1 Redshift and conformal time

Photon trajectories. Recall from GR that a photon’s trajectory is described

by xµ (s) where s is the affine parameter. The photon’s momentum is

dxµ
Pµ = . (1)
ds
The photon’s energy as seen by an observer with 4-velocity u is

E = −uµ P µ . (2)

In vacuum the photon travels along a geodesic:

dP µ
= −Γµαβ P α P β . (3)
ds
The photon travels on a null curve, so

gµν P µ P ν = 0. (4)

Redshift. In the last lecture we considered the FRW metric,

ds2 = −dt2 + a2 (t)[dχ2 + f (χ)(dθ2 + sin2 θ dφ2 )]. (5)

Let’s imagine that we’re at the origin χ = 0, looking in some direction (θ, φ),
at time t0 . A photon is emitted somewhere else in the universe at (ti , χi , θ, φ),
initially has energy Ei , and starts traveling toward us. Our job is to determine
the energy E0 that is observed.
By spherical symmetry, a photon traveling radially will stay at constant
θ, φ. (Literal statement: if P θ = P φ = 0 then dP θ /ds = dP φ /ds = 0.) The
requirement of a null trajectory then means

−E 2 + a2 (P χ )2 = 0; (6)

for inward-going photon,

E
Pχ = − . (7)
a
So let’s get out the Christoffel symbols:
   2
dE t 2 t E t E
= −Γtt E − Γtχ E − − Γχχ − . (8)
ds a a

But of these symbols the only nonzero one is

Γtχχ = aȧ, (9)

so
dE ȧ
= − E2. (10)
ds a

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We really want dE/dt so use
dt
= P t = E, (11)
ds
so
dE dE/ds ȧ
Ė ≡ = = − E. (12)
dt dt/ds a
The solution to this, as expected, is E ∝ a−1 , or in terms of wavelength λ ∝
E −1 ∝ a.
If a photon was emitted at time ti then its wavelength observed today must
be
a(t0 )
λ0 = λi . (13)
a(ti )
It is conventional to define the redshift z according to
λ0 − λi a(t0 ) − a(ti )
z≡ = . (14)
λi a(ti )
So if we normalize the scale factor today, a(t0 ) = 1, then
1
a(ti ) = . (15)
1+z
The redshift-time relation z(t) is simply another way to parameterize the ex-
pansion of the Universe.
Conformal time. One of the most important quantities in cosmology is
the relation between redshift and “distance” – if we see an object at z = 2, what
is its radial coordinate χi where the photon was emitted?
Since the photon’s trajectory is null, uµ uµ = 0:
−(ut )2 + a2 (uχ )2 = 0 (16)

for a photon moving radially (uθ = uφ = 0). This means

dχ uχ 1
= t =± . (17)
dt u a
For a photon moving toward us we take the − solution, so integrate:
Z t0
dt
χ0 − χi = − . (18)
ti a
The radial coordinate today (observed) is χ0 = 0 so
Z t0
dt
χi = . (19)
ti a
Let’s define the conformal time η by
dt
Z
η(t) = , (20)
a

2
so
χi = η0 − ηi (21)
where η0 is the conformal time today and ηi is the conformal time of emission.
We haven’t defined the “zero point” of conformal time (constant of integra-
tion in Eq. 20). Usually take η = 0 at the Big Bang, except when studying
inflation.
The conformal time η, scale factor a, redshift z, and proper time t are all
different possible time coordinates and we are free to choose among them.
When we do perturbation theory it will be useful to write the metric with η
instead of t. Since
dt = a dη, (22)
we have
ds2 = a2 (η)[−dη 2 + dχ2 + f (χ)(dθ2 + sin2 θ dφ2 )]. (23)
In the special case of a spatially flat universe where f (χ) = χ2 the quantity
in brackets is the Minkowski metric (in polar coordinates). The factor a2 is a
conformal transformation, hence the name “conformal time.”
Horizon. The most distant objects that we can see are the ones whose light
left them at the Big Bang. Their radial coordinate χ is
χ = η0 . (24)

The sphere centered on the observer at this distance is known as the horizon.
Objects beyond the horizon cannot be seen.
R
The horizon only exists if the integral dt/a is convergent at the Big Bang.
(We’ll come back to this when we study inflation.)

2 Distance measures
We’ve already described one measure of distance to a galaxy, χ. This is called
the radial comoving distance. It is the distance that would be measured at the
present epoch by laying down a sequence of rulers end-to-end from us to the
galaxy that are at rest with respect to the comoving observers. That is,
Z galaxy
χ= ds, (25)
observer

where the path of integration is at constant t, θφ and is at the present, a = 1.

The word “comoving” here refers to the fact that the distances are measured
with the size of the Universe at the present epoch, not the fact that the rulers
are at rest with respect to the comoving observer.
Nobody can measure the radial comoving distance, so we have several other
quantities.
• The angular diameter distance DA , which is the distance that goes in
the relation between angular diameter ∆θ and physical diameter Sphys :
∆θ = S/DA .

