. In
an undated catalog of the library at Peterborough Abbey, most likely from the 14th century,
Razi is listed as a part author of ten books on medicine.[33]

Philosophy

Metaphysics

The metaphysical doctrine of Razi derives from the theory of the "five eternals", according to
which the world is produced out of an interaction between God and four other eternal principles
(soul, matter, time, and place).[46] He accepted a pre-socratic type of atomism of the bodies, and
for that he differed from both the falasifa and the mutakallimun.[46] While he was influenced by
Plato and the medical writers, mainly Galen, he rejected taqlid and thus expressed criticism
about some of their views. This is evident from the title of one of his works, Doubts About
Galen.[46]

Excerpt from The Philosophical Approach

"(...) In short, while I am writing the present book, I have written so far around 200
books and articles on different aspects of science, philosophy, theology, and hekmat
(wisdom). (...) I never entered the service of any king as a military man or a man of
office, and if I ever did have a conversation with a king, it never went beyond my
medical responsibility and advice. (...) Those who have seen me know, that I did not
into excess with eating, drinking or acting the wrong way. As to my interest in science,
people know perfectly well and must have witnessed how I have devoted all my life to
science since my youth. My patience and diligence in the pursuit of science has been

2
 such that on one special issue specifically I have written 20,000 pages (in small print),
moreover I spent fifteen years of my life -night and day- writing the big collection
entitled Al Hawi. It was during this time that I lost my eyesight, my hand became
paralyzed, with the result that I am now deprived of reading and writing. Nonetheless,
I've never given up, but kept on reading and writing with the help of others. I could
make concessions with my opponents and admit some shortcomings, but I am most
curious what they have to say about my scientific achievement. If they consider my
approach incorrect, they could present their views and state their points clearly, so that
I may study them, and if I determined their views to be right, I would admit it. However,
if I disagreed, I would discuss the matter to prove my standpoint. If this is not the case,
and they merely disagree with my approach and way of life, I would appreciate they
only use my written knowledge and stop interfering with my behaviour."
"In the "Philosophical Biography", as seen above, he defended his personal and
philosophical life style. In this work he laid out a framework based on the idea that there
is life after death full of happiness, not suffering. Rather than being self-indulgent, man
should pursue knowledge, utilise his intellect and apply justice in his life.
According to Al-Razi: "This is what our merciful Creator wants. The One to whom we
pray for reward and whose punishment we fear."
In brief, man should be kind, gentle and just. Al-Razi believed that there is a close
relationship between spiritual integrity and physical health. He did not implicate that
the soul could avoid distress due to his fear of death. He simply states that this
psychological state cannot be avoided completely unless the individual is convinced
that, after death, the soul will lead a better life. This requires a thorough study of esoteric
doctrines and/or religions. He focuses on the opinion of some people who think that the
soul perishes when the body dies. Death is inevitable, therefore one should not pre-
occupy the mind with it, because any person who continuously thinks about death will
become distressed and think as if he is dying when he continuously ponders on that
subject. Therefore, he should forget about it in order to avoid upsetting himself. When
contemplating his destiny after death, a benevolent and good man who acts according
to the ordinances of the Islamic Shari`ah, has after all nothing to fear because it indicates
that he will have comfort and permanent bliss in the Hereafter. The one who doubts the
Shari`ah, may contemplate it, and if he diligently does this, he will not deviate from the
right path. If he falls short, Allah will excuse him and forgive his sins because it is not
demanded of him to do something which he cannot achieve." (Dr. Muhammad Abdul-
Hadi Abu Reidah)
Books on philosophy

This is a partial list of Razi's books on philosophy. Some books may have been copied or
published under different titles.

 The Small Book on Theism

 Response to Abu'al'Qasem Braw
 The Greater Book on Theism
 Modern Philosophy
 Dar Roshan Sakhtane Eshtebaah
 Dar Enteghaade Mo'tazlian

3
  Delsoozi Bar Motekaleman
 Meydaneh Kherad
 Khasel
 Resaaleyeh Rahnamayeh Fehrest
 Ghasideyeh Ilaahi
 Dar Alet Afarineshe Darandegan
 Shakkook
 Naghseh Ketabe Tadbir
 Naghsnamehyeh Ferforius
 Do name be Hasanebne Moharebe Ghomi

Notable books in English:

 Spiritual Medicine
 The Philosophical Approach (Al Syrat al Falsafiah)
 The Metaphysics

