Understanding Power Quality Problems by Math.H.J.Bollen-ilovepdf-compressed PDF

UNDERSTANDING POWER
QUALITY PROBLEMS
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UNDERSTANDING
POWER QUALITY
PROBLEMS
Voltage Sags
and Interruptions
Math H. J. Bollen
Chalmers University of Technology
Gothenburg, Sweden
IEEE Industry Applications Society, Sponsor
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SERIES ~II
ONPOWER
ENGINEERING
P. M. Anderson, Series Editor
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Bollen, Math H. J., 1960-
Understanding power quality problems: voltage sags and interruptions
Math H. J. Bollen.
p. em. - (IEEE Press series on power engineering)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
IBSN 0..7803-4713-7
l. Electric power system stability. 2. Electric power failures.
3. Brownouts. 4. Electric power systems-Quality control.
I. Title. II. Series.
IN PROCESS
621.319-dc21 99-23546
CIP
The master said, to learn and at due times to repeat what one has learnt, is
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BOOKS IN THE IEEE PRESS SERIES ON POWER ENGINEERING
ELECTRIC POWER APPLICATIONS OF FUZZY SYSTEMS

Edited by Mohamed E. El-Hawary, Dalhousie University
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ANALYSIS OF FAULTED POWER SYSTEMS, Revised Printing

P. M. Anderson, Power Math Associates, Inc.
ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS: Design and Analysis, Revised Printing

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POWER AND COMMUNICATION CABLES: Theory and Applications

Edited by R. Bartnikas and K. D. Srivastava
Contents
PREFACE xiii
FTP SITE INFORMATION xv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xvii
CHAPTER 1 Overvlew of Power Quality and Power Quality

Standards 1
1.1 Interest in Power Quality 2
1.2 Power Quality, Voltage Quality 4
1.3 Overview of Power Quality Phenomena 6
1.3.1 Voltage and Current Variations 6
1.3.2 Events 14
1.3.3 Overview of Voltage Magnitude Events 19
1.4 Power Quality and EMC Standards 22
1.4.1 Purpose of Standardization 22
1.4.2 The tsc Electromagnetic Compatibility Standards 24
1.4.3 The European Voltage Characteristics Standard 29
CHAPTER 2 Long Interruptions and Reliability Evaluation 35

2.1 Introduction 35
2.1.1 Interruptions 35
2.1.2 Reliability Evaluation of Power Systems 35
2.1.3 Terminology 36
2.1.4 Causes of Long Interruptions 36
2.2 Observation of System Performance 37
2.2.1 Basic Indices 37
2.2.2 Distribution of the Duration of an Interruption 40
2.2.3 Regional Variations 42
vii
viii Con ten ts
2.2.4 Origin of Interruptions 43

2.2.5 More Information 46
2.3 Standards and Regulations 48
2.3.1 Limits for the Interruption Frequency 48
2.3.2 Limits for the Interruption Duration 48
2.4 Overview of Reliability Evaluation 50
2.4.1 Generation Reliability 51
2.4.2 Transmission Reliability 53
2.4.3 Distribution Reliability 56
2.4.4 Industrial Power Systems 58
2.5 Basic Reliability Evaluation Techniques 62
2.5. J Basic Concepts of Reliability Evaluation Techniques 62
2.5.2 Network Approach 69
2.5.3 State-Based and Event-Based Approaches 77
2.5.4 Markov Models 80
2.5.5 Monte Carlo Simulation 89
2.5.6 Aging of Components 98
2.6 Costs of Interruptions 101
2.7 Comparison of Observation and Reliability Evaluation 106
2.8 Example Calculations 107
2.8.1 A Primary Selective Supply 107
2.8.2 Adverse Weather 108
2.8.3 Parallel Components 110
2.8.4 Two-Component Model with Aging and Maintenance III
CHAPTER 3 Short Interruptions 115

3.1 Introduction 115
3.2 Terminology 115
3.3 Origin of Short Interruptions 116
3.3.1 Basic Principle 116
3.3.2 Fuse Saving 117
3.3.3 Voltage Magnitude Events due to Reclosing 118
3.3.4 Voltage During the Interruption 119
3.4 Monitoring of Short Interruptions 121
3.4.1 Example of Survey Results 121
3.4.2 Difference between Medium- and Low-Voltage Systems 123
3.4.3 Multiple Events 124
3.5 Influence on Equipment 125
3.5.1 Induction Motors 126
3.5.2 Synchronous Motors 126
3.5.3 Adjustable-Speed Drives 126
3.5.4 Electronic Equipment 127
3.6 Single-Phase Tripping 127
3.6.1 Voltage-During-Fault Period 127
3.6.2 Voltage-Post-Fault Period 129
3.6.3 Current-During-Fault Period 134
3.7 Stochastic Prediction of Short Interruptions 136
Contents ix
CHAPTER 4 Voltage Sags-Characterization 139

4.2 Voltage Sag Magnitude 140
4.2.1 Monitoring 140
4.2.2 Theoretical Calculations 147
4.2.3 Example of Calculation of Sag Magnitude 153
4.2.4 Sag Magnitude in Non-Radial Systems 156
4.2.5 Voltage Calculations in Meshed Systems 166
4.3 Voltage Sag Duration 168
4.3.1 Fault-Clearing Time 168
4.3.2 Magnitude-Duration Plots 169
4.3.3 Measurement of Sag Duration 170
4.4 Three-Phase Unbalance 174
4.4.1 Single-Phase Faults 174
4.4.2 Phase-to-Phase Faults 182
4.4.3 Two-Phase-to-Ground Faults 184
4.4.4 Seven Types of Three-Phase Unbalanced Sags 187
4.5 Phase-Angle Jumps 198
4.5.1 Monitoring 199
4.5.2 Theoretical Calculations 201
4.6 Magnitude and Phase-Angle Jumps for Three-Phase Unbalanced
Sags 206
4.6.1 Definition of Magnitude and Phase-Angle Jump 206
4.6.2 Phase-to-Phase Faults 209
4.6.3 Single-Phase Faults 216
4.6.4 Two-Phase-to-Ground Faults 222
4.6.5 High-Impedance Faults 227
4.6.6 Meshed Systems 230
4.7 Other Characteristics of Voltage Sags 231
4.7.1 Point-on-Wave Characteristics 231
4.7.2 The Missing Voltage 234
4.8 Load Influence on Voltage Sags 238
4.8.1 Induction Motors and Three-Phase Faults 238
4.8.2 Induction Motors and Unbalanced Faults 24 t
4.8.3 Power Electronics Load 248
4.9 Sags due to Starting of Induction Motors 248
CHAPTER S Voltage Sags-Equipment Behavior 253

5.1.1 Voltage Tolerance and Voltage-Tolerance Curves 253
5.1.2 Voltage-Tolerance Tests 255
5.2 Computers and Consumer Electronics 256
5.2.1 Typical Configuration of Power Supply 257
5.2.2 Estimation of Computer Voltage Tolerance 257
5.2.3 Measurements of PC Voltage Tolerance 261
5.2.4 Voltage-Tolerance Requirements: CBEMA and ITIC 263
5.2.5 Process Control Equipment 264
5.3 Adjustable-Speed AC Drives 265
5.3.1 Operation of AC Drives 266
5.3.2 Results of Drive Testing 267
5.3.3 Balanced Sags 272
x Con~nh
5.3.4 DC Voltage for Three-Phase Unbalanced Sags 274

5.3.5 Current Unbalance 285
5.3.6 Unbalanced Motor Voltages 289
5.3.7 Motor Deacceleration 292
5.3.8 Automatic Restart 296
5.3.9 Overview of Mitigation Methods for AC Drives 298
5.4 Adjustable-Speed DC Drives 300
5.4.1 Operation of DC Drives 300
5.4.2 Balanced Sags 303
5.4.3 Unbalanced Sags 308
5.4.4 Phase-Angle Jumps 312
5.4.5 Commutation Failures 315
5.4.6 Overview of Mitigation Methods for DC Drives 317
5.5 Other Sensitive Load 318
5.5.1 Directly Fed Induction Motors 318
5.5.2 Directly Fed Synchronous Motors 319
5.5.3 Contactors 321
5.5.4 Lighting 322
CHAPTER 6 Voltage Sags-Stochastic Assessment 325

6.1 Compatibility between Equipment and Supply 325
6.2 Presentation of Results: Voltage Sag Coordination Chart 328
6.2.1 The Scatter Diagram 328
6.2.2 The Sag Density Table 330
6.2.3 The Cumulative Table 331
6.2.4 The Voltage Sag Coordination Chart" 332
6.2.5 Example of the Use of the Voltage Sag Coordination Chart 335
6.2.6 Non-Rectangular Sags 336
6.2.7 Other Sag Characteristics 338
6.3 Power Quality Monitoring 342
6.3.,1 Power Quality Surveys 342
6.3.2 Individual Sites 357
6.4 The Method of Fault Positions 359
6.4.1 Stochastic Prediction Methods 359
6.4.2 Basics of the Method of Fault Positions 360
6.4.3 Choosing the Fault Positions 362
6.4.4 An Example of the Method of Fault Positions 366
6.5 The Method of Critical Distances 373
6.5.1 Basic Theory 373
6.5.2 Example-Three-Phase Faults 374
6.5.3 Basic Theory: More Accurate Expressions 375
6.5.4 An Intermediate Expression 376
6.5.5 Three-Phase Unbalance 378
6.5.6 Generator Stations 384
6.5.7 Phase-Angle Jumps 384
6.5.8 Parallel Feeders 385
6.5.9 Comparison with the Method of Fault Positions 387
Contents xi
CHAPTER 7 Mitigation of Interruptions and Voltage Sags 389

7.1 Overview of Mitigation Methods 389
7.1.1 From Fault to Trip 389
7.1.2 Reducing the Number of Faults 390
7.1.3 Reducing the Fault-Clearing Time 391
7.1.4 Changing the Power System 393
7.1.5 Installing Mitigation Equipment 394
7.1.6 Improving Equipment Immunity 395
7.1.7 Different Events and Mitigation Methods 395
7.2 Power System Design-Redundancy Through Switching 397
7.2.1 Types of Redundancy 397
7.2.2 Automatic Reclosing 398
7.2.3 Normally Open Points 398
7.2.4 Load Transfer 400
7.3 Power System Design-Redundancy through Parallel
Operation 405
7.3.1 Parallel and Loop Systems 405
7.3.2 Spot Networks 409
7.3.3 Power-System Design-On-site Generation 415
7.4 The System-Equipment Interface 419
7.4.1 Voltage-Source Converter 419
7.4.2 Series Voltage Controllers-DVR 420
7.4.3 Shunt Voltage Controllers-StatCom 430
7.4.4 Combined Shunt and Series Controllers 435
7.4.5 Backup Power Source-SMES, BESS 438
7.4.6 Cascade Connected Voltage Controllers-UPS 439
7.4.7 Other Solutions 442
7.4.8 Energy Storage 446
CHAPTER 8 Summary and Conclusions 453

8.1 Power Quality 453
8.1.1 The Future of Power Quality 454
8.1.2 Education 454
8.1.3 Measurement Data 454
8.2 Standardization 455
8.2.1 Future Developments 455
8.2.2 Bilateral Contracts 456
8.3 Interruptions 456
8.3.1 Publication of Interruption Data 456
8.4 Reliability 457
8.4.1 Verification 457
8.4.2 Theoretical Developments 457
8.5 Characteristics of Voltage Sags 458
8.5.1 Definition and Implementation of Sag Characteristics 458
8.5.2 Load Influence 458
8.6 Equipment Behavior due to Voltage Sags 459
8.6.1 Equipment Testing 459
8.6.2 Improvement of Equipment 460
8.7 Stochastic Assessment of Voltage Sags 460
8.7.1 Other Sag Characteristics 460
8.7.2 Stochastic Prediction Techniques 460
xii Contents
8.7.3 Power Quality Surveys 461

8.7.4 Monitoring or Prediction? 461
8.8 Mitigation Methods 462
8.9 Final Remarks 462
BIBLIOGRAPHY 465
APPENDIX A Overview of EMC Standards 477
APPENDIX B IEEE Standards on Power Quality 481
APPENDIX C Power Quality Definitions and Terminology 485
APPENDIX D List of Figures 507
APPENDIX E List of Tables 525
INDEX 529
ABOUT THE AUTHOR 543

Preface
The aims of the electric power system can be summarized as "to transport electrical
energy from the generator units to the terminals of electrical equipment" and "to
maintain the voltage at the equipment terminals within certain limits." For decades
research and education have been concentrated on the first aim. Reliability and quality
of supply were rarely an issue, the argument being that the reliability was sooner too
high than too low. A change in attitude came about probably sometime in the early
1980s. Starting in industrial and commercial power systems and spreading to the public
supply, the power quality virus appeared. It became clear that equipment regularly
experienced spurious trips due to voltage disturbances, but also that equipment was
responsible for many voltage and current disturbances. A more customer-friendly defi-
nition of reliability was that the power supply turned out to be much less reliable than
always thought. Although the hectic years of power quality pioneering appear to be
over, the subject continues to attract lots of attention. This is certain to continue into
the future, as customers' demands have become an important issue in the deregulation
of the electricity industry.
This book concentrates on the power quality phenomena that primarily affect the
customer: interruptions and voltage sags. During an interruption the voltage is com-
pletely zero, which is probably the worst quality of supply one can consider. During a
voltage sag the voltage is not zero, but is still significantly less than during normal
operation. Voltage sags and interruptions account for the vast majority of unwanted
equipment trips.
The material contained in the forthcoming chapters was developed by the author
during a to-year period at four different universities: Eindhoven, Curacao, Manchester,
and Gothenburg. I Large parts of the material were originally used for postgraduate and
industrial lectures both "at home" and in various places around the world. The material
will certainly be used again for this purpose (by the author and hopefully also by
others).
'Eindhoven University of Technology, University of the Netherlands Antilles, University of

Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, and Chalmers University of Technology, respectively.
xiii
xiv Preface
Chapter 1 of this book gives an introduction to the subject. After a systematic