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 • The comoving angular diameter distance r, which is the distance that goes
in the relation between angular diameter α and the comoving diameter
Scom (i.e. the diameter of a stucture today if it expands with the Hubble
flow): ∆θ = Scom /r.
• The luminosity distance DL , which is the distance that goes in the relation
between flux F of a source (in W/m2 ) and luminosity L (in W): F =
2
L/(4πDL ).
So we need to calculate each of these.
Angular diameter distance. From the metric we can see that the physical
diameter subtended by an object is
Z Z √ Z p p
Sphys = ds = 2
ds = a2 f (χ) dθ2 = a f (χ) ∆θ. (26)

The angular diameter distance is the coefficient of proportionality,

p
DA = a f (χ). (27)

A special case is the spatially flat universe, where f (χ) = χ2 . Then

DA = aχ. (28)

This distance can be measured if we have an object of known physical size

(“standard ruler”).
Comoving angular diameter distance. Now instad of using the physical
diameter of an object, we will use the comoving diameter, that is the size if it
keeps expanding with the Hubble flow. This means that the object expands by
a factor of a0 /a = 1/a. Thus

Sphys p
Scom = = f (χ) ∆θ. (29)
a
The comoving angular diameter distance is the coefficient of proportionality,

p  χ K=0
r = f (χ) = K −1/2 sin(K 1/2 χ) K>0 (30)
(−K)−1/2 sinh[(−K)1/2 χ] K<0


Note that r = χ for the spatially flat universe.

This distance can be measured if we have an object of known comoving size.
Example would be a statistical feature in the distribution of galaxies, which will
grow as we go to later times because of Hubble expansion.
For most objects it is easier to measure redshift than distance. If we know
z and hence a = 1/(1 + z) and one of r or DA then we can find the other from
χ
DA = aχ = . (31)
1+z

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 Luminosity distance. A third possible distance arises from the relation of
flux to luminosity,
L
F = 2 . (32)
4πDL
Need to find constant of proportionality between L and F .
Consider a blackbody of diameter Sphys and temperature T . The phase
space density of photons emerging from it is
1
f= , (33)
eEi /kT − 1
where Ei is the energy of the emitted photon. When these photons get to the
observer, the energy has declined to
Ei
E0 = . (34)
1+z
By conservation of phase space density (Liouville’s theorem), the phase space
density today is
1
f = E (1+z)/kT , (35)
e 0 −1
so the observer sees a blackbody at temperature T0 = T /(1 + z).
Now the luminosity of the object is
 2
Sphys
L = 4π σT 4 . (36)
2

σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant.
The flux for a blackbody of solid angle
 2
∆θ
Ω=π . (37)
2

is
Ω 4
F =σT (38)
π 0
[Constant out front occurs because the net downward flux in one direction, say
the e3 axis, from a blackbody that fills the sky is σT04 . Therefore
2π π/2
dF dF dF
Z Z Z
σT04 = cos θ dΩ = cos θ sin θ dθ dφ = π . (39)
hemisphere dΩ 0 0 dΩ dΩ

The cos θ comes from the fact that the flux is actually a vector.]
This simplifies to
 2  4
∆θ T
F = σ . (40)
2 1+z

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Compare to L:
 2
L Sphys
= 4π (1 + z)4 . (41)
F ∆θ
We recognize the ratio Sphys /∆θ as the angular diameter distance:

L 2
= 4πDA (1 + z)4 . (42)
F
2
So the left hand side is 4πDL and thus

DL = DA (1 + z)2 = r(1 + z). (43)

3 Example: Einstein de Sitter Universe

Now that we’ve done the theory, let’s see how these equations play out in the
simplest universe, the Einstein-de Sitter universe. This is a universe that is
spatially flat and consists only of matter (w = 0). It is NOT the real universe
because it doesn’t have a Λ.
Density today is given by the Friedmann equation in terms of the Hubble
constant,
8
H02 = πGρ0 , (44)
3
so
3H02
ρ0 = . (45)
8πG
The scale factor as a function of time we solved in the previous lecture:
 2/3(1+w)  1/3(1+w)
3(1 + w) 8
a= πGρ0 t2/3(1+w) . (46)
2 3

For w = 0 and above ρ0 :

 2/3
3
a= H0 t . (47)
2
The time today (age of the Universe!) is
2
t0 = . (48)
3H0
The Hubble constant as a function of time is
2
H= = H0 a−3/2 . (49)
3t
The time as a function of scale factor is
2 3/2
t= a . (50)
3H0

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 The conformal time is
 2/3 Z  2/3  2/3  1/3
dt 2 dt 2 2 2 2 1/2
Z
1/3
η= = = 3t = 3 a1/2 = a .
a 3H0 t2/3 3H0 3H0 3H0 H0
(51)
The conformal time today (horizon distance!) is
2
η0 = . (52)
H0
Now let’s look at distance-redshift relations. The comoving radial distance
is  
2 1/2 2 1
χ = η0 − η = (1 − a ) = 1− √ . (53)
H0 H0 1+z
For a spatially flat universe, r is the same as χ. The angular diameter and
luminosity distances differ by a factor of 1 + z:
 
2 1
DA = 1− √ . (54)
H0 (1 + z) 1+z
and
2 √

DL = 1+z− 1+z . (55)
H0
In the limit where z ≪ 1 can show
z
χ, r, DA , DL → . (56)
H0
This relation between the distance and redshift is known as Hubble’s law and
we will show next time that it applies to all nonsingular FRW models.