Views on religion

A number of contradictory works and statements about religion have been ascribed to Razi.
According to al-Biruni's Bibliography of Razi (Risāla fī Fihrist Kutub al-Rāzī), Razi wrote two
"heretical books": "Fī al-Nubuwwāt (On Prophecies) and "Fī Ḥiyal al-Mutanabbīn (On the
Tricks of False Prophets). According to Biruni, the first "was claimed to be against religions"
and the second "was claimed as attacking the necessity of the prophets."[47] In his Risala, Biruni
further criticized and expressed caution about Razi's religious views, noting an influence of
Manichaeism. However, Biruni also listed some other works of Razi on religion, including Fi
Wujub Da‘wat al-Nabi ‘Ala Man Nakara bi al-Nubuwwat (Obligation to Propagate the
Teachings of the Prophet Against Those who Denied Prophecies) and Fi anna li al-Insan
Khaliqan Mutqinan Hakiman (That Man has a Wise and Perfect Creator), listed under his
works on the "divine sciences".[47] None of his works on religion are now extant in full.

Other views and quotes that are often ascribed to Razi are found in a book written by Abu Hatim
al-Razi, called Aʿlām al-nubuwwa (Signs of Prophecy), and not in any extant work of Razi
himself. Abu Hatim was an Isma'ili missionary who debated Razi, but whether he has faithfully
recorded the views of Razi is disputed.[46] According to Abdul Latif al-'Abd, Islamic philosophy
professor at Cairo University, Abu Hatim and his student, Ḥamīd al-dīn Karmānī (d. after
411AH/1020CE), were Isma'ili extremists who often misrepresented the views of Razi in their
works.[48][49] This view is also corroborated by early historians like al-Shahrastani who noted
"that such accusations should be doubted since they were made by Ismāʿīlīs, who had been
severely attacked by Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyā Rāzī".[50] Al-'Abd points out that the views
allegedly expressed by Razi contradict what is found in Razi's own works, like the Spiritual
Medicine (Fī al-ṭibb al-rūḥānī).[48] Peter Adamson concurs that Abu Hatim may have
"deliberately misdescribed" Razi's position as a rejection of Islam and revealed religions.
Instead, Razi was only arguing against the use of miracles to prove Muhammad's prophecy,
anthropomorphism, and the uncritical acceptance of taqlīd vs naẓar.[46] Adamson also points
out to a work by Fakhr al-din al-Razi where Razi is quoted as citing the Quran and the prophets
to support his views.[46]

4
Some historians, such as Paul Kraus and Sarah Stroumsa, accept that the extracts found in Abu
Hatim's book were either said by Razi during a debate or were quoted from a now lost work.
They suggest that this lost work is either his famous al-ʿIlm al-Ilāhī or another shorter
independent work called Makharīq al-Anbiyāʾ (The Prophets' Fraudulent Tricks).[51][52] Abu
Hatim, however, did not explicitly mention Razi by name in his book, but referred to his
interlocutor simply as the mulḥid (lit. "heretic").[46][48] According to the debate with Abu Hatim,
Razi denied the validity of prophecy or other authority figures, and rejected prophetic miracles.
He also directed a scathing critique on revealed religions and the miraculous quality of the
Quran.[46][53] Because of being seemingly unrestrained by any religious or philosophical
tradition, Razi came to be admired as a freethinker by some.[46]

The modern-day Razi Institute in Karaj and Razi University in Kermanshah were named after
him. A 'Razi Day' ('Pharmacy Day') is commemorated in Iran every 27 August.[61][62]

In June 2009, Iran donated a "Scholars Pavilion" or Chartagi to the United Nations Office in
Vienna, now placed in the central Memorial Plaza of the Vienna International Center.[63] The
pavilion features the statues of Razi, Avicenna, Abu Rayhan Biruni, and Omar Khayyam.[64][65]

Notes
1. Pathfinders: The Golden Age of Arabic Science (ISBN 978-1-84614-161-4)

2. Iskandar, Albert (2006). "Al-Rāzī". Encyclopaedia of the history of science, technology, and
medicine in non-western cultures (2nd ed.). Springer. pp. 155–156.

3 Hitti, Philip K. (1977). History of the Arabs from the earliest times to the present (10th ed. ed.).
London: Macmillan. p. 365. ISBN 978-0-333-09871-4. The most notable medical authors who followed
the epoch of the great translators were Persian in nationality but Arab in language: 'Ali al-Tabari, al-
Razi, 'Ali ibn-al-'Abbas al-Majusi and ibn-Sina.