overview of power quality, the term "voltage magnitude event" is introduced. Both
voltage sags and interruptions are examples of voltage magnitude events. The second
part of Chapter 1 discusses power quality standards, with emphasis on the IEC
standards on electromagnetic compatibility and the European voltage characteristics
standard (EN 50160).
In Chapter 2 the most severe power quality event is discussed: the (long) inter-
ruption. Various ways are presented of showing the results of monitoring the number of
interruptions. A large part of Chapter 2 is dedicated to the stochastic prediction of long
interruptions-v-an area better known as "reliability evaluation." Many of the techni-
ques described here can be applied equally well to the stochastic prediction of other
power quality events.
Chapter 3 discusses short interruptions-interruptions terminated by an auto-
matic restoration of the supply. Origin, monitoring, mitigation, effect on equipment,
and stochastic prediction are all treated in this chapter.
Chapter 4 is the first of three chapters on voltage sags. It treats voltage sags in a
descriptive way: how they can be characterized and how the characteristics may be
obtained through measurements and calculations. Emphasis in this chapter is on mag-
nitude and phase-angle jump of sags, as experienced by single-phase equipment and as
experienced by three-phase equipment.
Chapter 5 discusses the effect of voltage sags on equipment. The main types of
sensitive equipment are discussed in detail: single-phase rectifiers (computers, process-
control equipment, consumer electronics), three-phase ac adjustable-speed drives, and
de drives. Some other types of equipment are briefly discussed. The sag characteristics
introduced in Chapter 4 are used to describe equipment behavior in Chapter 5.
In Chapter 6 the theory developed in Chapters 4 and 5 is combined with statistical
and stochastical methods as described in Chapter 2. Chapter 6 starts with ways of
presenting the voltage-sag performance of the supply and comparing it with equipment
performance. The chapter continues with two ways of obtaining information about the
supply performance: power-quality monitoring and stochastic prediction. Both are
discussed in detail.
Chapter 7, the last main chapter of this book, gives an overview of methods for
mitigation of voltage sags and interruptions. Two methods are discussed in detail:
power system design and power-electronic controllers at the equipment-system inter-
face. The chapter concludes with a comparison of the various energy-storage techniques
available.
In Chapter 8 the author summarizes the conclusions from the previous chapters
and gives some of his expectations and hopes for the future. The book concludes with
three appendixes: Appendix A and Appendix B give a list of EMC and power quality
standards published by the IEC and the IEEE, respectively. Appendix C contains
definitions for the terminology used in this book as well as definitions from various
standard documents.
Math H. J. Bollen
Gothenburg, Sweden
FTP Site Information
Along with the publication of this book, an FTP site has been created containing
MATLAB® files for many figures in this book. The FTP site can be reached at
ftp.ieee.orgjupload/press/bollen.
xv
Acknowledgments
A book is rarely the product of only one person, and this book is absolutely no excep-
tion. Various people contributed to the final product, but first of all I would like to
thank my wife, Irene Gu, for encouraging me to start writing and for filling up my tea
cup every time I had another one of those "occasional but all too frequent crises."
For the knowledge described in this book lowe a lot to my teachers, my collea-
gues, and my students in Eindhoven, Curacao, Manchester, and Gothenburg and to my
colleagues and friends all over the world. A small number of them need to be especially
mentioned: Matthijs Weenink, Wit van den Heuvel, and Wim Kersten for teaching me
the profession; the two Larry's (Conrad and Morgan) for providing me with a contin-
uous stream of information on power quality; Wang Ping, Stefan Johansson, and the
anonymous reviewers for proofreading the manuscript. A final thank you goes to
everybody who provided data, figures, and permission to reproduce material from
other sources.
Math H. J. Bollen
Gothenburg, Sweden
xvii
Voor mijn ouders
Overview of Power Qual ity
and Power Qual ity Standards
Everybody does not agree with the use of the term powerquality, but they do agreet hat
it has becomeaveryimportantaspect of power delivery especially in the second half of
the 1990s.There is a lotof disagreementa boutwhat power quality actually incorpo-
rates; it looks as if everyone has her or his own
interpretation.In this chaptervarious
ideas will be summarized to clear up some of the confusion. However,author the
himself is part of the power quality world; thuspart of the confusion. After reading
this book the reader might want to go to the library and form his own picture. The
number of books onpower quality is still rather limited. The book "Electric Power
SystemsQuality" by Dugan et al. [75] gives a useful overviewof the various power
quality phenomenaand the recent developments in this field. There are two more books
with the term power quality in the title:"Electric Power QualityControl Techniques"
[76] and "Electric PowerQuality" [77]. But despite the general title, reference [76]
mainly concentrateson transientovervoltage and[77] mainly on harmonicdistortion.
But both books docontainsomeintroductorychapters on power quality. Also many
recent books on electric power systems containone or more general chapterson power
quality, for example,[114], [115], and [116]. Information on power qualitycannotbe
found only in books; a large numberof papers have been written on the subject; over-
view papers as well as technical papers aboutsmall detailsof power quality. The main
journals to look for technical papers are the IEEE Transactionson Industry
Applications, the IEEE Transactionson Power Delivery andlEE Proceedings-
Generation,Transmission,Distribution. Other technicaljournals in the power engi-
neering field alsocontainpapers of relevance. A journal specially dedicated to power
quality is Power Quality Assurance. Overview articles can be found in many different
journals;two early ones are[104] and [105].
Various sources use the term "power quality" with different meanings.Other
sources use similar but slightly different terminology like"quality of power supply"
or "voltage quality." What all these terms have in common that is they treat the
interaction between the utility and the customer, or in technical terms between the
power system and the load. Treatmentof this interaction is in itself not new. The
aim of the power system has always been to supply electrical energy to the customers.
1
2 ChapterI • Overview of PowerQuality and PowerQuality Standards
What is new is theemphasisthat is placedon this interaction,and the treatmentof it as

a separateareaof power engineering.In Section 1.2 the various termsand interpreta-
tions will be discussedin moredetail. From the discussionwe will concludethat "power
quality" is still the most suitableterm. The various power quality phenomenawill be
discussedandgroupedin Section1.3. Electromagneticcompatibility and powerquality
standardswill be treatedin detail in Section 1.4. But first Section 1.1 will give some
explanationsfor the increasedinterestin power quality.
1.1 INTEREST IN POWER QUALITY
The fact that powerquality hasbecomean issuerecently,doesnot meanthat it was not

important in the past. Utilities all over the world have for decadesworked on the
improvementof what is now known as power quality. And actually, even the term
has been in use for arather long time already. The oldest mentioning of the term
"power quality" known to the author was in a paper published in 1968 [95]. The
paper detailed a study by the U.S. Navy after specificationsfor the power required
by electronicequipment.That papergives a remarkablygood overview of the power
quality field, including the useof monitoringequipmentandeven thesuggesteduseof a
static transferswitch. Severalpublicationsappearedsoon after, which used theterm
power quality in relation to airborne power systems[96], [97], [98]. Already in 1970
"high powerquality" is beingmentionedas oneof the aimsof industrial powersystem
design,togetherwith "safety," "reliable service,"and "low initial and operatingcosts"
[99]. At about the sametime the term "voltage quality" was used in theScandinavian
countries[100], [101] and in the Soviet Union [102], mainly with referenceto slow
variationsin the voltage magnitude.
The recent increasedinterestin power quality can be explainedin a numberof
ways. The main explanationsgiven aresummarizedbelow. Of courseit is hard to say
which of these came first; some explanationsfor the interestin power quality given
below.. will by othersbe classified asconsequences o f the increasedinterestin power
quality. To showthe increasedintereston powerquality a comparisonwasmadefor the
numberof publicationsin the INSPECdatabase[118] using theterms"voltagequality"
or "power quality." For the period 1969-1984the INSPEC databasecontains 91
records containing the term "power quality" and 64 containing the term "voltage
quality." The period 1985-1996resulted in 2051 and 210 records, respectively.We
see thus a large increasein number of publicationson this subjectsand also a shift
away from the term "voltage quality" toward the term "power quality."
• Equipment has become more sensitive to voltage disturbances.

Electronic and power electronicequipmenthas especiallybecomemuch
more sensitivethan its counterparts10 or 20 years ago.T he paperoften cited
as having introduced the term power quality (by Thomas Key in 1978 [I])
treatedthis increasedsensitivity to voltage disturbances.N ot only has equip-
ment becomemore sensitive,companieshave alsobecomemore sensitiveto
loss of productiontime due to their reducedprofit margins.On the domestic
market, electricity is more and more considereda basic right, which should
simply alwaysbe present.Theconsequence is that an interruptionof the supply
will muchmorethan beforelead tocomplaints,even if thereare nodamagesor
costsrelatedto it. An importantpapertriggering the interestin powerquality
appearedin the journal BusinessWeek in 1991 [103].The article cited Jane
Section 1.1 • Interestin Power Quality 3
Clemmensenof EPRI as estimating that "power-relatedproblems cost U.S.

companies$26 billion a year in lost time and revenue."This value has been
cited overandoveragain eventhoughit was mostlikely only a roughestimate.
• Equipment causes voltage disturbances.
Tripping of equipmentdue to disturbancesin the supply voltageis often
describedby customersas "bad power quality." Utilities on the other side,
often view disturbancesdue to end-userequipmentas themain power quality
problem.Modern(power) electronicequipmentis not only sensitive tovoltage
disturbances,it also causesdisturbancesfor othercustomers.The increaseduse
of converter-drivenequipment(from consumerelectronicsand computers,up
to adjustable-speed drives) has led to a large g rowth of voltagedisturbances,
althoughfortunatelynot yet to a level wheree quipmentbecomes sensitive. The
main issue here is thenonsinusoidalcurrent of rectifiers and inverters. The
input current not only contains a power frequency component(50 Hz or
60 Hz) but also so-calledharmoniccomponentswith frequenciesequal to a
multiple of the power frequency. Theharmonicdistortion of the currentleads
to harmoniccomponentsin the supply voltage. Equipmenthas alreadypro-
duced harmonicdistortion for a numberof decades. But only recently has the
amountof load fed via powerelectronicconvertersincreased enormously: not
only large adjustable-speed drives but also smallconsumerelectronicsequip-
ment. The latter cause a largepart of the harmonicvoltage distortion: each
individual device does notgeneratemuch harmoniccurrentsbut all of them
togethercause a serious d istortion of the supply voltage.
• A growing need forstandardizationand performancecriteria.
The consumerof electrical energy used to be viewed by most utitilies
simply as a"load." Interruptionsand other voltage disturbanceswere part
of the deal, and the utility decided w hat was reasonable.Any customerwho
was not satisfied with the offered reliability and quality had to pay theutility
for improving the supply.
Todaythe utilities have totreat the consumersas"customers."Even if the
utility does not need to reduce the n umberof voltagedisturbances,it does have
to quantify them one 'way or theother. Electricity is viewed as aproductwith
certain characteristics,which have to bemeasured,predicted, guaranteed,
improved, etc. This is further triggered by the drive towards privatization
and deregulationof the electricity industry.
Opencompetitioncan make the situationeven more complicated.In the
past a consumerwould have acontract with the local supplier who would
deliver the electrical energyw ith a given reliability and quality. Nowadays
the customercan buy electrical energysomewhere,the transport capacity
somewhereelse and pay the local utility, for the actual connectionto the
system. It is nolongerclear who isresponsiblefor reliability andpowerquality.
As long as thecustomerstill has aconnectionagreementwith the local utility,
one canarguethat the latter is responsiblefor the actualdelivery and thus for
reliability andquality. But what aboutvoltagesags due totransmissionsystem
faults? In some cases the consumeronly has acontractwith a supplier who
only generatesthe electricityand subcontractstransportand distribution. One
could statethat any responsibilityshould be defined bycontract,so that the
generationcompany with which the customerhas a contractualagreement
would be responsiblefor reliability and quality. The responsibility of the
4 Chapter1 • Overview of PowerQuality and PowerQuality Standards
local distributionwould only betowardsthe generationcompanieswith whom

they have acontractto deliver to givencustomers.No matter what the legal
constructionis, reliability and quality will need to be well defined.
• Utilities want to deliver a good product.
Somethingthatis oftenforgottenin the heatof the discussion isthatmany
power quality developmentsare driven by the utilities.M ost utilities simply
want to deliver a goodproduct, and have beencommittedto that for many
decades.Designinga system with a high reliabilityof supply, for a limited cost,
is a technicalchallengewhich appealedto many in thepower industry, and
hopefully still does in the future.
• The power supply has become too good.
Part of the interestin phenomenalike voltage sagsand harmonicdistor-
tion is due to the highquality of the supply voltage. Long interruptionshave
become rare inmost industrializedcountries(Europe, North America, East
Asia), and theconsumerhas, wrongly,gottenthe impressionthat electricity is
somethingthat is alwaysavailableandalwaysof high quality, or at least some-
thing that shouldalways be. The factthat there are someimperfectionsin the
supplywhich are veryhard or evenimpossibleto eliminateis easilyforgotten.
In countrieswhere theelectricity supply has a highunavailability, like 2 hours
per day, power quality does not appearto be such a big issue as countries
in
with availabilitieswell over 99.9°~.
• The power quality can be measured.
The availability of electronicdevices tomeasureandshow waveformshas
certainly contributedto the interestin power quality. Harmoniccurrentsand
voltage sags were simplyhard to measureon a large scale in the past.
Measurementswere restrictedto rms voltage, frequency,a nd long interrup-
tions; phenomenawhich are nowconsideredpart of power quality, but were
simply part of power systemoperationin the past.
1.2 POWER QUALITY, VOLTAQE QUALITY
Therehave been(andwill be) a lot of argumentsaboutwhich term to use for theu tility-
customer (system-load) interactions. Most people use the term"power quality"
although this term is still prone to criticism. The main objection againstthe useof
the term isthat one cannottalk about the quality of a physicalquantity like power.
Despitethe objectionswe will use the term powerquality here, eventhoughit does not
give aperfectdescriptionof the phenomenon.But it has become a widely used term and
it is the best termavailableat themoment.Within the IEEE, the termpowerquality has
gained some officialstatus already, e.g., through the name of see22 (Standards
CoordinatingCommittee):"PowerQuality" [140]. But theinternationalstandardsset-
ting organizationin electrical engineering(the lEe) does not yet usethe term power
quality in any of its standarddocuments.Instead it uses the termelectromagnetic
compatibility, which is not the same aspower quality but there is astrong overlap
between the two terms. Below, numberof
a different terms will be discussed. As each
term has itslimitations the author feels that power quality remainsthe more general
term which covers all theotherterms. But, beforethat, it is worth to give the following
IEEE and lEe definitions.
Section 1.2 • PowerQuality, Voltage Quality 5
The definition of power quality given in theIEEE dictionary [119] originatesin

IEEE Std 1100(betterknown as theEmeraldBook) [78]: Powerquality is theconceptof
poweringandgroundingsensitiveequipmentin a matter that issuitableto theoperationof
thatequipment.Despitethis definition the term powerquality is clearly used in a more
general waywithin the IEEE: e.g., SCC 22 also coversstandardson harmonicpollution
caused byloads.
The following definition is given in IEC 61000-1-1:Electromagneticcompatibility
is the abilityof an equipmentor system to functionsatisfactorilyin its electromagnetic
environmentwithoutintroducing intolerable electromagneticdisturbancesto anythingin
that environment[79].
Recentlythe lEe has alsostarteda project group on power quality [106] which
should initially result in a standardon measurementof power quality. The following
definition of powerquality was adoptedfor describingthe scopeof the project group:
Setofparametersdefining thepropertiesof thepowersupply asdeliveredto the user in
normaloperatingconditionsin termsofcontinuityofsupplyandcharacteristicsofvoltage
(symmetry,frequency,magnitude,waveform).
Obviously,this definition will not stopthe discussionaboutwhat powerquality is.
The author'simpressionis that it will only increase theconfusion,e.g., becausepower
quality is now suddenlylimited to "normal operatingconditions."
From the many publications on this subject and the various terms used, the
following terminology has beenextracted.The readershould realize that there is no
generalconsensuson the useof these terms.
• Voltage quality (the FrenchQualite de latension)is concernedwith deviations

of the voltagefrom the ideal. The idealvoltageis a single-frequencysine wave
of constantfrequencyand constantmagnitude.The limitation of this term is
that it only covers technical aspects, andthat even within those technical
aspectsit neglects thecurrentdistortions.The termvoltagequality is regularly
used, especially inEuropeanpublications.It can beinterpretedas thequality of
the productdelivered by the utility to thecustomers.
• A complementarydefinition would becurrentquality. Currentquality is con-
cernedwith deviationsof the currentfrom the ideal. The idealcurrentis again
a single-frequencysine waveof constantfrequency and magnitude.An addi-
tional requirementis that this sine wave is inphasewith the supply voltage.
Thus where voltage quality has to do with what the utility delivers to the
consumer,current quality is concernedwith what the consumertakes from
the utility. Of coursevoltage and current are strongly related and if either
voltageor currentdeviates from the ideal it is h ard for the other to be ideal.
• Power quality is thecombinationof voltagequality and currentquality. Thus
powerquality is concernedwith deviationsof voltageand/orcurrentfrom the
ideal. Note that powerquality hasnothingto do with deviationsof the product
of voltageand current (the power) from any ideal shape.
• Quality of supplyor quality of powersupply includes atechnicalpart (voltage
quality above)plus a nontechnicalpart sometimesreferredto as "quality of
service."The lattercovers theinteractionbetween thecustomerand the utility,
e.g., the speed with which the utility reacts tocomplaints,or the transparency
of the tariff structure.This could be a usefuldefinition as long as one does not
want to include the customer'sresponsibilities.The word "supply" clearly
excludes activeinvolvementof the customer.
• Quality of consumption would be thecomplementaryterm of quality of supply.