4 Density parameters, general expressions for

the distances
Density parameters. It is often helpful to define the dimensionless density
parameters that describe the distribution of the Universe’s energy in different
constituents. To do this let’s define the critical density:

3H 2
ρcrit = . (57)
8πG
From the Friedmann equation we know that this is the density that would make
the Universe flat. For each constituent in the Universe, we can define a density
parameter:
ρX
ΩX = . (58)
ρcrit

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Here X could be baryons, dark matter, radiation, cosmological constant, etc.
The Friedmann equation then says
8 X K
πGρcrit ΩX = H 2 + 2 , (59)
3 a
X

or:
X K
H2 ΩX = H 2 + . (60)
a2
X

It is common to define a curvature parameter,

K
ΩK ≡ − . (61)
a2 H 2
This way the Friedmann equation simply says:
X
ΩX + ΩK = 1. (62)
X

Constraints on curvature are often written in terms of ΩK . Interpretation:

• For a spatially flat universe, ΩK = 0.
√
• For a closed universe, ΩK < 0 and the radius of curvature is aR = a/ K =
|ΩK |−1/2 H −1 .
• For an open universe, ΩK > 0. The imaginary radius of curvature is
1/2
iΩK H −1 .
The curvature today (a = 1) can be expressed in terms of ΩK :

K = −ΩK H02 . (63)

Warning: ΩK does not correspond to an actual density, it’s just a number

introduced to make the Friedmann equation look simple.
Warning 2: In the literature Ωm , ΩΛ , etc. usually refer to values today, even
though physically they’re redshift-dependent.
Expansion history. Given a Hubble constant H0 and a set of Ωs it’s
possible to construct the Hubble constant and distances as a function of redshift.
We’ll consider a universe that has
• Cosmological constant, Λ (density ρΛ =constant);
• Curvature, K;
• (Nonrelativistic) matter, m (ρm ∝ a−3 );
• Radiation, r (ρr ∝ a−4 ).

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So today the Friedmann equation says
ΩΛ + Ωm + Ωr + ΩK = 1. (64)
Let’s now go to some previous scale factor a. The total density of the universe
back then was
ρ(a) = ρΛ0 + ρm0 a−3 + ρr0 a−4
= ρcrit,0 (ΩΛ + Ωm a−3 + Ωr a−4 ). (65)
The Hubble constant at a is:
8 K
H2 = πGρ(a) − 2
3 a
8 ΩK H02
= πGρcrit,0 (ΩΛ + Ωm a−3 + Ωr a−4 ) +
3 a2
2 −3 −4 −2
= H0 (ΩΛ + Ωm a + Ωr a + ΩK a ). (66)
Let’s define the energy function E(a) by:
p
E(a) = ΩΛ + Ωm a−3 + Ωr a−4 + ΩK a−2 . (67)
Then the Hubble constant varies with redshift according to
p
H(z) = H0 E(z). (68)
The present age of the universe is:
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
da da −1 da
t0 = dt = = = H0 p . (69)
a=0 0 ȧ 0 aH 0 a E(a)

This integral can also be written in terms of redshift:

Z ∞
−1 dz
t 0 = H0 p . (70)
0 (1 + z) E(z)
The age of the universe at some previous time can be written as:
Z ∞
−1 dz ′
t(z) = H0 p . (71)
z (1 + z ′ ) E(z ′ )
For observers these relations are extremely useful because z is usually observable
whereas t, H, etc. are much harder.
Distance measures. The conformal time in one of these models is
dt da da da dz
Z Z Z Z Z
−1 −1
η= = = 2
= H 0 p = −H 0 p . (72)
a aȧ a H 2
a E(a) E(z)
So at a particular redshift, and taking the initial condition η = 0 at z = ∞:
Z ∞
dz ′
η(z) = H0−1 p . (73)
z E(z ′ )

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The radial comoving distance is:
z
dz ′
Z
χ(z) = η0 − η(z) = H0−1 p . (74)
0 E(z ′ )

We can then obtain the other distance measures from


 χ K=0
r= K −1/2 sin(K 1/2 χ) K>0 (75)
(−K)−1/2 sinh[(−K)1/2 χ] K<0


and
r
DL = r(1 + z); DA = . (76)
1+z

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