4 Robinson, Victor (1944), The story of medicine, New York: New Home Library

5 Porter, Dorothy (2005), Health, civilization, and the state: a history of public health from ancient to
modern times, New York: Routledge (published 1999), p. 25, ISBN 0-415-20036-9

6 Hakeem Abdul Hameed, Exchanges between India and Central Asia in the field of Medicine

7 Influence of Islam on World Civilization" by Prof. Z. Ahmed, p. 127.

8 Rāzī, Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakarīyā, Fuat Sezgin, Māzin ʻAmāwī, Carl Ehrig-Eggert, and E.
Neubauer. Muḥammad ibn Zakarīyāʼ ar-Rāzī (d. 313/925): texts and studies. Frankfurt am Main:
Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, 1999.

9 "Handbook to Life in the Medieval World, 3-Volume Set", by Madeleine Pelner Cosman, Linda Gale
Jones, page = 52, ISBN 9781438109077, publisher = Infobase Publishing

10 https://elementsunearthed.com/tag/al-razi/

5
11 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260392019_Distillation_-
_from_Bronze_Age_till_today

12 Browne (2001, p. 44)

13 Ganchy, Sally. Islam and Science, Medicine, and Technology. New York: Rosen Pub., 2008.

14 David W. Tschanz, PhD (2003), "Arab(?) Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).

15 Richter-Bernburg

16 Boyce, Mary; Frantz, Grenet (1982). History of Zoroastrianism: Under The Achaemenians. Leiden:
Brill. p. 8. ISBN 90-04-06506-7. (See also the following excerpt: "the question of the identification of
Avestan Raya with the Raga in the inscription of Darius I at Bīsotūn [...] with Ray[...] has by no means
been settled".Gnoli, Gerardo. "Avestan geography". Encyclopaedia Iranica. 3. ISBN 0-7100-9121-4.)

17 Rāzī, Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakarīyā. "The Book of Medicine Dedicated to Mansur and Other
Medical Tracts – Liber ad Almansorem". World Digital Library (in Latin). Retrieved 2014-03-02.

18 Rāzī, Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakarīyā. "The Book on Medicine Dedicated to al-Mansur –
‫"اااا اا اااااااا اااااا‬. World Digital Library (in Amharic and Arabic). Retrieved
2014-03-02.

19 "Commentary on the Chapter Nine of the Book of Medicine Dedicated to Mansur – Commentaria
in nonum librum Rasis ad regem Almansorem". World Digital Library (in Latin). 1542. Retrieved 2014-
03-02.

20 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3644752/?report=classic#sec1-2title

21 Magner, Lois N. A History of Medicine. New York: M. Dekker, 1992, p. 140.

22 Magner, Lois N. (2002-08-13). A History of the Life Sciences, Revised and Expanded. CRC Press.
p. 60. ISBN 978-0-8247-4360-4.

23 Pococke, E. Historia Compendosia Dynastiarum. Oxford, 1663, p. 291.

24 Long, George (1841). The Penny cyclopædia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge,
Volume 19. C. Knight. p. 445.

25 "Saab Medical Library – ‫ – اااااا ا اااااا اا اااا‬American University of Beirut".

Ddc.aub.edu.lb. 1 June 2003. Retrieved 15 October 2012.

26 Porter, Roy. The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity. New York: W. W.
Norton, 1997, p. 97.

27 Kamiar, Mohammad. Brilliant Biruni: A Life Story of Abu Rayhan Mohammad Ibn Ahmad. Lanham,
Md: Scarecrow Press, 2009.

28 Ruska, Julius. Al-Birūni als Quelle für das Leben und die Schriften al-Rāzi's. Bruxelles:
Weissenbruch, 1922.

29 Joseph Needham; Ling Wang (1954). 中國科學技術史. Cambridge University Press. pp. 219–.
ISBN 978-0-521-05799-8.

30 Jacques Gernet (31 May 1996). A History of Chinese Civilization. Cambridge University Press.
pp. 34–. ISBN 978-0-521-49781-7.

6
33 Gunton, Simon. The History of the Church of Peterborough. London, Richard Chiswell, publisher,
1686. Facsimile edition published by Clay, Tyas, and Watkins in Peterborough and Stamford (1990).
Item Fv. on pp. 187–8.

34 Fuat Sezgin (1970). Ar-Razi. In: Geschichte des arabischen Schrifttums Bd. III: Medizin – Pharmazie
– Zoologie – Tierheilkunde = History of the Arabic literature Vol. III: Medicine – Pharmacology –
Veterinary Medicine. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 276, 283.