This would containthe currentquality plus, e.g., howaccuratethe customeris
in paying the electricity bill.
• In the lEe standardsthe term electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is used.
Electromagneticcompatibility has to do with mutual interaction between
equipmentand with interaction betweenequipmentand supply.Within elec-
tromagneticcompatibility, two importantterms are used: the "emission" is the
electromagneticpollution producedby a device; the"immunity" is the device's
ability to withstandelectromagneticpollution. Emission is related to the term
currentquality, immunity to the term voltage quality. Based on this term, a
growing setof standardsis being developedby the lEe. The variousaspectsof
electromagneticcompatibility and EMC standardswill be discussed in Section
1.4.2.
1.3 OVERVIEW OF POWER QUALITY PHENOMENA
We saw in theprevioussectionthat power quality isconcernedwith deviationsof the

quality) and deviationsof the currentfrom its
voltage from its ideal waveform (voltage
ideal waveform(currentquality). Such adeviationis called a"power quality phenom-
enon"or a "powerquality disturbance."Powerquality phenomenacan be divided into
two types, which need to be treatedin a different way.
• A characteristicof voltage orcurrent(e.g., frequency or power factor) is never

exactly equal to itsnominal or desired value. The small deviationsfrom the
nominal or desired value are called "voltage variations" or "current varia-
tions." A property of any variation is that it has a value at anymomentin
time: e.g., the frequency is never exactly equal to 50 Hz or 60 Hz; the power
factor is never exactly unity.Monitoring of a variation thus has totake place
continuously.
• Occasionallythe voltage orcurrent deviates significantly from itsnormal or
ideal waveshape. These suddendeviationsare called"events."Examples are a
suddendrop to zero of the voltage due to the operationof a circuit breaker(a
voltage event), and a heavily distortedovercurrentdue to switching of a non-
loadedtransformer(a currentevent).Monitoring of events takes place by using
a triggering mechanismwhere recordingof voltage and/or current startsthe
momenta thresholdis exceeded.
The classification of aphenomenonin one of these two types isn ot always unique. It
may dependon the kind of problemdue to thephenomenon.
1.3.1 Voltage and Current Variations
Voltage andcurrentvariationsare relatively smalldeviationsof voltage orcurrent

characteristicsa roundtheir nominalor ideal values. The two basic examples are voltage
magnitudeand frequency. On average, voltage magnitudeand voltage frequency are
equal to theirnominal value, but they are never exactly equal. To describe the devia-
tions in a statisticalway, the probability density or probability distribution function
should be used. Figure1.1 shows a fictitiousvariation of the voltagemagnitudeas a
function of time. This figure is the resultof a so-calledMonte Carlo simulation(see
Section 1.3 • Overviewof Power QualityPhenomena 7
240,.----.---...,----.-~---,---,
220' -- - ..L--- - -L..- - --'-- - --'- - -'

0 5 10 15 20
Figure 1.1 Simulatedvoltage magnitudeas a
Time in hours
function of time.
Section2.5.5) .The underlyingdistribution was anormal distribution with an expected

value of 230 V and a standarddeviation of 11.9 V. A setof independents amplesfrom
this distribution is filtered by alow-passfilter to preventtoo large short-timechanges.
The probability density function of the voltage magnitudeis shown in Fig. 1.2. The
probability densityfunction gives theprobability that the voltagemagnitudeis within a
certainrange.Of interestis mainly the probability that the voltagemagnitudeis below
or above a certain value. The probability distribution function (the integral of the
density function) gives that information directly. The probability distribution function
for this fictitious variation is shown in Fig . 1.3. Both the probability density function
and the probability distribution function will be defined more accuratelyin Section
2.5.1.
An overviewof voltageandcurrentvariationsis given below. This list is certainly
not complete,it merely aims at giving someexample. There is an enormousrangein
end-userequipment.many with special requirementsand special problems. In the
power quality field new typesof variationsand eventsappearregularly. The following
list usesneither the terms used by thelEe nor the terms recommendedby the IEEE.
Terms commonly used donot always fully describea phenomenon . Also is there still
0.12,.--------,----- ,- - -----.-- ---,
0.1
.~ 0.08
.g
g 0.06
~
or>
£ 0.04
0.02
o ~ ___' __L _L __'
Figure 1.2 Probabilitydensityfunct ion of the 220 225 230 235 240
Voltage in volts
voltage magnitudein Fig . 1.1.
8 Chapter I • Overview of PowerQuality and PowerQuality Standards
0.8
5
I:a
U')
0.6
.~
] 0.4
.s
£
0.2
o ...-:=="--_ _... -..1- --'- ---'
220 225 230 235 240 Figure 1.3 Probability distribution function
Voltagein volts of the voltage magnitude in Fig. 1.1.
some inconsistencybetweendifferent documentsabout which terms should be used.

The termsused in the list below,a ndin a similar list in Section1.3.2arenot meantas an
alternativefor the lEe or IEEE definitions, but simply an attemptto somewhatclarify
the situation.The readeris advisedto continueusing officially recognizedterms,where
feasible.
1. Voltage magnitudevariation. Increaseand decreaseof the voltage magnitude,

e.g., due to
• variation of the total load of a distribution systemor part of it;

• actionsof transformertap-changers;
• switching of capacitorbanksor reactors.
Transformertap-changera ctionsand switching of capacitorbankscan normally

be traced back to load variations as well. Thus the voltage magnitudevariationsare
mainly due to load variations, which follow a daily pattern. The influence of tap-
changersand capacitorbanks makes that the daily pattern is not always presentin
the voltage magnitudepattern.
The lEe uses theterm "voltage variation" insteadof "voltage magnitudevaria-
tion." The IEEE does not appearto give a nameto this phenomenon.Very fast varia-
tion of the voltagemagnitudeis referred to as voltagefluctuation.
2. Voltage frequencyvariation. Like the magnitude,also the frequency of the
supplyvoltageis not constant.Voltagefrequencyvariationis due tounbalancebetween
load and generation.The term "frequency deviation" is also used.Short-duration
frequency transientsdue to short circuits and failure of generatorstationsare often
also included in voltagefrequencyvariations,althoughthey would betterbe described
as events.
The lEe uses theterm "power frequency variation"; the IEEE uses theterm
"frequencyvariation."
3. Currentmagnitudevariation. On the load side, thecurrentis normally also not
constantin magnitude.The variationin voltagemagnitudeis mainly due tovariationin
current magnitude.The variation in currentmagnitudeplays animportantrole in the
design of power distribution systems.The systemhas to bedesignedfor the maximum
Section 1.3 • Overviewof PowerQuality Phenomena 9
current,where the revenueo f the utility is mainly based onaveragecurrent.The more

constantthe current,the cheaperthe system per delivered energy unit.
Neither lEe nor IEEE give a name for thisphenomenon.
4. Currentphasevariation.Ideally, voltageand currentwaveformsare in phase. In
thatcase thepowerfactor of the loadequalsunity, and the reactivepowerconsumption
is zero.Thatsituationenablesthe most efficientt ransportof (active) powerandthusthe
cheapestd istribution system.
Neither lEe nor IEEE give a name for thispowerquality phenomenon,a lthough
the terms"power factor" and "reactivepower" describe itequally well.
5. Voltage andcurrent unbalance.Unbalance,or three-phaseunbalance,is the
phenomenonin a three-phasesystem, in which the nils values of the voltagesor the
phase anglesbetweenconsecutivephasesare not equal. The severityof the voltage
unbalancein a three-phasesystem can be expressed innumberof
a ways, e.g.,
• the ratio of the negative-sequenceand thepositive-sequencevoltage compo-

nent;
• the ratio of the difference between the highest
and the lowestvoltage magni-
tude, and the averageof the threevoltagemagnitudes;and
• the difference betweenthe largest and the smallestphasedifference between
consecutivephases.
Thesethree severity indicatorscan bereferred to as "negative-sequence u nbalance,"

"magnitudeunbalance,"and "phaseunbalance,"respectively.
The primary source of voltage unbalanceis unbalancedload (thus current
unbalance).T his can be due to anunevenspreadof (single-phase)low-voltagecusto-
mers over thethreephases,b ut morecommonlyunbalanceis due to a largesingle-phase
load. Examplesof the latter can befound among railway traction suppliesand arc
furnaces. Three-phasevoltage unbalancecan also be the resulto f capacitor bank
anomalies,such as a blown fuse in one phaseof a three-phasebank.
Voltageunbalanceis mainly of concernfor three-phaseloads.Unbalanceleads to
additionalheatproductionin the winding of inductionandsynchronousmachines;this
reduces the efficiencya nd requiresderatingof the machine.A three-phasediode recti-
fier will experience a largecurrent unbalancedue to a smallvoltage unbalance.The
largestcurrentis in the phase with the highest voltage, thus the load hastendencyto
the
mitigate the voltageunbalance.
The IEEE mainly recommendsthe term "voltage unbalance"although some
standards(notably IEEE Std. 1159) use the term "voltage imbalance."
6. Voltage fluctuation.If the voltage magnitudevaries, thepower flow to equip-
ment will normally also vary. If thevariationsare largeenoughor in a certaincritical
frequencyrange, theperformanceof equipmentcan be affected. Cases in which voltage
variation affects load behavior are rare, with theexception of lighting load. If the
illumination of a lamp varies withfrequenciesbetweenabout 1 Hz and 10 Hz, our
eyes are very sensitive to andabovea
it certainmagnitudethe resultinglight flicker can
become rather disturbing. It is this sensitivity of the human eye which explains the
interestin this phenomenon.The fastvariation in voltagemagnitudeis called "voltage
fluctuation," the visualphenomenonas perceived byour brain is called "light flicker."
The term"voltageflicker" is confusingbut sometimesused as ashorteningfor "voltage
fluctuation leadingto light flicker."
To quantify voltagefluctuation and light flicker, aquantity called "flicker inten-

sity" has beenintroduced[81]. Its value is an objectivemeasureof the severityof the
light flicker due to acertainvoltage'fluctuation.The flicker intensitycan betreatedas a
variation,just like voltagemagnitudevariation. It can beplottedas afunction of time,
and probability densityand distribution functionscan beobtained.Many publications
discussvoltage fluctuation and light flicker. Good overviews can befound in, among
others,[141] and [142].
The terms "voltage fluctuation" and "light flicker" are used byboth lEe and
IEEE.
7. Harmonic voltage distortion. The voltage waveform is never exactly a single-
frequency sine wave. Thisphenomenonis called "harmonic voltage distortion" or
simply "voltage distortion." When we assumea waveform to be periodic, it can be
describedas a sumof sine waves withfrequenciesbeing multiples of the fundamental
frequency.The nonfundamentalc omponentsare called"harmonicdistortion."
Thereare threecontributionsto the harmonicvoltagedistortion:
1. The voltage generatedby a synchronousmachineis not exactly sinusoidal

due to smalldeviationsfrom the idealshapeof the machine.This is a small
contribution; assumingthe generatedvoltageto be sinusoidalis a verygood
approximation.
2. The power system transporting the electrical energy from thegenerator
stations to the loads is not completely linear, although the deviation is
small. Somecomponentsin the systemdraw a nonsinusoidalc urrent, even
for a sinusoidal voltage. The classicalexample is the power transformer,
where thenonlinearity is due to saturationof the magneticflux in the iron
core of the transformer.A more recentexampleof a nonlinearpowersystem
componentis the HVDe link. The transformationfrom ac to dcand back
takesplace by usingpower-electronicscomponentswhich only conductdur-
ing part of a cycle.
The amount of harmonicdistortion originating in the power system is
normally small. Theincreasinguseof powerelectronicsfor control of power
flow and voltage(flexible ac transmissionsystems orFACTS) carriesthe risk
of increasingthe amount of harmonic distortion originating in the power
system. The same technologyalso offers thepossibility of removinga large
part of the harmonicdistortion originatingelsewhere in the system or in the
load.
3. The main contribution to harmonicvoltage distortion is due to nonlinear
load. A growing part of the load is fed throughpower-electronicsconverters
drawing a nonsinusoidalcurrent. The harmoniccurrent componentscause
harmonic voltage components,and thus a nonsinusoidalvoltage, in the
system.
Two examplesof distored voltage are shown in Figs. 1.4and 1.5. The voltage
shownin Fig. 1.4containsmainly harmoniccomponentsof lower order(5,7,11,and 13
in this case). Thevoltageshownin Fig. 1.5containsmainly higher-frequencyharmonic
components.
Harmonicvoltagesand currentcan causea whole rangeof problems,with addi-
tional lossesand heating the main problem. The harmonicvoltage distortion is nor-
mally limited to a fewpercent(i.e., themagnitudeof the harmonicvoltagecomponents
Section 1.3 • Overview of PowerQuality Phenomena 11
400
300
200
rl
($ 100
>
.5
0 0
co
S
~ -100
-200
-300
Figure 1.4 Exampleof distortedvoltage,with -400

0 5 10 15 20
mainly lower-orderharmoniccomponents
Time in milliseconds
[211].
400
300
200
~ 100
0
>
.S
0 0
r -100
~
-200
-300
-400
Figure 1.5 Exampleof distortedvoltage,with 0 5 10 15 20
higher-orderharmoniccomponents[211]. Time in milliseconds
is up to a fewpercentof the magnitudeof the fundamentalvoltage) in which case

equipmentfunctionsasnormal.Occasionallylarge harmonicvoltage distortion occurs,
which can lead tomalfunction of equipment.This can especially be a big problem in
industrialpower systems, where there is a large
concentrationof distortingload as well
as sensitive load.Harmonicdistortionof voltage andcurrentis the subject ofhundreds
of papersas well as anumberof books[77], [194], [195].
The term "harmonicdistortion" is very commonly used, and"distortion" is an
lEe term referring to loadstaking harmoniccurrentcomponents.Also within theIEEE
the term "distortion" is used to refer toharmonicdistortion; e.g., "distortion factor"
and "voltage distortion."
8. Harmonic current distortion. The complementaryphenomenonof harmonic
voltage distortion is harmoniccurrent distortion. The first is a voltagequality phe-
nomenon,the latter a currentquality phenomenon.As harmonicvoltage distortion is
mainly due to nonsinusoidalload currents,harmonic voltage andcurrent distortion
are strongly linked. Harmonic current distortion requires over-rating of series com-
ponents like transformersand cables. As the series resistance increases with fre-
quency, adistorted current will cause more losses t han a sinusoidalcurrent of the
same rms value.
12 Chapter I • Overview of Power Quality and Power Quality Standards
150
100
en
e SO
~
cd
.5 0
=
~ -so
U
-100
-15°0 Figure 1.6 Exampleof distortedcurrent,

5 10 15 20 leadingto the voltagedistortionshownin Fig.
Time inmilliseconds 1.4 [211).
Two examplesof harmoniccurrentdistortionare shown in Figs. 1.6 and 1.7.Both

currents are drawn by an adjustable-speeddrive. The current shown in Fig. 1.6 is
typical for modernac adjustable-speed drives. Theharmonicspectrumof the current
containsmainly 5th, 7th,11th, and 13thharmoniccomponents.T he currentin Fig. 1.7
is lesscommon.The high-frequencyripple is due to the switching frequencyof the dc/ac
inverter. As shown in Fig. 1.5 thishigh-frequencycurrent ripple causes a high-
frequency ripple in thevoltageas well.
9. Interharmonicvoltage andcurrentcomponents. Some e quipmentproducescur-
rent componentswith a frequency which is not an integermultiple of the fundamental
frequency. Examples are cycloconvertersand some typeso f heatingcontrollers.These
componentsof the currentare referred to as " interharmoniccomponents."T heir mag-
nitudeis normallysmallenoughnot to cause anyproblem,but sometimesthey can excite
unexpectedresonancesbetweentransformerinductancesand capacitorbanks. More
dangerousarecurrentandvoltagecomponentswith a frequency below the fundamental
frequency, referred to as
"sub-harmonicdistortion." Sub-harmoniccurrentscan lead to
saturationof transformersand damageto synchronousgeneratorsand turbines.
Anothersourceof interharmonicdistortionare arc furnaces.Strictly speakingarc
furnaces do notproduce any interharmonicvoltage or current components,but a
50
-50 L - . - ._ _- . . . J ' - -_ _----JL..--_ _ __

