Physics

Ultrasound is the name given to sound waves that have

frequencies greater than 20000Hz. It's too high pitched for
human hearing, but many animals, such as dogs, cats and bats
can hear ultrasound.
Ultrasound has many applications in medicine. These include:
 Checking the condition of a foetus
 Investigating liver problems
 Investigating heart problems
 Breaking down kidney stones and stones elsewhere in
the body
 Measuring the speed of blood flow in the body
Medical images from ultrasound
The ultrasound is sent into the patients body. At
each boundary between different tissues or organs some of the
ultrasound is reflected.
The depth of each layer is calculated using the time taken for
each reflected wave to return. The reflected waves (echoes) are
usually processed to produce a picture of the inside of the body
on a screen.
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The ultrasound waves used to image babies and soft tissue
organs have small amplitude so are low energy. This makes it
safer for the patient, as no damage is done to any living cells.
The alternative is X-rays which are high energy electromagnetic
waves and which have enough energy to damage or kill human
cells.
Breaking down kidney stones and stones elsewhere in
the body
A high powered ultrasound wave is used to break down kidney
stones and other stones in the body. The stones vibrate until
 they shake themselves apart and are then easily passed out of
the body via the urethra.
If the ultrasound waves reflect off a moving object the frequency
of the echoes alters. It's known as a Doppler ultrasound
scanner.
This technique can be used to check the speed of blood flow to
the brain, and decide if a patient is at risk of suffering a stroke.

Radioactive atoms
When an unstable nucleus decays, there are three ways that it
can do so.
It may give out:
 an alpha particle
 a beta particle
 a gamma ray
Types of radiation
Type of What is it?
radiation

Alpha particle Two protons and two neutrons – the same as a helium
nucleus

Beta particle Fast-moving electron

Gamma ray High energy electromagnetic radiation

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You need to know the effect of alpha and beta decay on the
nucleus. The nucleus of an atom can be represented as:

Where:
 A = atomic mass (number of protons + neutrons)
 Z = atomic number (number of protons)
 X = chemical symbol (as shown on the Periodic Table)

Alpha decay
When an alpha particle is emitted from a nucleus the nucleus
loses two protons and two neutrons. This means the atomic mass
number decreases by 4 and the atomic number decreases by 2.
A new element is formed that is two places lower in the Periodic
Table than the original element.
Example:
Radon decays into polonium when it emits an alpha particle. Here
is the equation for that radioactive decay.

Beta decay
In Beta decay a neutron changes into a proton plus an electron.
The proton stays in the nucleus and the electron leaves the atom
with high energy, and we call it a beta particle.
When a beta particle is emitted from the nucleus the nucleus has
one more proton and one less neutron. This means the atomic
mass number remains unchanged and the atomic number
increases by 1.
Example:
Carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope of carbon. (It's a carbon atom
with 8 neutrons instead of the usual 6.) Here is the equation for
the beta decay of carbon-14 into nitrogen.

X-rays, gamma rays and beta particles are all used in

medicine to treat internal organs. X-rays are produced by
firing electrons at a metal target and gamma rays are
emitted by the nucleus of radioactive atoms.
Gamma rays are used to kill cancer cells, to sterilise
medical equipment and in radioactive tracers.
Radiation
X-rays, gamma rays and beta particles are all used in medicine.
X-rays and gamma rays are members of the same group of
waves called the electromagnetic spectrum.

As both X-rays and gamma rays have very short

wavelengths they are both very penetrating and can pass into
the body to treat internal organs. The main difference between
them is the way they're produced. X-rays are produced by
firing electronsat a metal target in an X-ray machine. Gamma
rays are emitted by the nucleus of an unstable (radioactive)
atom.
There are two other radiations emitted by the nucleus of an
unstable atom – alpha and beta particles. Due to their
relatively large size alpha particles are easily stopped by our skin
and are not used in medical diagnosis or therapy. Beta particles
can pass through skin so are used in medicine.
Penetrative properties of different types of radiation

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X-rays are manufactured by an X-ray machine. A hot cathode
emits electrons that are attracted to a tungsten anode. When the
fast-moving electrons hit the target, most of their kinetic energy
is transferred to heat but some is transferred to X-rays.

This machine allows the energy and intensity of the X-rays to be

controlled. Gamma rays, on the other hand, are given out by the
nucleus of an unstable atom. This process is totally random and
so cannot be controlled as easily as X-rays.
Gamma rays are high energy electromagnetic waves which are
only stopped by thick lead. This means they can easily pass
through medical equipment, such as syringes.

As gamma rays pass through the packaging they will kill living
tissue such as viruses and bacteria. As long as the equipment
remains in a sealed plastic pack it will remain free of viruses and
bacteria.
Tracer
CT scan in progress
A radioactive tracer is used to investigate a patient’s body
without the need for invasive surgery. A small amount of
radioactive material is put into the patient’s body and a
radiographer puts a detector around the body to detect any
gamma rays or beta particles that pass out of the patient’s body.
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The source used is either a beta or gamma emitter and is put into
a drink, ingested or injected, depending on which part of the
body is being investigated. The radioactive material is given
enough time to move around the body before a radiographer
positions a detector outside the body which can produce a picture
of the patient’s internal organs.
Treating cancer
High-powered gamma rays are used to kill cancer cells inside
the body. As the gamma rays strong enough to kill cancer cells
would also kill healthy cells around the tumour, several weaker
sources are used and arranged so the gamma rays are focused
on the tumour. This concentrates the gamma rays on the cells
that need to be killed.