35. Evans, Imogen; Thornton, Hazel; Chalmers, Iain; Glasziou, Paul (2011-01-01). Testing Treatments:
Better Research for Better Healthcare (2nd ed.). London: Pinter & Martin. ISBN 9781905177486.
PMID 22171402.

36 http://www.islamicmedicine.org/alrazi3.htm

37 Islamic Science, the Scholar and Ethics, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.

38 Rāzī, Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakarīyā. "The Comprehensive Book on Medicine – ‫اااا‬
‫"اااا اا اااااا‬. World Digital Library. Retrieved 2014-03-02.

39 "The Comprehensive Book on Medicine – ‫"اااااا اااا‬. World Digital Library (in Arabic).
Around 1674 CE. Retrieved March 2, 2014. Check date values in: |date= (help)

40 Rāzī, Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakarīyā (1529). "The Comprehensive Book on Medicine –
Continens Rasis". World Digital Library (in Latin). Retrieved March 2, 2014.

41 Emilie Savage-Smith (1996), "Medicine", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., Encyclopedia of the History of
Arabic Science, Vol. 3, p. 903-962 [917]. Routledge, London and New York.

42 Bashar Saad, Omar Said, Greco-Arab and Islamic Herbal Medicine: Traditional System, Ethics,
Safety, Efficacy, and Regulatory Issues, John Wiley & Sons, 2011. ISBN 9781118002261, page

43 A Treatise on the Small-pox and Measles, Translated by William Alexander Greenhill, Published by
Printed for the Sydenham Society [by C and J. Adlrd], 1848, pp. 252, URL

  M. Th. Houtsma, ed. (1993). E. J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936. 4. Brill. p. 1101.
ISBN 90-04-09790-2.

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/18976043/

  Marenbon, John (14 June 2012). The Oxford Handbook of Medieval Philosophy. Oxford University
Press. pp. 69–70. ISBN 9780195379488.

  Deuraseh, Nurdeng (2008). "Risalat Al-Biruni Fi Fihrist Kutub Al-Razi: A Comprehensive

Bibliography of the Works of Abu Bakr Al-Rāzī (d. 313 A.h/925) and Al-Birūni (d. 443/1051)". Journal
of Aqidah and Islamic Thought. 9: 51–100.

  Abdul Latif Muhammad al-Abd (1978). Al-ṭibb al-rūḥānī li Abū Bakr al-Rāzī. Cairo: Maktabat al-
Nahḍa al-Miṣriyya. pp. 4, 13, 18.

  Ebstein, Michael (2013-11-25). Mysticism and Philosophy in al-Andalus: Ibn Masarra, Ibn al-
ʿArabī and the Ismāʿīlī Tradition. BRILL. p. 41. ISBN 9789004255371.

  Seyyed Hossein Nasr, and Mehdi Amin Razavi, An Anthology of Philosophy in Persia, vol. 1, (New
York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 353, quote: "Among the other eminent figures who attacked
Rāzī are the Ismāʿīlī philosopher Abū Ḥatem Rāzī, who wrote two books to refute Rāzī's views on

7
theodicy, prophecy, and miracles; and Nāṣir-i Khusraw. Shahrastānī, however, indicates that such
accusations should be doubted since they were made by Ismāʿīlīs, who had been severely attacked by
Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyā Rāzī"

  Sarah Stroumsa (1999). Freethinkers of Medieval Islam: Ibn Al-Rawandi, Abu Bakr Al-Razi and
Their Impact on Islamic Thought. Brill.

  Kraus, P; Pines, S (1913–1938). "Al-Razi". Encyclopedia of Islam. p. 1136.

  Paul E. Walker (1992). "The Political Implications of Al-Razi's Philosophy". In Charles E.

Butterworth. The Political aspects of Islamic philosophy: essays in honor of Muhsin S. Mahdi. Harvard
University Press. pp. 87–89.

  William Montgomery Watt (14 April 2004). "BĪRŪNĪ and the study of non-Islamic Religions".
Retrieved 2008-01-25.

  Seyyed Hossein Nasr (1993), An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines, p. 166. State
University of New York Press, ISBN 0-7914-1516-3.