- - - - J ~ __J
Figure 1.7 Exampleof distortedcurrent,
o 5 10 15 20 leadingto the voltagedistortionshownin Fig.
Time inmilliseconds 1.5 [211].
numberof (integer) harmonicsplus acontinuous(voltage andcurrent)spectrum.Due

to resonances in the power system some of the frequencies in thisspectrumare ampli-
fied. The amplified frequencycomponentsare normally referred to asinterharmonics
due to the arc furnace. These voltage interharmonicshave recently become o f special
interest as they are responsible for serious light flicker
problems.
A special case ofsub-harmoniccurrentsare those due to oscillations in the earth-
magnetic field following a solar flare. These so-called
geomagneticallyinducedcurrents
have periodsaroundfive minutes and the resulting transformersaturationhas led to
large-scaleblackouts[143].
10. Periodicvoltagenotching. In three-phaserectifiers thecommutationfrom one
diode or thyristor to the other creates ashort-circuitwith a duration lessthan 1 ms,
which results in areductionin the supply voltage. Thisphenomenonis called"voltage
notching" or simply "notching." Notching mainly results inhigh-order harmonics,
which are often notconsideredin power engineering. A more suitable way of charac-
terizationis throughthe depthand durationof the notchin combinationwith the point
on the sine wave at which the notchingcommences.
An exampleof voltagenotchingis shown in Fig. 1.8. This voltage wave shape was
caused by anadjustable-speed drive in which a largereactancewas used to keep the de
currentconstant.
The IEEE uses the term"notch" or "line voltagenotch" in a more general way:
any reductionof the voltage lasting less than half a cycle.
11. Mainssignalingvoltage.High-frequencysignals aresuperimposedon the sup-
ply voltage for thepurposeof transmissionof information in the public distribution
system and tocustomer'spremises.Threetypes of signal arementionedin the European
voltagecharacteristicsstandards[80]:
• Ripple controlsignals: sinusoidal signals between 110 and 3000 Hz. These
signals are, from avoltage-quality point-of-view, similar to harmonic and
interharmonicvoltage components.
• Power-line-carriersignals: sinusoidal signals between 3 and 148.5 kHz. These
signals can be describedboth as high-frequencyvoltage noise (see below) and
as high-order(inter)harmonics.
• Mains markingsignals: superimposedshort time alterations (transients)at
selectedpoints of the voltage waveform.
400r---------,-----,------.--------,
300
200
ZJ
~ 100
.5 0
j
~ -100
-200
-300
-400
0 5 10 15 20
notching[211].
Figure 1.8 Example of voltage Timeinmilliseconds
Mains signalingvoltagecan interferewith equipmentusingsimilar frequencies for some

internalpurpose.The voltages,a nd the associatedcurrents,can also cause
audiblenoise
and signals ontelephonelines.
The other way around,harmonicand interharmonicvoltagesmay beinterpreted
by equipmentas beingsignalingvoltages,leadingto wrong functioning of equipment.
12.High-frequencyvoltage noise. Thesupply voltagecontainscomponentswhich
are not periodicat all. These can be called
"noise," althoughfrom the consumerpoint
of view, all above-mentionedvoltagecomponentsare in effect noise. Arcfurnacesare
an important sourceof noise. But also thecombinationof many different nonlinear
loadscan lead tovoltagenoise [196]. Noise can be presentbetween thephaseconduc-
tors (differential mode noise) or cause anequal voltage in all conductors(common-
mode noise).Distinguishingthe noise fromothercomponentsis not always simple,but
actually not really needed. Ananalysisis needed only in cases where the noise leads to
some problem with power system orend-userequipment.The characteristicsof the
problemwill dictatehow to measureand describethe noise.
A whole rangeof voltageand currentvariationshas beenintroduced.The reader

will have noticedthat the distinction between thevariousphenomenais not very sharp,
e.g., voltagefluctuation andvoltagevariation show a clearoverlap.One of the tasksof
future standardizationwork is to developa consistenta ndcompleteclassificationof the
variousphenomena.This might look an academictask, as it doesnot directly solve any
equipmentor systemproblems.But when quantifying the powerquality, the classifica-
tion becomeslessacademic.A good classificationalso leads to abetterunderstanding
of the various phenomena.
1.3.2 Events
Eventsare phenomenawhich only happenevery once in a while. Aninterruption

of the supply voltage is the best-knownexample.This can intheory be viewed as an
extremevoltagemagnitudevariation (magnitudeequalto zero),andcan beincludedin
the probability distribution function of the voltagemagnitude.But this would not give
much usefulinformation; it would in fact give theunavailability of the supply voltage,
assumingthe resolution of the curve was highenough. Instead,events can best be
describedthrough the time between events, and the characteristicsof the events;both
in a stochasticsense.Interruptionswill be discussed in sufficientdetail in Chapters2
and 3 and voltagesags inChapters4, 5, and6. Transientovervoltagewill be used as an
examplehere. A transientovervoltagerecording is shown in Fig. 1.9: the (absolute
value of the) voltagerises toabout180% of its normalmaximumfor a few milliseconds.
The smoothsinusoidalcurve is acontinuationof the pre-eventfundamentalvoltage.
A transientovervoltagecan becharacterizedin manydifferent ways; threeoften-
usedcharacteristicsare:
1. Magnitude: the magnitudeis either the maximum voltage or the maximum
voltagedeviation from the normal sine wave.
2. Duration: the durationis harderto define, as itoften takes a long time before
the voltage has completelyrecovered.Possibledefinitions are:
• the time in which thevoltagehas recoveredto within 10% of the magni-
tude of the transientovervoltage;
• the time-constantof the averagedecay of the voltage;
• the ratio of the Vt-integral defined below and themagnitudeof the tran-
sient overvoltage.
Section 1.3 • Overviewof Power Quality Phenomena 15
1.5,----~--~-- -~-~--~-___,
0.5
5-
.5
~
~ - 0.5
~
-1
- 1.5
Figure 1.9 Example oftransientovervoltage
event: phase-to-groundvoltage due to fault I , , I
clearing in one of theother phases.( Data 20 30 40 60
obtained from (16].) Time in milliseconds
3. Vt-integral : theVt-integral is defined as
V, = iT V(t)dt (l.l)
where t = 0 is thestart of the event, and ana ppropriatevalue is chosen forT,

e.g., the time in which the voltage has recovered to within 10% of the magni-
tude of the transientovervoltage. Again the voltageV(t) can be measured
either from zero or as the deviation from the normal sine wave.
Figure 1.10 gives thenumberof transientovervoltageevents per year, asobtained

Norway [67]. The distribution function for the time
for the average low-voltage site in
140
120
100
~ 80
....0~
60 1.0-1.5
~
1.5-2.0
40
~~
2.0- 3.0 '-$'
20 'b"
.~
3.0-5.0 ~
~'I>
0
5.0-10.0
Figure 1.10Numberof transient overvoltage events per year, as a function of

magnitude and voltage integral.
(Data obtained from [67].)
16 Chapter I • Overview of Powe r Qua lity and Power
Quality Standards
1.2r-- - - - - -- - - - -- - - - -,
t:
o
.~
E 0.8t--- --
en
~ 0.6
..
:E
.0
0.4
J: 0.2
o 1.0-1.5 1.5-2.0 2.0-3.0 3.0-5.0 5.0-10.0 Figure 1.11Probability distribution function

Magnitude range in pu of the magnitude oftransient overvoltage
events, accord ing to Fig. 1.10.
between events has not been determ ined, but onlynumberofthe events per year with
different characteristics. Notethat the average time between events is the reciprocalof
the number of events per year. This is the normal situation; the actual distribution
function is rarelydetermined in powerquality or reliability surveys[107].
Figures 1.11 through 1.14 givestatistical informationaboutthe characteristicsof
the events. Figure 1.11 gives theprobability distribution function of the magnitude of
the event. We see t hat almost 80% of the events have a magnitudelessthan 1.5 pu .
Figure 1.12 gives thecorrespond ing densityfunction. By using alogarithmic scale the
numberof events in the high-magn itude rangebetter is visible. Figure 1.13 gives the
probability distribution function of the Vt-integral; Fig. 1.14 theprobability density
function.
1.2r-- - - -- - - - - - - - - ---,
o
.u;
t: 0.1
~
g
~ 0.01
.0
2
0..
0.001 Figure 1.12Probability density funct ionof

1.0-1.5 1.5-2.0 2.0- 3.0 3.0-5.0 5.0-10.0
the magn itudeof transient overvoltage events ,
Magnitude range in pu
acco rding to Fig. 1.10.
An overview of various types of powerquality events is given below. Power

quality events are thephenomen a which can lead totripping of equipment, to inter-
rupt ion of the productionor of plant operation , or endangerpower systemoperation.
The treatmentof these in astochasticway is an extensionof the power system reliability
field as will be discussed inC hapter2. A special classof events, the so-called
"voltage
magnitudeevents," will betreatedin more detail in Section 1.3.3. Voltage magnitude
events are the events which are the main concernfor equipment,and they are the main
subject for the resto f this book .
Note that below only " voltage events" are discussed, as these canconcernto
be of
end-user equipment. But similarly a list of "currentevents" could be added , with their
possible effects on power system equipment. Most powerquality monitors in use,
continuously monitor the voltage and record an event when the voltage exceeds certain
1.2.-- -- - - - -- - - - - -- ---,
;".s
! 0.8+-- - - - - - --
'"
~ 0.6
~ 0.4+-- - -- - - --
£ 0.2
Figure 1.13Probabilitydistribution function o 0-0.005 0.005-0.01 0.01-0.1 0.1-1

of the Vt-integral oftransientovervoltage
events.accordingto Fig. 1.10. Vt-integral range
0.8 . - - -- - - - -- -- -- -- ----,
.~ 0.6+ - -- - - - -- -
~
~ 0.4+---- - - -- -
J
..: 0.2
Figure 1.14Probability density functionof o 0.005-0.01 0.01-0.1 0.1-1

the Vt-integralof transientovervoltage
Vt-integral range
events,accordingto Fig. 1.10.
thresholds,typically voltagemagnitudethresholds. Although the currentsare often also

recorded they do notnormally trigger therecording. Thus anovercurrentwithout an
over- or undervoltagewill not be recorded. Of course there are no technical
limitations
in usingcurrentsignals to trigger therecordingprocess. In fact mostmonitorshave the
option of triggering oncurrentas well.
I. Interruptions. A "voltageinterruption"[IEEE Std.I159], "supply interruption"
[EN 50160],or just "interruption" [IEEE Std.1250] is a condition in which the voltage
at the supplyterminalsis close to zero. Close to zero is by the IEC defined"lower
as
than I% of the declaredvoltage" and by the IEEE as"lower than 10%" [IEEE Std.
II 59].
Voltage interruptionsare normally initiated by faults whichsubsequentlytrigger
protection measures .O ther causesof voltage interruption are protection operation
when there is no fault present (a so-called protection maltrip), broken conductors
not triggering protective measures, andoperatorintervention. A further distinction
can be made between pre-arrangedand accidentalinterruptions. The former allow
the end user to takeprecautionarymeasures to reduce the impact. All pre-arranged
interruptionsare of course caused by operatoraction.
Interruptionscan also be subdivided based on their duration, thus based on the
way of restoring the supply:
• automaticswitching;
• manualswitching;
• repair or replacementof the faultedcomponent.
18 Cha pter I • Overviewof PowerQuality and Power QualityStandards
Various terminologies are in use to distinguish between these. The IEC uses the
term long interruptionsfor interruptions longer than 3 minutes and the term s hort
interruptions for interruptions lasting up to 3 minutes. Within the IEEE the terms
momentary,temporary,and sustained are used, but different documents give different
duration values. The various definitions will be discussedChapter3.
in
2. Undervoltages.Undervoltages of variousduration are known under different
names.Short-durationundervoltagesare called"voltage sags" or"voltagedips." The
latter term is preferred by thelEe. Within the IEEE and in manyjournal and con-
ference papers on power qua lity, the term voltage sag is used. Long-durationunder-
voltage is normall y simply referred to as " undervoltage."
A voltage sag is areductionin the supply voltagemagnitudefollowed by a voltage
recovery after ashort period of time. When a voltage magnitudereduct ion of finite
duration can actually be called a voltage sag (or voltage dip in the IEC terminology)
remains apoint of debate, even though the official definitions are cleara bout it.
Accord ing to the IEC, a supply voltage dip is a sudden reduction in the supply voltage
to a value between 90% and I % of the declared voltage, followed by a recovery
between 10ms and I minuteater. l For the IEEE a voltagedrop is only a sag if the
during -sag voltage is between 10% and 90% of the nominal voltage.
Voltage sags are mostly caused short-circuitfaults
by in the system and bystart-
ing of large motors. Voltage sags will be discussed in detail Chapters4,
in 5, and 6.
3. Voltage magnitude steps. Load switching, transformer tap-changers,and
switching actions in the system (e.g.,capacitorbanks) can lead to a sudden change in
the voltage magnitude. Such a voltagemagnitude step is called a " rapid voltage
change" [EN 50160] or "voltagechange" [IEEE Std.1l59] . Normally both voltage
before and after the step are in the normal operatingrange (typically 90% to 110%
of the nominal voltage).
An example of voltagemagnitudesteps is shown in Fig. 1.15. The figure shows a
2.5hour recording of the voltage in a 10kVistribution
d system. The steps in the voltage
magnitudeare due to theoperationof transformer tap-changersat various voltage
levels.
4. Overvoltages. Just like with
undervoltage, overvoltage events are given different
names based on their duration. Overvoltages of veryshort duration, and high magni-
tude, are called " transientovervoltages ," "voltage spikes," or sometimes "voltage
surges." The atter
l term is ratherconfusingas it is sometimes used to refer to over-
voltages with adurationbetweenabout 1 cycle and I minute . Thelatter event is more
correctly called"voltage swell" or "temporarypower frequency overvoltage ." Longer
1.05
1.04
:l 1.03
0.
.S 1.02
.,
OIl
~ 1.01
~
0.99
Figure 1.15 Example of voltagemagnitude
0.98 steps due to tran sformetap-changer
r
5:00:00 5:30:00 6:00:00 6:30:00 7:00:00 7:30:00
operation, recorded in a10kV distribution
Clock time (HH:MM:SS)
system insouthernSweden.
duration overvoltagesare simplyreferredto as "overvoltages."Long and short over-

voltagesoriginatefrom, amongothers,lightning strokes,switchingoperations,s udden
load reduction,single-phaseshort-circuits,and nonlinearities.
A resonancebetween thenonlinearmagnetizingreactanceof a transformeranda
capacitance(either in the form of a capacitorbank or the capacitanceof an under-
ground cable) can lead to a large overvoltageof long duration. This phenomenonis
called ferroresonance,a nd it can lead to seriousdamageto power systemequipment
[144].
5. Fast voltage events. Voltage events with a very short duration, typically one
cycle of the power system frequency or less, are referred to"transients,""transient
as
(over)voltages,""voltagetransients,"or "wave shapefaults." The termtransientis not
fully correct, as it should only be used for thetransition between twosteadystates.
Events due toswitchingactionscould underthat definition be calledtransients;events
due tolightning strokescould not be calledtransientsunderthat definition. But due to
the similarity in time scaleboth are referredto asvoltagetransients.Even veryshort-
durationvoltagesags (e.g., due to fuse clearing)are referred to as voltagetransients,or
also "notches."
Fastvoltageevents can be dividedinto impulsive transients(mainly due to light-
ning) and oscillatory transients(mainly due to switching actions).
6. Phase-anglejumps andthree-phaseunbalance. We will see inC hapter4 that a
voltage sag is often associatedwith a phase-anglejump and some three-phase
unbalance.An interestingthought is whetheror not a jump in phase-anglewithout a
drop in voltage magnitudeshould be called avoltagesag. Such an event could occur
when oneof two parallel feeders istakenout of operation.The same holds for a s hort-
duration, three-phaseunbalancewithout changein magnitude,thus where only the
phase-angleof the threevoltages changes.
To get acompletepicture,also short-durationphase-angle j umpsandshort-dura-
tion unbalancesshouldbeconsideredas eventsbelongingto the familyof powerquality
phenomena.
1.3.3 Overview of Voltage Magnitude Events
As mentionedin the previoussection,the majority of eventscurrently of interest

are associatedwith eithera reductionor an increasein the voltagemagnitude.We will
refer to these as"voltage magnitudeevents."
A voltage magnitudeevent is a (significant)deviation from the normal voltage
magnitudefor a limited duration.The magnitudecan befound by taking the rmsof the
voltageover a multiple of one half-cycleof the power-systemfrequency.
(1.2)
where V(t) is the voltageas afunction of time, sampledat equidistantpoints t = k Si.

The rms value istaken over a period N ~t, referred to as the "window length."
Alternatively, the magnitudecan bedeterminedfrom the peak voltage or from the
fundamental-frequency c omponento f the voltage.Most powerquality monitorsdeter-
mine the rmsvoltage once every cycle or once every few cycles. Themomentthe rms
voltagedeviates morethan a pre-setthresholdfrom its nominal value, thevoltageas a
function of time is recorded(the rmsvoltage,the sampledtime-domaindata,or both).
20 Chapter 1 • Overview of Power Quality and Power Quality Standards
Most events show aratherconstantrms voltagefor a certaindurationafter which the

rms voltage returns to a more or less normal value. This isunderstandableif one
realizesthat events are due tochangesin the system followed by therestorationof
the original systemaftera certaintime. Before,during, andafter the event, the system is
more or less in asteadystate.Thusthe event can be characterizedthroughoneduration
and onemagnitude.We will see inChapter4 that it is not always possible touniquely
determinemagnitudeand duration of a voltage magnitudeevent. For now we will
assumethat this is possible, and define the magnitudeof the event as theremaining
rms voltage during the event: if the rms voltaged uring the event is 170V in a 230 V
system, themagnitudeof the event is~~g = 73.9%.
Knowing the magnitudeand duration of an event, it can berepresentedas one
point in the magnitude-durationplane. All eventsrecordedby a monitor over acertain
periodcan berepresentedas ascatterof points.Different underlyingcauses may lead to
events indifferent parts of the plane. Themagnitude-durationplot will come back
several times in theforthcoming chapters.Various standardsgive different names to
events indifferent parts of the plane. Astraightforwardclassificationis given in Fig.
1.16. The voltagemagnitudeis split into three regions:
• interruption: the voltagemagnitudeis zero,

• undervoltage:the voltagemagnitudeis below its nominal value, and
• overvoltage:the voltagemagnitudeis aboveits nominal value.
In duration,a distinction is made between:
• very short, correspondingto transientand self-restoringevents;

• short, correspondingto automaticrestorationof the pre-eventsituation;
• long, correspondingto manualrestorationof the pre-eventsituation;
• very long, correspondingto repair or replacemento f faulted components.
Very Very
short Shortovervoltage Longovervoltage long
overvoltage overvoltage
110%
Normaloperatingvoltage
Very Very
short Shortundervoltage Longundervoltage long
undervoltage undervoltage
}-10%
Veryshort int. Shortinterruption Longinterruption Verylong int.
1-3 cycles }-3min 1-3 hours

Event duration
Figure 1.16 Suggested classification of voltage
magnitudeevents.
Section 1.3 • Overviewof Power QualityPhenomena 21
The various bordersin Fig. 1.16 aresomewhatarbitrary; some of the indicated

values (1-3minutes,1-10%,900/0,and 110% ) are those used in existing lEe and IEEE
standards.F or monitoringpurposes,strict thresholdsare needed todistinguishbetween
the different events. An example is the thresholddividing betweeninterruptionsand
undervoltages.This one is placed(somewhatarbitrarily) at 1% of nominalaccordingto
the IEC and at 10 % accordingto the.IEEE (see below). Anyothersmall value would be
equally defendable.
The classificationin Fig. 1.16 is only aimed atexplainingthe different types of
events: the termsmentionedin the figures are not all used in practice. Both lEe and
IEEE give different namesto events in someof the regionsof the magnitude-duration
plane. The IECdefinitionsaresummarizedin Fig. 1.17 and theIEEE definitionsin Fig.
1.18. Thersc definitionswereobtainedfrom CENELECdocumentEN 50160 [80], the
IEEE definitions from IEEE Std.1159-1995.
The methodof classifying eventsthrough one magnitudeand oneduration has
been shown to be very useful and has resulted in aoflot information and knowledge
about power quality. But the method also has itslimitations, which is important to
Four points should be especially kept in mind.
realize when using this classification.
1. ,Theduring-eventrms voltage isnot alwaysconstant,leading toambiguities

in defining the magnitudeof the event. It may also lead toambiguitiesin
defining thedurationof the event.
2. Fastevents (one cycle or less duration)cannotbe
in characterized,resulting
in unrealistic values for magnitudeand duration or in thesedisturbances
simply being neglected.
3. Repetitive events can giveerroneousresults: theyeither lead to an over-
estimationof the numberof events (when each event in a row of events is
countedas aseparateevent), or anunder-estimationof the severityof the
events (when a rowof identical events iscountedas one event).
0
=00
oS
.~] Temporaryovervoltage (1)Overvoltage
f-f>
0
110%
? (supply)Voltagedip (1)Overvoltage
1%
Shortinterruption
I
I, Longinterruption
0.5 cycle 1 min 3 min

Eventduration
Figure1.17 Definitions of voltage magnitude events as used in 50160.

EN
=
Q)
';;
Swell Overvoltage
~
110%
c:
Q)
'r;)
Voltagesag Undervoltage
I~
0
Z
100/0
Momentary
I Temporary Sustainedinterruption
0.5 cycle 3 sec 1 min

Eventduration
Figure 1.18Definitions of voltage magnitudeevents as used in

I EEE Std.1159-
1995,
4. Equipmentis sometimessensitive toothercharacteristicsthanjust magnitude

and duration.
We will come back to these problemsin more detail inChapters3 and 4.

Similar classificationscan beproposedfor voltagefrequency events, for voltage
phase-angleevents, forthree-phasevoltage unbalanceevents, etc. But because most
equipmentproblems are due to an increase or decrease in voltage magnitude, the
emphasisis on voltagemagnitudeevents.
1.4 POWER QUALITY AND EMC STANDARDS
1.4.1 Purpose of Standardization
Standardsthat define the quality of the supply have beenpresentfor decades

already. Almost any country has standardsdefining the margins in which frequency
and voltage are allowed to vary. Other standardslimit harmoniccurrent and voltage
distortion, voltage fluctuations, and duration of an interruption.Thereare three rea-
sons fordevelopingpower quality standards.
l. Defining the nominalenvironment.A hypotheticalexampleof such astandard

is: "The voltage shall he sinusoidal with a .frequencyof 50 Hz and an rms
voltageof 230 V." Such astandardis not very practical as it is technically
impossible to keep voltage magnitude and frequency exactlyconstant.
Therefore,existing standardsuse terms like"nominal voltage" or "declared
voltage" in this context.A more practicalversion of the abovestandardtext
would read as: "Thenominalfrequencyshall be 50 Hz and the nominal voltage
shall be 230V," which comes close to thewording in EuropeanstandardEN
50160[80].
Section 1.4 • PowerQuality and EMC Standards 23
Defining nominal voltage and frequencydoesnot say anythingabout the

actualenvironment.To do this thedeviationsfrom the nominal values have
to be known. Most countrieshave astandardgiving the allowed variation in
the rms voltage, a typical rangebeing betweenfrom 900/0 to 110°A».
2. Defining the terminology. Even if a standard-settingbody does not want to
impose any requirementson equipment or supply, it might still want to
publish power quality standards.A good example is IEEE Std.1346[22]
which recommendsa methodfor exchanginginformationbetweenequipment
manufacturers,utilities, and customers.T he standarddoes not give any sug-
gestionsabout what is consideredacceptable.
This group of standardsaims at giving exact definitions of the various
phenomena,how their characteristicsshould be measured,a nd how equip-
ment should be testedfor its immunity. The aim of this is to enablecommu-
nication betweenthe various partnersin the power quality field. It ensures,
e.g., that the resultsof two power quality monitors can be easilycompared
and that equipmentimmunity can becomparedwith the descriptionof the
environment.Hypotheticalexamplesare: "A short interruption is a situation
J% ofthe nominalrms voltageforless than
in which the rms voltage is less than
3 minutes."and"The durationof a voltage dip is the time during 'which the rms
voltage is less than 90%of the nominalrms voltage. The durationof a voltage
dip shall beexpressedin seconds. The rms voltage shall determinedevery
be
half-cycle," Both IEEE Std. 1159and EN 50160 give these kindo f definitions,
hopefully merginginto a future lEe standard.
3. Limit the number of powerquality problems. Limiting the numberof power
quality problemsis the final aim of all the work on power quality. Power
quality problemscan be mitigated by limiting the amountof voltagedistur-
bancescausedby equipment,by improving the performanceof the supply,
and by making equipmentlesssensitiveto voltage disturbances.All mitiga-
tion methodsrequiretechnicalsolutionswhich can be implementedindepen-
dently of any standardization.But proper standardizationwill provide
important incentives for the implementation of the technical solutions.
Proper standardizationwill also solve the problem of responsibility for
power quality disturbances.H ypotheticalexamplesare:
4 k VA shallnot containmore than

The current taken by a load exceeding J% ofany
evenharmonic.The harmoniccontents shall be measuredas a l-second average.and
Equipment shall be immune to voltage variations between85% and 110%of the
nominal voltage. This shall be tested by supplying at the equipment terminals,
sinusoidalvoltageswith magnitudesof 85.% and J/0% for a duration of 1 hour.
If the pieceofequipment has more than one distinctiveload state,it shall be tested
for each load state separately, or for what are conceivedthe most sensitive stales.
In this field both IEC and IEEE lack a.good set of standardson power
quality. The lEe has set up a wholeframework on electromagneticcompat-
ibility which alreadyincludessome power quality standards.T he best exam-
ple is the harmonic standardIEC-61000-2-3 which limits the amount of
harmonic current produced by low-power equipment. The IEEE has a
good recommendedpractice for the limitation of harmonic distortion:
IEEE 519 [82] which gives limitsboth for the harmoniccurrentstaken by
the customerand for the voltagesdeliveredby the utility.
1.4.2 The IEC Electromagnetic Compatibility Standards
Within the International ElectrotechnicalCommittee (IEC) a comprehensive

framework of standardson electromagneticcompatibility is under development.
Electromagneticcompatibility (EMC) is defined as:the ability of a device,equipment
or systemto function satisfactorilyin its electromagneticenvironment without introducing
intolerable electromagneticdisturbances toanything in that environment[79].
Thereare two aspects to EMC: (1) a piece ofequipmentshould be able tooperate
normally in its environment,and (2) itshouldnot pollutethe environmenttoo much. In
EMC terms:immunity and emission. There are standardsfor both aspects.Agreement
on immunity is at first a matter of agreementbetween themanufacturerand the cus-
tomer. But the IEC sets minimum requirementsin immunity standards.The third term
of importanceis "electromagneticenvironment,"which gives the levelof disturbance
againstwhich theequipmentshouldbe immune. Within theEMC standards,a distinc-
tion is made betweenradiated disturbancesand conducteddisturbances.Radiated
disturbancesare emitted (transmitted)by one device and received by anotherwithout
the need for anyconduction. Conducteddisturbancesneed aconductorto transfer
from one device toanother. Theseconducteddisturbancesare within the scopeof
power quality; radiated disturbances(although very important) are outside of the
normal realm of power system engineering or power quality.
A schematicoverview of theEMC terminologyis given in Fig. 1.19. We see that
the emission of a device may consist of conducteddisturbancesand radiateddistur-
bances.Radiateddisturbancescan reachanotherdevice via any medium.Normally,
radiateddisturbancesonly influenceanotherdevice when it is physically close to the
emitting device.Conducteddisturbancesreach anotherdevice via an electrically con-
ductingmedium, typically thepowersystem. The device being influenced no longer has
to be physically close as the power system is a very good medium for conductionof
the
many typesof disturbances.Of course also here the rule that is a device which is
electrically closer(thereis lessimpedancebetween them) is more likely to be influenced.
A device connectedto the power system is exposed to an electrical environmentnot
only due to thecombinedemissionof all otherdevicesconnectedto the system but also
due to all kinds of events in the power system (like switching actions,
short-circuitfaults,
and lightning strokes). Theimmunity of the deviceshouldbe assessed with reference to
this electromagneticenvironment.A special typeof disturbances,not shown in the
Powersystem
Events
Conducted
disturbances
Figure 1.19Overviewof EMC terminology.

figure, are radiateddisturbanceswhich induce conducteddisturbancesin the power

system.
Immunity Requirements. Immunity standardsdefine theminimum level of elec-

tromagneticdisturbancethat a pieceof equipmentshall be able towithstand. Before
being able todeterminethe immunity of a device, aperformancecriterion must be
defined. In other words, it should be agreedupon what kind of behavior will be
called a failure. Inpracticeit will often be clear when a device
performssatisfactorily
and when not, but when testingequipment the distinction may becomeblurred.
It will all dependon the applicationwhetheror not a certain equipmentbehavioris
acceptable.
The basicimmunity standard[IEC-61000-4-1] gives four classes of equipment
performance:
• Normal performancewithin the specification limits.

• Temporarydegradationor lossof function which is self-recoverable.
• Temporarydegradationor loss of function which requiresoperatorinterven-
tion or system reset.
• Degradationor loss of function which is not recoverabledue to damageof
equipment,componentsor software,or lossof data.
These classes are general as descriptionshouldbe

the applicableto all kinds of equip-
ment. Thisclassificationis further defined in thevariousequipmentstandards.
Emission Standards. Emission standardsdefine themaximum amount of elec-

tromagneticdisturbancethat a pieceof equipmentis allowed to produce.Within the
existing lEe standards,emission limits exist forharmonic currents[lEe 61000-3-2
and 61000-3-6], and for voltagefluctuations[lEe 61000-3-3, 61000-3-5, and 61000-3-
7]. Most power quality phenomenaare not due to equipmentemission but due to
EMC standardsonly apply
operationalactionsor faults in the power system. As the
to equipment, there are no"emission limits" for the power system. Events like
voltage sagsand interruptions are consideredas a "fact-of-life." These events do,
however,contributeto the electromagneticenvironment.
The Electromagnetic Environment.To give quantitativelevels for theimmunity

of equipment,the electromagneticenvironmentshould be known. Theelectromag-
netic environmentfor disturbancesoriginating in or conductedthrough the power
system, isequivalentto the voltagequality as defined before. ThelEC electromag-
netic compatibility standardsdefine the voltagequality in three ways:
I. Compatibility levels are reference values forcoordinatingemissionandimmu-

nity requirementsof equipment.For a givendisturbance,the compatibility
level is in between the emission level (or theenvironment)and the immunity
level. As both emission andimmunity are stochasticquantities,electromag-
netic compatibility can never be completelyguaranteed.The compatibility
level is chosen such t hatcompatibilityis achieved for mostequipmentm ostof
the time: typically 95% of equipmentfor 950/0 of "the time. It isnot always
possible to influenceboth emission and immunity: three cases can be distin-
guished:
• Both emission andimmunitycan be affected.The compatibility level can in

principle be freely chosen. But a high level will lead to high costs of
equipmentimmunity and a low level to high costs for limiting the emis-
sion. Thecompatibility level shouldthereforebe chosen suchthat the sum
of both costs isminimal. An exampleof a disturbancewhere both emis-
sion and immunity can be affected ish armonicdistortion. A very good
example of this process is described IEEEin Std.519 [82].
• The emission level cannot be affected. The compatibility level should be
chosen suchthat it exceeds theenvironmentfor most equipmentmost of
the time. An exampleof a disturbancewhere the emission level cannotbe
affected are voltage sags: their frequency of occurrencedependson the
fault frequency and on the power system, both of which cannotbe affected
by theequipmentmanufacturer.N ote that the EMC standardsonly apply
to equipmentmanufacturers.We will later come back to the choice of
compatibility levels for these kindof disturbances.
• The immunity level cannot be affected.The compatibility level should be
chosen suchthat it is less than the immunity level for most equipment
most of the time. An exampleof a disturbancewhere theimmunity level
cannotbe affected is voltagefluctuation leading to light flicker.
2. Voltagecharacteristicsare quasi-guaranteed limits for someparameters,cov-

ering any location. Again the voltagecharacteristicsare based on a95%
value, but now only in time. They hold at anylocation, and are thus an
important parameterfor the customer.Voltage characteristicsare a wayof
describingelectricity as aproduct. Within Europe the EN 50160standard
defines someof the voltagecharacteristics.This standardwill be discussed in
detail in Section 1.4.3.
3. Planning levels are specified by the supply utility and canconsideredas
be
internal quality objectivesof the utility.
These ideas were originally developed fordisturbancesgeneratedby equipment,for

which other equipmentcould be sensitive: mainlyradio frequency interference.These
ideas have beenextendedtowardsvariationslike harmonicdistortion or voltage fluc-
tuations.The concepthas not yet beenappliedsuccessfullytowardsevents like voltage
sags orinterruptions.
EMC and Variations. Variations can be stochasticallydescribed through a

probability distribution function, as shownin Fig. 1.20. The curve gives the probabil-
ity that the disturbancelevel will not exceed the given value. The compatibility level
can, accordingto the recommendationsin the IEC standards,be chosen at the95%
percentile, asindicated in Fig. 1.20. The curve can hold for one site or for a large
number of sites. When the curverepresentsa large number of sites it is important
that it gives thedisturbancelevel not exceeded for most of the sites (typically950/0 of
the sites).Consideras an examplethat the compatibility level of total harmonicdis-
tortion (THO) is 0.08. Supposethe THO is measuredat 100 sitesduring 1000 10-
minute intervals. A compatibility level of 0.08 impliesthat at 95 sites(out of 100) at
least 950THD samples (outof 1000) have a valueof 0.08 or less.
In case a higher reliability isrequiredfor the successfuloperationof a device, a
higher levelthan 950/0 should be chosen, e.g.,99.9%.
u
~
u
-; 0.75
.S
~u
~ 0.5
g
~
o
g 0.25
i
.J:J
Figure 1.20 Probability distribution function e
for a variation, with the compatibilitylevel ~ O~~-------------------'
Disturbancelevel inarbitraryunits
indicated.
EMC and Events. The EMC framework has not been developed for events
and its application to them has not been defined yet. For important power quality
phenomenalike voltage sagsand interruptions,the EMC standardscan thusnot be
used. This explains for a large part why the EMC standardsare not (yet) wellknown
in the powerquality field. Still an attemptshould be made atapplying the concepts
of electromagneticcompatibility to events.
Events onlyhappenoccasionallyand are not present allof the time;applying a
95°~ criterion is thereforeno longer possible. Animmunity to 95% of voltage sags
would dependon the wayof countingthe sags.C ountingall sags below 200 V (in a 230
V supply) would give a much higher numberthancountingall sagsbelow 150 V. The
immunity requirementin the latter case would be muchstricter than in the former.
In some powerquality monitoringsurveys a95% criterionin space is applied. The
electromagneticenvironmentis defined as the level of disturbance(numberof events)
not exceeded for950/0 of the sites. But the knowledge of the environmentin itself does
not sayanythingaboutequipmentimmunity requirements.The immunity requirement
should be based on theminimum time between events exceeding the immunity level.
Figure 1.21 shows the time between events exceeding certain
a disturbancelevel as a
function of the disturbancelevel (the severity of the event). The more severe the event
the more the time between events (the lower the event frequency). A of equipment
piece
or an industrial process to which theequipmentbelongs will have acertain reliability
requirement,i.e., a certain minimum time between events leading to tripping of the
equipmentor interruption of the process. By using the curve in Fig. 1.21 this can be
translatedinto an immunity requirement.As we will see later, theactual situation is
more complicated:the severityof an event is amultidimensionalquantity as at least
magnitudeand durationplaya role.
A possiblecompatibilitylevel would be the levelnot exceeded morethanten times
a year by95% of the customers.This can be done for anydimensionof the event,
leading to amultidimensionalcompatibility level. Thisconcepthas beenappliedto the
results of the Norwegianpower quality survey [67]. The frequency oftransientover-
voltage events, for the 950/0 site, is shown in Fig. 1.22. The95% site is chosen such t hat
95% of the sites have less transientovervoltageevents per yearthanthis site.From Fig.
1.22 we can see t hat reasonablecompatibility levels are:
• 2.5 pu for themagnitudeof the transients.