  Shlomo Pines (1986), Studies in Arabic versions of Greek texts and in mediaeval science, 2, Brill
Publishers, p. 340, ISBN 965-223-626-8

  Shlomo Pines (1986), Studies in Arabic versions of Greek texts and in mediaeval science, 2, Brill
Publishers, p. 362, ISBN 965-223-626-8

  Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina—Al-Biruni correspondence", Islam & Science,
December 2003.

  Corbin, Henry (1998). The Voyage and the Messenger: Iran and Philosophy. North Atlantic Books.
p. 72. ISBN 9781556432699. Al-Razi was posthumously accused of having plagiarized his master in
Nasr-i-Khosraw polemics, and the latter did not hide his sympathy for Iranshahri.

  George Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science (1927–48), 1.609

  "rvsri.com".

  qhu.ac.ir, Razi commemoration day

  UNIS. "Monument to Be Inaugurated at the Vienna International Centre, ‘Scholars Pavilion’

donated to International Organizations in Vienna by Iran".

  "Permanent mission of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the United Nations office - Vienna".

65.  Hosseini, Mir Masood. "Negareh: Persian Scholars Pavilion at United Nations Vienna,
Austria".

References
 Browne, Edward Granville (2001). Islamic Medicine. Goodword Books Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 81-87570-19-9.

 Richter-Bernburg, Lutz. "AL-ḤĀWI". Encyclopaedia Iranica. 1. ISBN 0-933273-54-1.

8
Primary literature
By Razi

 Arberry, A.J. (1950). "The Spiritual Physick of Rhazes". The Wisdom of the East Series.
 See C. Brockelmann for the manuscript of Razi's extant books in general, see Brockelmann,
Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur, I, pp. 268–71 (second edition), Suppl., Vol. I, pp. 418–
21.
 Paul Kraus, Abi Bakr Mohammadi Filii Zachariae Raghensis: Opera Philosophica,
fragmentaque quae superssunt. Pars Prior. Cairo 1939
 Abdul Latif Muhammad al-Abd (1978). Al-ṭibb al-rūḥānī li Abū Bakr al-Rāzī. Cairo: Maktabat
al-Nahḍa al-Miṣriyya.

By others

 Ibn Al-Nadim, Fihrist, (ed. Flugel), pp. 299 et sqq.

 Sa'id al-Andalusi, Tabaqat al-Umam, p. 33
 Ibn Juljul, Tabaqat al-Atibba w-al-Hukama, (ed. Fu'ad Sayyid), Cairo, 1355/1936, pp. 77–78
 J. Ruska, Al-Biruni als Quelle fur das Leben und die Schriften al-Razi's, Isis, Vol. V, 1924,
pp. 26–50.
 Al-Biruni, Epitre de Beruni, contenant le repertoire des ouvres de Muhammad ibn Zakariya ar-
Razi, publiee par P. Kraus, Paris, 1936
 Al-Baihaqi, Tatimmah Siwan al-Hikma, (ed. M. Ghafi), Lahore, 1351/1932
 Al-Qifti,Tarikh al-Hukama, (ed. Lippert), pp. 27–177
 Ibn Abi Usaibi'ah,Uyun al-Anba fi Tabaqat al-Atibba, Vol. I, pp. 309–21
 Abu Al-Faraj ibn al-'Ibri (Bar-Hebraeus),Mukhtasar Tarikh al-Duwal, (ed. A. Salhani), p. 291
 Ibn Khallikan, Wafayat al-A'yan, (ed. Muhyi al-Din 'Abd al-Hamid), Cairo, 1948, No. 678,
pp. 244–47
 Al-Safadi, Nakt al-Himyan, pp. 249–50
 Ibn Al-'Imad, Shadharat al-Dhahab, Vol. II, p. 263
 Al-'Umari, Masalik al-Absar, Vol. V, Part 2, ff. 301-03 (photostat copy in Dar al-Kutub al-
Misriyyah).

Secondary literature

 G. S. A. Ranking, The Life and Works of Rhazes, in Proceedings of the Seventeenth

International Congress of Medicine, London, 1913, pp. 237–68.
 Al-Razi als Bahnbrecher einer neuer Chemie, Deutsche Literaturzeitung, 1923, pp. 118–24.
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 Richter-Bernburg, Lutz. "AL-ḤĀWI". Encyclopaedia Iranica. 1. ISBN 0-933273-54-1.

 Encyclopaedie des Islams, s. v. (by Ruska).

Mysticism in Contemporary Islamic Political Thought: Orhan Pamuk

and Abdolkarim Soroush....

The limits of the sacred: The epistemology of ʻabd al-Karim soroush

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