• 0.3 Vs for theVt-integral,
28 Chapt er I • Overview of Power Quality and Power Quality
Standards
6
Desired reliability
a:;
;;.
.!!
., 5
-5
OJ)
~.,
., 4
.,o><
ZJ
.,<::
.,;;. 3
.,<::
.,
~
.,
.,
.0
a 2
f::::
Disturbance level in arbitrary units Figure 1.21 Time between events as a

function of the disturbancelevel.
500
400
~.,;;. 300
""'d0
200 1.0-1.5
Z
~
100 2.0-3.0 . ~~
't>~"
3.0-5.0 ;s.'<S'
0 ~~"<J
5.0-10.0
1-10
Voltage-integral in Vs
Figure 1.22 Ma ximumnumberof transientovervoltage events for 95% of the low-

voltagecustomers in Norw ay.(Data obtained from [67].)
As a next step, these

levels could be used as a basis for equipment immunity require-
ments. This concept could be worked out further by giving compatibility
levels for 10
events and 1 event per year. Compatibility
levelsfor 1event per year cannot be obtained
from Fig. 1.22 because of the short monitoring period (about one year).
1.4.3 The European Voltage Characteristics Standard
Europeanstandard50160 [80] describeselectricity as a product, including its

shortcomings.I~ gives the main characteristics of the voltage at the customer's supply
terminals in public low-voltage and medium-voltage networks under normal operating
conditions.
Some disturbances are just mentioned, for others a wide range of typical values
are given, and for some disturbances actual voltage characteristics are given.
Voltage Variations. Standard EN50160 gives limits for some variations. For
each of these variations the value is given which shall notexceededfor
be 95% of
the time. The measurement should be performed with a certain averaging window.
The length of this window is 10 minutes for most variations; thus very short time
scales are not considered in the standard. The following limits forlow-voltage
the
supply are given in the document:
• Voltagemagnitude:950/0 of the 10-minute averages during one week shall be

within ± 10% of the nominal voltage of 230V.
• Harmonicdistortion: For harmonic voltage components up to order 25, values
are given which shall not be exceededduring 95% of the 10-minute averages
obtained in oneweek. The total harmonic distortion shall not exceed 8%
during 95% of the week. The limits have been reproduced in Table 1.1.
Theselevels appear to originate from a study after harmonic distortion per-
formed by a CIGRE working group [83], although thestandarddocument does
not refer to that study. Inreference[83] two values are given for the harmonic
voltage distortion:
- low value: the value likely to be found in the vicinity of large disturbing
loads and associated with a low probability of causing disturbing
effects;
- highvalue: value rarely found in the network and with a higher probability
of causing disturbingeffects.
TABLE 1.1 HarmonicVoltage Limits According to EN 50160
Order RelativeVoltage Order Relative Voltage
3 5 %
15 0.5%
5 6% 17 20/0
7 5% 19 1.5%
9 1.5% 21 0.50/0
II 3.5% 23 1.5%
13 3% 25 1.5%
30 ChapterI • Overview of Power Quality and PowerQuality Standards
TABLE 1.2 Harmonic VoltageLevels in Europe[83J
Order Low High Order Low High
3 1.5°~ 2.5% . 15 ~O.3°~

5 4%) 6% 17 1% 2%
7 4% 5°AJ 19 O.8°.!cJ 1.5°.!cJ
9 0.80/0 1.5% 21 ~O.30/0
II 2.5% 3.50/0 23 0.80/0 1.5%
13 2% 3% 25 0.8% 1.5°AJ
The valuesfound by the CIGRE working group havebeen summarizedin Table

1.2. The valuesused inEN 50160are obviously the valuesrarely exceededanywherein
Europe.This is exactly what is implementedby the term "voltage characteristics."
• Voltage fluctuation: 95% of the 2-hour long-term flicker severity values

obtainedduring oneweek shall not exceed1. The flicker severityis an objective
measureof the severity of light flicker due to voltagefluctuations (81].
• Voltageunbalance:the ratio of negative-and positive-sequence
v oltageshall be
obtainedas 10minute averages,95% of thoseshall not exceed2% during one
week.
• Frequency:95% of the 10secondaveragesshall not be outsidethe range49.5 ..
50.5 Hz.
• Signaling voltages: 99% of the 3- secondaveragesduring one day shall not
exceed9% for frequenciesup to 500 Hz,50/0 for frequenciesbetween1 and 10
kHz, and a thresholddecayingto 1% for higher frequencies.
Events. Standard EN 50160 does not give any voltage characteristicsfor

events. Most event-typephenomenaare only mentioned,but for some an indicative
value of the event frequencyis given. For completenessa list of eventsmentionedin
EN 50160 isreproducedbelow:
• Voltage magnitudesteps: thesenormally do not exceed ±5°AJ of the nominal

voltage, but changesup to ±100/o can occur a numberof times per day.
• Voltagesags:frequencyof occurrenceis betweena few tensand one thousand
events per year. Duration is mostly less than 1 second,and voltage drops
rarely below 40%. At some places sags due to load switching occur very
frequently.
• Short interruptionsoccur betweena few tensand severalhundredstimes per
year. The durationis in about 70% of the cases less
t han 1 second.
• Long interruptionsof the supply voltage:t heir frequencymay be lessthan 10 or
up to 50per year.
• Voltage swells (short overvoltagesin Fig. 1.16) occur under certain circum-
stances.Overvoltagesdue to short-circuit faults elsewherein the systemwill
generallynot exceed 1.5 kV rms in a 230 V system.
• Transientovervoltagewill generallynot exceed 6 kVpeak in a 230 V system.
The 95% Limits. One of the recurring criticisms on the EN 50160standardis

that it only gives limits for 95% of the time. Nothing is said about the remaining
5% of the time. Looking at the voltage magnitudeas an example:95% of the time
the voltage is between207V and 253V (10% variation around the nominal voltage
of 230V), but during the remaining 5% of the time the voltage could be zero, or
10000 V, and the voltagewould still conform with the voltagecharacteristics.
The voltage magnitude(rms value) is obtainedevery 10 minutes-thatgives a
total of 7 x 24 x 6 = 1008 samplesper week; all but 50 of thosesamplesshould be in
the givenrange.If we only considernormal operation(as isstatedin the document)it
would be very unlikely that these are far away from the ±lOOiO band. Understanding
this requiressomeknowledgeof stochastictheory. In normal operation,the voltageat
the customeris determinedby a seriesof voltagedropsin the system.All of thoseareof
a stochasticcharacter.According to stochastictheory, a variablewhich is the sum of a
sufficient numberof stochasticvariables,can be describedby a normal distribution.
The normal distribution is one of the basicdistributionsin stochastictheory: its prob-
ability densityfunction is
1 (V-Il)2
f(v) = --e-J;2 (1.3)
.J2ira
where v is the value of the stochasticvariable, It its expectedvalue, and (1 its standard
deviation. The well-known bell-shape of this function is shown in Fig. 1.23 for
It = 230V and (1 = 11.7V.
Thereis no analyticalexpressionfor the probability distribution function, but it
can be expressedin the so-callederror function <1>:
F(v) = [f(t/J)dt/J = <I>[V : /l] (1.4)
The voltage characteristicsstandardgives the expectedvalue (230V) and the 950/0

interval (207 .. 253 V).Assumingthat the voltageis normally distributedwe cancalcu-
late the standarddeviationwhich resultsin the given 95% confidenceinterval. As 95%
of the voltagesamplesare between207 and 253 V, 97.50/0 is below 253 V, thus:
<1>[253V ~ 230V] = 0.975 (1.5)
3.5,.--------.----,----.----.:.--.,....----,
3
5e
~ 2.5
.53
.~ 2
a
-8
g 1.5
~e
~
0.5
O'---.:=-----L--------J~_---I~_----I--=----'
Figure 1.23 Probability density function of 180 200 220 240 260 280
the normal distribution. Voltagein volts
32 Chapter 1 • Overview of Power Quality and Power Quality Standards
From a table of theerror function, which can befound in almostany book on statistics
or stochastictheory, we find that <1>(1.96) = 0.975 which givesa> 11.7V. Knowing
expectedvalue and standarddeviation of the normal distribution, the wholedistribu-
tion is known. It is thus no longerdifficult to calculatethe probability that the voltage
deviatesmore than 10% from its nominalvalue. The resultsof this calculationare given
in Table 1.3. The firstcolumngives theprobability that the voltageis within the voltage
range in thesecond,third, and fourth columns.The voltagerange is given instandard
deviations,in volts and as a percentageof the nominal voltage. The voltage is thus
between 200 and 260 V for990/0 of the time. The lastc olumn indicateshow often the
voltageis outsideof the range,assumingall samplesto bestochasticallyindependent.In
reality there isstrong correlation between thesampleswhich makesthat large devia-
tions become even more unlikely. Further, there arevoltage regulation mechanisms
(capacitor banks, transformertap-changers)which become active when the voltage
deviatestoo much from itsnominal value. Finally, one should realize that the 95%
value given in thestandarddoes not hold for the averagecustomerbut for the worst-
servedcustomer.All this leads to theconclusionthat voltagemagnitudevariationsof
much morethan 10% are extremelyunlikely.
From this reasoningone should absolutely not draw the conclusion that the
voltage magnitudewill never be lowerthan a value like 80%. The mainassumption
used isthat the voltage variations are due to the sumof a numberof small voltage
drops. During, e.g., a voltage sag, this nolonger holds. This brings us back to the
principal differencebetween"events" and "variations": for variationsthe normal dis-
tribution can be used; for events it is the time betweenevents which isof main impor-
tance. Theprobabilitiesin Table 1.3 thus only hold for voltagemagnitudevariations;
absolutelynothing is said yetabout voltagemagnitudeevents.
Scope and Limitations. StandardEN 50160containssome well-defined limits

and measurementprotocols,but it falls short of putting responsibilitywith any party.
This is of courseunderstandablewhen one realizesthat the documentdescribes the
"voltage characteristics"which is the electromagneticenvironmentas it is now, not
as it should be, and not even as it will be infuture. Of coursethe underlying thought
is that the situation will not become worse andthat it is up to the utilities toensure
this.
When interpretingthis standardit is also very important to realize that it only
appliesunder"normal operatingconditions."The documentspecifies a listo f situations
to which the limits do not apply.T his list includes "operationafter a fault," but also
"industrial actions" and such vague terms as "force majeure" and "power shortages
due to externalevents."This list removes a loto f the potential value from the docu-
ment. A descriptionof the electromagneticenvironmentshould include all eventsand
TABLE 1.3 Probability of Voltage Exceeding Certain Levels
Probability Voltage Range Frequency

95% u ± 1.960' 207-253 V ±IO% 50 per week
99% J-L ± 2.580' 200-260 V ±13% 10 per week
99.9% /l ± 3.290' 193-268 V ±17% I per week
99.99% /1. ± 3.900' 184-276 V ±200/o 5 per year
99.999% J.,l ± 4.420' 178-282 V ±23% t per 2 years
99.9999% J.,l ± 4.890' 173-287 V ±25% 1 per 20 years
variationsto which acustomeris exposed, notjust those which occurduring "normal

operating conditions." A voltage sagduring a severe lightningstorm (exceptional
weather) is equallydamagingas a sagduring a sunnyafternoonin May.
Looking at the documentin a more positive light, one can say that it only gives
limits for what we have called"variations";voltage quality"events"are not covered by
the document.
What Next? Despite all itsshortcomings,EN 50160 is a very gooddocument.

It is probably the bestthat could be achievedunder the circumstances.One should
realize that it is the first time that the electromagneticenvironment has been
described in such detail in an official
document.Although limits are only given for
some of the phenomena,and although the standardonly applies during normal
operation,and althoughabsolutely noguaranteesare given, at least a first step is set.
Based on thisstandardone can see a numberof developments:
• Utilities all over Europehave startedto characterizetheir voltagequality by

using themeasurements as defined in EN 50160; thus 10-minute averages are
takenof the rms voltage, 10-minute averages of harmonicvoltages,
the etc. The
values not exceeded during 95% of the time are then used to characterizethe
local voltage quality. Aproblemis that some utilities thencomparethe results
with the EN 5160 limits and state t hat their voltagequality confirms with the
Europeanstandards.Understandingthe conceptof voltagecharacteristics,it is
TABLE 1.4 Voltage Characteristics as Published by Goteborg Energi
Phenomenon Basic Level

Voltage Variations
Magnitude variations Voltage shall be between 207 and 244 V
Harmonic voltages Up to 4% for odd harmonic distortion
Up to l°,.{, for even harmonic distortion
Up to 60/0 THO
Up to 0.30/0 for interharmonic voltages
Voltage fluctuations Not exceedingthe flicker curve
Voltage unbalance Up to 20/0
Frequency In between 49.5 and 50.5 Hz
Voltage Events
Magnitude steps Frequent events shall be less than
3°.!cl in magnitude
Voltage sags No limits
Short interruptions No limits
Long interruptions
accidental On average less than one in three years

On average shorter than 20 minutes
Individual interruptions shorter than 8 hours
planned On average less than one 18 in years
On average shorter than 90 minutes
Individual interruptions shorter than 8 hours
Transients The utility tries to minimize size and frequency of
transients whichinfluencecustomers
no surprisethat the local voltagequality is betterthan the limits given in the

standard.This result should thus absolutelynot be used by a utility to show
that their supply is goodenough.The statement" our supply confirms with EN
50160" isnonsense,as thestandarddoesnot give requirementsfor the supply,
but only existingcharacteristicsof the worst supply in Europe.
• Some utilities have come up with their own voltage characteristicsdocument,
which is of coursebetter than the one described in the s tandard.The local
utility in Gothenburg,Sweden hasdistributeda flyer with the limits given in
Table 1.4. The term"voltage characteristics"is actually not used in the flyer;
insteadthe term "basic level" is used [108].
• Measurementsare beingperformed all over Europe to obtain information
about other power quality phenomena.For voltage sags,interruptions,and
transient voltages no limits are given in the existing document. A voltage
characteristicfor voltagesags,and for other events, ishard to give asalready
mentionedbefore. An alternativeis to give themaximum numberof events
below a certain severity, for 95°A, of the customers.Figure 1.22 gives this
voltage characteristicfor transient overvoltage, as obtained through the
NorwegianPowerQuality survey [67]. Such a choiceof voltage characteristic
would be inagreementwith the useof this same950/0 level for thedefinition of
the compatibility level.
Long Interruptions and
Reliability Evaluation
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.1.1 Interruptions
A long interruption is a power quality event during which the voltage at a cus-
tomerconnectionor at theequipmentterminalsdropsto zero and does not come back
automatically.Long interruptionsare one of the oldestand most severepower quality
concerns.The official IEC definition mentionsthree minutesas theminimum duration
of a long interruption. An interruption with a duration of less than three minutes
shouldbe called a"shortinterruption."Within the IEEE standardsthe term"sustained
interruption" is used forinterruptionslastinglongerthan 3 seconds[IEEE Std. 1159] or
longer than2 minutes[IEEE Std. 1250]. In thischapterthe term"long interruption"will
be used as aninterruption which is terminatedthroughmanualaction, thus not auto-
matic. An interruptionterminatedthroughautomaticreclosureor switching, is called a
"short interruption" and will be treatedin detail in Chapter3.
2.1.2 Reliability Evaluation of Power Systems
An area of researchcalled "power system reliability" has developed,in which

numberand duration of long interruptionsare stochasticallypredicted.This areahas
long beenconfined to universities and to industrial power systems,but the recent
interestin power quality in all its aspects hascausedincreasedactivities in reliability
both at universities and in utilities. Anadditional reasonfor the increasedinterestin
reliability is the availability of cheapfast computers.In the past reliability evaluation
studiesof realistic power systemsrequiredlarge computers,gross simplifications,and
long calculationtimes. Many ideasproposedin the pastcan only now beimplemented.
Someof the basicsbehind reliability evaluationof power systems will be discussed in
Sections 2.4 and 2.5; some exampleswill be presentedin Section 2.8.
35
36 Chapter2 • Long Interruptionsand Reliability Evaluation
2.1.3 Terminology
In this chapterthree terms willa ppearregularly: failure,outage,and interruption.

In daily life their meaningsare interchangeable,but in the reliability evaluation of
power systems, there are clear andimportantdifferences.
• Failure. The term failure is used in the general

meaningof the term: a device or
system which doesn ot operateasintended.Thuswe can talkabouta failure of
the protectionto clear a fault, but also of the failure oftransformer,and
a even
about the failure of the public supply.
• Outage. An outageis the removalof a primary componentfrom the system,
e.g., atransformeroutageor the outageof a generatorstation.A failure does
not necessarily have to lead to an outage,e.g., the failure of the forced cooling
of a transformer.And the other way around,an outageis not always due to a
failure. A distinction is thereforemade between"forced outages"and "sched-
uled outages."The former are directly due to failures, the l atter are due to
operatorintervention.Scheduledoutagesare typically to allow forpreventive
maintenance,but also theaforementionedfailure of the forced cooling of a
transformercould initiate the schedulingof a transformeroutage.
• Interruption. The term interruption has already been used before. It is the
situation in which a customeris no longer supplied with electricity due to
one or moreoutagesin the supply. In reliabilityevaluationthe terminterrup-
tion is used as theconsequenceof an outage(or a number of overlapping
outages),which is in most cases the same as the definition used in the power
quality field (a zero-voltagesituation).
2.1.4 Causes of Long Interruptions
Long interruptionsare always due tocomponentoutages.Componentoutages

are due to threedifferent causes:
I. A fault occurs in thepower system which leads to an intervention by the

power systemprotection. If the fault occurs in apart of the systemw.hich is
not redundantor of which the redundantpart is out of operationthe inter-
vention by the protectionleads to aninterruptionfor a numberof customers
or piecesof equipment.The fault is typically ashort-circuitfault, but situa-
tions like overloadingof transformersor underfrequencymay also lead to
long interruptions.Although the results can be very disturbingto the affected
customers,this is acorrectinterventionof the protection.Would the protec-
tion not intervene,the fault would most likely lead to an i nterruption for a
much largergroupof customers,as well as to serious damageto the electrical
equipment.
As distribution systems are oftenoperatedradially (i.e., without redun-
dancy) andtransmissionsystems meshed (with redundancy),faults in trans-
mission systems do not have much influence on the reliability of the supply,
but faults indistribution systems do.
2. A protectionrelay intervenesincorrectly, thus causinga componentoutage,
which might again lead to a long interruption. If the incorrect tripping (or
maltrip) occurs in apart of the systemwithout redundancy,it will always lead
Section 2.2 • Observationof SystemPerformance 37
to an interruption. If it occurs in apart of the system withredundancythe

situationis different. For a completelyrandommaltrip, the chancethat the
redundantcomponentis out of operationis rather small. Randommaltrips
are thus not a serious reliability concern redundantsystems.
in However
malt rips are often not fullyrandom, but more likely when the system is
faulted. In that case there will be two trips by the protection: a correct
interventionand anincorrectone. Themaltrip trips the redundantcompo-
nent just at themomentthat redundanceis needed.Fault-relatedmaltripsare
a seriousconcernin redundantsystems.
3. Operatoractionscause acomponentoutage which can also lead to a long
interruption.Some actionsshouldbetreatedas abackupto the power system
protection,either correct or incorrect. But an operatorcan also decide to
switch off certain parts of the system for preventive maintenance.This is a
very normalactionand normally not of any concern tocustomers.There is in
most cases at least some level redundancyavailable
of sothat the mainte-
nance does not lead to an interruptionfor any of the customers.In some low-
voltage networksthere is noredundancypresent at all, which impliesthat
preventive maintenanceand repair or changes in the system can only be
performedwhen the supply to apart of the customersis interrupted.These
interruptions are called "scheduledinterruptions" or "planned interrup-
tions." The customercan take someprecautionsthat make the consequences
of the interruptionlessthan for a nonscheduledinterruption.This of course
assumesthat the utility informs thecustomerwell in advance,which is unfor-
tunatelynot always the case.
2.2 OBSI!RVATION OF SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
Long interruptions have long beenconsideredas somethingworth preventing: the

numberand duration of long interruptionswas viewed as themeasureof how good
the supply was.T oday we would call it a powerquality indicator Of, in lEe terms, a
voltage characteristic.
Many utilities have recordsof numberand durationof interruptions,but mostly
for internal use. Theamount of publishedmaterial is relatively low. That not only
makes ithard to getinformationaboutsupply performancefor educationand research
purposes,but even forcustomersit is often hard to find out what the reliabilityof the
supply is. The former isj ust an inconvenience, thelatteris a serious concern. A positive
exception to this is theprivatizedelectricity industryin the United Kingdom. The data
presented in theremainderof this section has mainly been obtainedfrom the reports
published by the British Officeof Electricity Regulation(OFFER) [109]. Some addi-
tional information has beenobtainedfor The Netherlands[110], [111].
2.2.1 Basic Indices
As alreadymentionedin Section 1.3.2 the mainstochasticcharacteristicof any

voltagemagnitudeevent is the time between events, or (which is in effect the same) the
numberof events per year. The latter is indeed oneof the maincharacteristicscollected
for long interruptions.Figure 2.1 shows the average numberof interruptionsper cus-
tomer for six consecutiveone-yearperiods. When the U.K. electricityindustry was
privatized in December1990 there was a serious concern that the reliability of the
38 Chapter 2 • Long Interruptions and Reliability Evaluation
....
E 1.2-,---- -- - - - - - -- - - - ----,
o
'@
o
l:;
~ 0.8
c:
1 o
06
.
.5 0.4
'-
~ 0.2
OJ
§ Figure 2.1 Numberof interruptionsper

Z 0 90/9 1 91/92 92/93 93/94 94/95 95/96 customer.average forGreat Britain. (Data
Monitoring period obtainedfrom (1091.)
supply woulddeteriorate. Figure 2.1 clearly shows t hat this has not been the case; the
numberof supply interruptionshas stayedremarkablyconstant.
Individual interruptions arecharacterizedthrough their duration,i.e., the time it
takes until the supply isrestored. Often the averaged uration of an interruptionis not
published but instead the total durationof all interruptionsduring one year is provided.
This value is referred to as the"minuteslost perconnectedcustomer"or more correctly
as theunavailability of the supply. Thedata for Great Britain (Wales,Scotland,and
England)is shown in Fig. 2.2. We again see that the reliability of the supply remained
constant,with the exception of the year 1990/91, during which severe blizzards made it
impossible to restore the supply within a few hours. The numberof interruptionsdue to
this severeweatherwas relatively small. as can be concludedfrom Fig. 2.1, but its
duration had a seriousimpact on the unavailability of the supply .
The collectionof this datais less trivial thanit may look . One should realizethat
most utilities do notautomatically become awarethat the supply to one or more
customersis interrupted. It is typically the customersthat report an interruption to
the utility . The startingmomentof an interruption,and thus theduration,is therefore
not always easy todetermine.The total numberof long interruptionsin the service
territory of a utility can beobtainedsimply by counting them , as eachinterruption
requires anoperatoraction for the supply to be restored. The numberof customers
affected by aninterruption requires a studyof customerrecords which is often time
consuming. Some utilitiesjust assume a fixedamountof customersconnectedto each
feeder, whileother utilities link the interruption records with theircustomerdatabase .
250-,---- - -- -- -- -- - -- - - --,
~
" 200
~
:.§. 150
:€
{j 100
=a
g 50
;:J
o 90/9 1 91/92 92/93 93/94 94/95 95/96 Figure 2.2 Unavailability of the supply.
Monitoring period average forGreat Britain. (Data obtained
from [109].)
The calculationof the indices from the collected

d atacould proceedas follows.
Considera utility serving N,o, customers.During the reporting period (typically one
year) a total of K outagesin the system lead to aninterruption for one or more
customers.Interruption i affects N, customersand has aduration of D; minutes. The
averagenumberof interruptionsper customerper yearI is given by
(2.1)
The underlying assumptionoften used in theinterpretationof this data is that the

system average over 1 year, equals customeraverage
the overmany years. Thus I
would also be the expectednumberof interruptionsper year for eachcustomer.But
variations in customerdensity, system design and operation, and weather patterns,
make that not all customersare equal from a reliabilitypoint of view.
The averageunavailabilityper customerq, in minutesper year, may becalculated
as
K
LN;D;
- ;=1
q=--- (2.2)
»:
The averagedurationof an interruption D is
(2.3)
This value isredundant,as it may becalculatedfrom (2.1) and (2.2) by using the
following relation:
- q
D== (2.4)
A
X, q, D.
Utilities often publish two of these three values,
Note that (2.3) gives theaverageduration of an interruption from a customer
perspective.From a utility perspectiveanothervalue is alsoof interest: the average
duration per interruption, Dint, calculatedas
(2.5)
This value givesinformation abouthow fast a utility is able torestorean interruption.

The outcomeof (2.4) and (2.5) iscertainly not the same.I nterruptionsserving more
customers,originating at higher voltage levels, tend to haveshorterduration.
a Thus
the averagedurationper customeris likely to beshorterthan the averagedurationper
interruption.Which valueshould be used is open for discussion.
2.2.2 Distribution of the Duration of an Interruption
We will later seethat the costsof an interruption increasenonlinearly with the

durationof the interruption.The averagedurationof an interruptionwill thusnot give
the average cost. Tocalculate the latter, information about the distribution of the
durationshouldbe available.The U.K. utilities publish information aboutthe percen-
tage of interruptions restored within 3 hours and the percentageof interruptions
restoredwithin 24 hours. This is part of the so-called"overall standardsof service"
which we will discuss inSection 2.3. The assumptionmade in almost all reliability
evaluationstudiesis that the componentoutageduration as well as the supplyinter-
ruption durationareexponentiallydistributed.The exponentialdistribution,also called
"negative-exponentialdistribution," is the basicdistribution of most reliability evalua-
tion techniques,as we will see in Section 2.5. Theprobability distribution function of
the exponentialdistribution can be expressed as
F(t) = I - e-t (2.6)
where T is the expected valueo f the stochasticvariable,which will be estimatedby the
averageduration. Knowing the averageduration, e.g., from Table 2.2 and Table 2.3,
the percentageof interruptionsrestoredwithin a time t} may bedeterminedas
(2.7)
Table2.1 gives thepercentageof interruptionsrestoredwithin 3 hoursfor a numberof
British distributioncompanies.The values in thecolumnslabeled"practice" have been
obtainedfrom [109], the values in thecolumnslabeled "theory" have beenobtained
from (2.7) by using theaverageduration of supply interruptionsfor the same year.
Using the averagedurationandassumingan exponentialdistributionwill overestimate
the impact of interruptions:the numberof interruptionslonger than 3 hoursis signifi-
cantly lessthanwould be expected from the measuredaverage. This is clearly a case for
more detailedreportingof the distributionof the durationof both componentoutages
and supplyinterruptions.It also calls forincluding nonexponentialdistributionsin the
reliability evaluation.
Figure 2.3 shows theprobability density function of the durationof all interrup-
tions obtained for The Netherlandsbetween 1991 and 1994 [112]. We see t hat the
majority of interruptions has a duration between 30minutes and 2 hours, with a
TABLE 2.1 Distribution of Interruption Duration, 1996/97 Values for Various British
Utilities: Theory and Practice
Supply Not RestoredWithin 3 Hours

Company AverageDuration in
Theory Practice
Hours
A 2.38 28.4% 19.3°AJ

B 1.38 11.4% 9.8°AJ
C 1.42 12.1o~ 7.3°AJ
D 1.45 12.6% 7.0%
E 1.63 15.90/0 11.5%
F 1.62 15.7°~ 8.6°AJ
G 2.27 26.7% 13.4°AJ
H 1.38 11.4% 7.1%
Source: Data obtainedfrom [109].

Section2.2 • Observationof SystemPerformance 41
TABLE 2.2 Numberof Interruptions perCustomerper Year X for Some British Utilities
ReportingYear
Distribution
Company 90/91 91/92 92/93 93/94 94/95 95/96
A 0.41 0.47 0.38 0.37 0.40 0.33

B 0.58 0.62 0.57 0.56 0.70 0.61
C 1.70 1.11 1.29 1.25 1.21 1.39
D 0.76 0.68 0.96 0.59 0.65 0.85
E 2.85 2.29 1.95 2.14 2.20 2.23
F 1.46 1.29 1.18 1.19 1.24 1.16
G 0.82 0.74 0.86 0.89 0.70 0.62
H 1.69 0.82 0.75 0.92 0.96 0.97
Source: Data obtainedfrom (109).
TABLE 2.3 SupplyUnavailabilit~ q for Some British Ut ilities
Repor ting Year

Distribution
Company 90/91 91/92 92/93 93/94 94/95 95/96
A 51 67 53 52 58 54
R 88 75 77 69 70 67
C 398 118 122 144 128 151
D 76 65 91 63 94 85
E 325 212 212 200 212 233
F 185 176 184 167 133 111
G 185 108 129 121 102 88
H 1004 87 87 97 105 95
Source:Data obtainedfrom (109).
Figure 2.3 Distribution ofd urationof

interruption, The Netherlands , 1991- 1994.
50 100 150 200 250 300
(Reproducedfrom Hen drik Boers and
Duration of interruption in minutes
Frenken(112).)
long tail up to 5 hours What

. is a moreimportantconclusionis that the distribution is
absolutely notexponential.(The density functionof the exponentialdistribution has its
maximum for zeroduration and continues to decay afterthat.) To estimate the
expected costsof interruption it is important to take thisdistribution into account.
However, most studies still assume exponentialdistribution.
an
42 Chapter2 • Long Interruptionsand ReliabilityEvaluation
2.2.3 Regional Variations
Both Fig. 2.1 and Fig. 2.2 give the average supply reliability for the whole of
GreatBritain. An old questionis, how useful is thisdatafor an individual customer.No
informationaboutindividual customersis available,but separatedataare availablefor
each of the 12d istributioncompanies[109]. Someof this datais shownin Table2.2 and
Table 2.3. In Great Britain the distribution companiesoperatethe voltage levels of
132 kV and lower. As will beshownin Table2.4 their systems are responsiblefor 97°~
of the numberof interruptions,as well as for97% of the unavailability. The compar-
ison between thedifferent utilities can giveinformationabouthow differences in system
design and operation influence the supply performance.Apart from the adverse-
weatheryear 90/91 thenumber of interruptionsand the supply unavailability have
remained remarkably constant. An accurate stochastic prediction method should
thus be capable of reproducing these numbers, an interesting challenge. We will
come back to thecomparisonbetweenobservationand predictionin Section2.7.
TABLE 2.4 Contributionsto the Supply Performance in Great Britain, 1995/96
Number ofInterruptions Unavailability per Customer Average

Duration of an
per Customer per Year Interruption
Total 1.03 158 min 150min

Low voltage (240/415 V) 0.06 22 min 140/0 370 min
6.6 and 11 kV 0.63 81 min 52% 130min
33 kV 0.13 12 min 8% 90 min
132 kV 0.06 7 min 4% 120min
Other 0.03 4 min 3% 130 min
Scheduled 0.12 32 min 20% 270 min
From Table 2.2 and Table 2.3 we can also see t hat companiesC, E, and H
suffered most from the severe weatherin 90/91. It is possible tocalculatethe average
duration of an interruptionfor eachof the distribution companies,by using (2.4).For
companyH we obtainfor the year 90/91:D = ll~: = 594minutes,almost 10hours.For
the year 91/92 theaverageduration of an interruption was only 106 minutesfor the
samecompany.
An evenfurther subdivisionhas been made in [109]: for each so-called"operation
unit" within the utility values are given forn umberof interruptionsand unavailability.
Based on thisdata a probability density function has beenobtainedfor the unavail-
ability of operationunits. The results areshown in Fig. 2.4 and Fig. 2.5. Thelatter
figure includes the units with the highest unavailability. We seethat 50% of the units
have anunavailability between50 and 100minutesper year.The 950/0 percentileof the
distribution is at 350 minutes. It is obvious from this graph that the averageunavail-
ability doesnot give anyinformation aboutthe unavailabilitywhich can be expected by
a specificcustomer.One shouldnote that this is not thedistribution for the customers,
as not all operationunits have the samenumberof customersand not all customers
within one operationunit have the sameunavailability. Getting such agraph for all
customerswould require a much more intensivedata collection effort than currently
being done.
10
8
.§tJ
C+-c
0
6
.8 4
~ 2
O~
Figure 2.4 Probability density function for
0
0
f")
I
0
tn
;
I
0
'"
1
\0
0
0\
...!. -,
~ 0
~
~ - --
0
V)
,
0
-
'" I
~
I
2
~
0
f")
~
0
V)
N
I
-
N 00
§ ~ ~ § 00 (5
N
M
N
~
N
the averageunavailability in Great Britain.
Interrupted minutes
(Data obtainedfrom [109].)
10......--...---------------------,
9
tJ 8
.~ 7
~o 6
.8 5
§4
Z 3
2
1
Figure 2.SExtensionof Fig. 2.4 toward

higher values.
2.2.4 Origin of Interruptions
The data on numberand duration of interruptionsmight be veryinterestingby

itself, especially forcustomers,but they donot directly lead to anyunderstandingof the
causes ofinterruptions.For that purpose,additionaldatacollectionis required.A first
step is toobtaindataon the voltage level at which the outageoccurredwhich led to the
interruption. Table 2.4 gives thisdata for Great Britain over the year 1995/96. The
values for other years are very similar. We see that the major contribution to the
number of interruptions,as well as to theunavailability, comes from the medium
voltage network (6.6 and 11kV). Anexplanationfor this is not too difficult to give.
Thesenetworkshave noredundancyso thata componentoutageimmediately leads to a
supply interruption. The 33 kV network is partly operatedas a loop, hence its lower
contribution. The low voltage network is also operatedradially, thus without any
redundancy,still its contributionis rathersmall. This is because a low voltage
customer
is exposed to much more (kilo)meters of medium voltage feederthan of low voltage
feeder. Thus, there will thus be much more outages affectingcustomerat
the medium
voltagethanat low voltage. Anadditionalfactor is that a largerpart of the low voltage
networkis underground,which accountsfor a lower failure rate. Thedatain Table 2.4
are showngraphically in Fig. 2.6 and Fig. 2.7. These figures again confirm that an
increased reliability of the supply can only be achieved throughinvestmentat distribu-
tion level. An importantconclusionfrom Table 2.4, Fig. 2.6, and Fig. 2.7 that is the
longestinterruptionsare due to scheduled outages and outages at low voltage level. But
44 Ch apt er 2 • Long Interruptions andReliability Evaluation
Other
3%
33 kV
12%
Figure 2.6 Contributionsto the numberof

supplyinterruptionsin Great Britain . (Data
obtainedfrom [109].)
Other
3%
132 kV
4%
Figure 2.7 Contributionsto the

unavailability of the supply inGreat Britain.
(Data obtainedfrom [109].)
as theseoccur less oftenthan interruptionsdue tooutagesat medium voltage level, the

latter make the largestcontribution to the unavailability of the supply .
Surveys inother countriesconfirm that the majority of interruptionsis due to
outagesat medium voltage level. Table 2.5 gives interruption data obtainedin The
Netherlandsover the period 1991 through 1995 [110]. ("High voltage" is typically
150kV and 380kV, "medium voltage" 10 kV, and "low voltage" 400 V.) Here we see
the somewhatremarkablephenomenonthat about one third of the interruptionsfor
urban customersare due tooutagesin high voltage networks. This is due to the large
consumerdensity in the cities, and due to the fact that all low voltage and medium
voltage distribution is underground. The numberof outages in medium voltage net-
works is thereforesimply very low. The high voltagenetworksare mainly overhead,
which makes themcomparableto the U.K. situation. We see 6interruptionsper 100
customersin The Netherlandsand 9 per 100customersin the U.K. ("132 kV" and
"others"), indeed a similar number. Like in the U.K ., the unavailability of the power
supply in TheNetherlandsis mainly due to the medium voltage distribution network.
Figure 2.8 shows thecontributionsof the three voltage levels to the interruption
frequency, between 1976 and 1995, for the average low voltage customerin The
Netherlands.The contribution of the low voltage and medium voltage systems to the
interruptionfrequency isratherconstant.The contributionof the high voltage network
TABLE 2.5 Supply Performancein The Netherlands,1991-1995
Urban Customers
High Voltage Medium Voltage Low Voltage Total
Numberof interruptions 0.06/year 29% 0.12/year 58% O.OI/year 50/0 0.21/year

Unavailability 2 minutes 15% 9.5 minutes 73% 1.5 minutes 12% 13 minutes
Interruptionduration 26 minutes 75 minutes 198 minutes 62 minutes
All Customers
High Voltage Medium Voltage Low Voltage Total
Numberof interruptions 0.06/year 22% 0.20/year 740/0 O.OI/year 40/0 0.27/year

Unavailability 2 minutes t 1% 15 minutes 79% 2 minutes 110/0 19 minutes
Interruptionduration 26 minutes 75 minutes 199 minutes 70 minutes
0.4
i' 0.35
t)
>-
!, 0.3
~ 0.25
6
t
¢:l
0.2
a
Figure 2.8 Numberof interruptionsper year
for the averagelow voltagecustomerin The
Netherlands,1976-1995,with contributions
r
.:;: 0.15
..=
0.1
0.05
from low voltage(x), mediumvoltage(0), and Ol..------J.------L.----....L.---~
high voltage( +) systems.(Reproducedfrom 80 85 90 95
van Kruining et al. [110].) Year
varies much more. In some years (1985, 1991)contribution

its is negligible, while in
other years (1990) they make up half of the numberof interruptions.This large varia-
tion is partly of a stochasticnature(the numberof outagesof high voltagecomponents
leading to aninterruptionis very small)but also due toweathervariationshaving more
influence on the (mainlyoverhead)high voltagenetwork than on the (mainlyunder-
ground)mediumvoltage and lowvoltagenetworks.
Figure2.9 shows theprobabilitydensityfunction for the durationof interruptions
originatingat different voltage levels in TheNetherlands[Ill]. For interruptionsdue to
high voltage componentoutages,the majority of durations is short: about 75% is
shorter than 30 minutes. Outagesin the medium voltageand low voltage networks
(typically 10kV and 400 V, respectively, in The Netherlands)lead to longer interrup-
tions. For medium voltage onlyabout 15% of the interruptionsis shorter than 30
minutes, for low voltage this value is even lower:about 5%. This has to do with the
methodsused forrestorationof the supply.Outagesin the high voltage networksare
normally restoredvia operatorinterventionfrom a centralcontrol room. In medium
voltage and low voltage networksthere is no suchcontrol room and both fault loca-
lization and restorationof the supply has to take place locally. From the density
functions in Fig. 2.9 it is clearthat 30 minutes is about the minimum time needed
60 High voltage
%
50
40
30
20
10
O'---.£""""",L-L-
0-1/4 114-112 1/2-1 1-2 2-4 4-8 8-16 16-32
Duration in hours
40 Medium voltage
% 35
30
25
20
15
10
5
O'--'=L-L-
0- 1/4 1/4-1/2 1/2-1 1-2 2-4 4-8 8-16 16-32
Duration in hours
30 Low voltage
%
25
20
15
10
5
o'--'"'-=L-.L._
0-1/4 1/4·112 112-1 1-2 2-4 4-8 8-16 16-32
Duration in hours
Figure 2.9 Probability den sity function for duration of interruptions,originating at

three voltage levels in The Netherlandspower systems. (Reproduced
from Waumans[III].)
for this. Almost 100% of medium and low voltage networksin The Netherlandsare
underground. Restorationof the supply takes place
normally via switching in radially
operatedloops .
2.2.5 More Information
From recording interruption events, much moreinformation can beobtained

than just averageduration and frequency . We already saw origin of the interruption
and theprobability distribution of the durationas examples ofadditionalinformation.
The amountof information that can beobtaineddepends on how detailed the record of
the interruptionis. There are twoapplicationsfor the recordedinformation, each with
their own requirements :
This mainly requiresinformation about the

I. Increase the quality of supply.
origin of interruptions and the way in which the supply is restored.
For
example,the knowledgethat most interruptionsoriginateat mediumvoltage

level teaches usthat most gain can beobtainedby improvementsthere. But
supposethat for a certaincustomerinterruptioncostsare small forinterrup-
tion durationsup to 2 hours, e.g., because essential equipmentis supplied
through a battery backup (an uninterruptablepower supply or UPS). By
using Fig. 2.9 it is shownthat improvementsin the low voltage network
become moreappropriate.To make such a decision it is obvious that more
data is neededthanjust interruption frequencyand unavailability.
2. Serve as inputdatafor reliability evaluation studies. Thisrequiresa lot more
data, not just about interruptions but also about outagesnot leading to
interruptions.Most utilities and industriesdo keepinformation about out-
age frequenciesand durationsof components,but not much of it is openly
available. Some large surveys have been performed to obtain outage fre-
quencies: e.g., by theIEEE Industry Applications Society for industrial
power systems [21], and byCIGRE for componentsof high voltage net-
works [197]. What is clearly still missing aredata on failure of the power
system protection, and probability distributions for time betweenoutages
and time to restorethe component.Especially thelatter could become very
important in future reliability evaluationstudies, as theinterruption costs,
and thus theinterruption duration, becomes the desired o utput. A detailed
literature survey performedby the author in the early 90s resulted in sug-
gestionsfor expectedcomponentlifetimes [107]. The resultsof that study
are reproducedin Table 2.6.
TABLE 2.6 SuggestedValues for Number of Component Outages

and Failures
Number of Outages per Number of Outages per Failure

Component Type 1000Components per Year Component per Year Probability
MV IL V transformers 1-2
MV /MV transformers 10-12
HV jMV transformers 14-25
MV and LV circuit breakers 0.2-1
Disconnect switches 1-4
Electromagnetic relays 1-4
Electronic relays (single function) 5-10
Electronic relay systems 3D-100
Fuses 0.2-1
Voltage and current transformers 0.3-0.5
Standby generators 20-75
failure to start 0.5-20/0
Continuous generators 0.3-1
UPS inverter 0.5-2
UPS rectifier 30-JOO
Underground ·cable (1000 meters) 13-25
Cable terminations 0.3-1
Cable joints 0.5-2
Busses(one section) 0.5-2
Large motors 30-70
Source: [107].
2.3 STANDARDS AND REGULATIONS
2.3.1 Limits for the Interruption Frequency
Long interruptions are by far themost severepower quality event; thus any
documentdefining or guaranteeingthe quality of supply should contain limits on
frequencyand durationof interruptions.The internationalstandardson powerquality
do not yet give anylimitations for interruption frequencyor duration. The European
voltage quality standardEN 50160 (see Section 1.4.3) comes closeststatingby that
"under normaloperatingconditionstheannualfrequencyof voltageinterruptionslonger
thanthreeminutesmay be less than 10 or up to 50dependingon the area."The document
also statesthat Hit is notpossibleto indicate typicalvaluesfor the annualfrequency and
durations 0.[longinterruptions."
Many customerswant more accurate limits for the interruption frequency.
Therefore, some utilities offer their customersspecial guarantees,sometimescalled
"power quality contracts."The utility guaranteesthe customerthat there will be no
more than a certain number of interruptionsper year. If thismaximum number of
interruptionsis exceeded in a given year, the utility will paycertainamountof
a money
per interruptionto the customer.This can be a fixedamountper interruption,defined
in the contract,or the actualcosts and lossesof the customerdue to theinterruption.
Some utilities offervariouslevelsof quality, with differentcosts. Thenumberof options
is almost unlimited: customerwillingness to payextra for higher reliability and utility
creativity are the maininfluencingfactors at the moment.Technicalconsiderationsdo
not appearto play any role insettinglevels for themaximumnumberof interruptions
or the costsof the various options. For a customerto make adecisionaboutthe best
option, datashouldbe available,not only aboutthe averageinterruptionfrequencybut
also on theprobability distribution of the numberof interruptionsper year.
Contractualagreementsaboutthe voltagequality are mainly aimed atindustrial
customers.But also fordomesticcustomers,utilities offer compensation.Utilities in the
U.K. have to offer a fixedamount to each customerinterruptedfor longer than 24
hours. In The Netherlandsa court has ruled that utilities have to compensatethe
customersfor all interruption costs, unless theutility can provethat they are not to
blame for theinterruption.Also in Sweden some utilities offer customerscompensation
for an interruption.
2.3.2 Limits for the Interruption Duration
The inconvenienceof an interruptionincreasesvery fast when itsdurationexceeds

a few hours.This holds especially fordomesticcustomers.T hereforeit makessense to
not reduce thenumber of interruptions (which might be very expensive)b ut their
duration. Limiting the durationof interruptionsis a basicphilosophyin power system
design andoperationin almostany country.In the U.K., as anexample,the durationof
interruptionsis limited in three ways:
1. The Officeof Electricity Regulation(OFFER)setstargetsfor the percentage

of interruptionslasting longer than 3 hoursand for the percentageof inter-
ruptionslasting longer than 24 hours.These areso-called"overall standards
of service" [109].
Section 2.3 • Standardsand Regulations 49
2. Thedistributioncompanypays all customers whose supplyinterruptedfor

is
longer than 24 hours. This is a so-called
"guaranteedstandardof service"
[109].
3. The design of the systems is such
that a supplyinterruption is likely to be
restored within a certain time.
The OFFERregulationscontain,for eachdistributioncompany,a target for the

percentage ofinterruptionsthat is restored within 3 hours, and targetfor
a the percen-
tagerestoredwithin 24 hours. At the end of each year the distributioncompaniesreport
back to OFFER, which publishes the targets togetherwith the actual achievement.
Table 2.7 shows targets and achievement over 1996/97 for some of the utilities. We
990/0, and
seethat most utilities meet their targets. All targets for 24 hours are at least
the 3-hour targets are no lower than 800/0.
The maximumdurationof interruptionis also animportantpart of the designof
systems. As we will see inChapter7 the concept of" redundancy"plays a very impor-
tant role in that. To achieve acertain reliability of supply, the power system should
contain a certain amount of redundancy.A common rule in the design of public
systems isthat the larger the number of customers that would be affected by the outage
of a component,the more redundancythere should be present and the faster this
redundancyshould be available. Table 2.8 summarizes the way this is implemented
in the U.K. [119]. These rules used to bepart of a so-called engineering recommenda-
tion, and it has been in use in the U.K. for many years. When the utilities were
privatized thisrecommendationbecamepart of the license agreement. Dependingon
the load size, maximumdurationsof interruptionare given. The larger the a mountof
TABLE 2.7 Performance of U.K. Utilities over1996/97
3 hours 24 hours
Target Achieved Target Achieved
A 80°A, 80.7°A, 1000/0 100%
B 85% 90.2% 99% 100%
C 950/0 92.70/0 1000/0 99.9%
D 93% 93.0% 100% 100%
E 80% 88.50/0 99% 100%
F 80% 91.4% 99% 100%
G 85% 86.6% 99% 99.3%
H 850/0 92.9% 99% 100%
Source: Data obtained from[109].
TABLE 2.8 DesignRecommendations

for the U.K. Supply System
Amount of Load Restored

Load Size Immediately Within 15 Min Within 3 Hours In Repair Time
0-1 MW Total load
1-12MW Load - I MW Total load
12-60 MW Load - 12 MW or 2/3 load Tota11oad
60-300 MW Load - 20 MW Total load
Source: U.K. EngineeringRecommendation P2/5

[119].
load affected, the faster the

restorationof the supply. In termsof power systemopera-
tion and design, thisrequires parallel supply for loads above 60 MW,automaticor
remotemanual transferfor loads above 12MW, and local manualtransferfor loads
above 1 MW. The relation between reliability andpower system design is discussed in
detail in Chapter7.
2.4 OVERVIEW OF RELIABILITY EVALUATION
A number of books and hundredsof papers have beenwritten on power system

reliability. The most well-known books are those by Billintonand Allan [84], [85],
[86], but also thebook by Endreyni [87] and the IEEE Gold Book [21] treat this
subject inconsiderabledetail. Thelatter publicationdoesnot give detailedtheoretical
considerations,but a useful seto f basic calculations.It also gives a seto f component
outage rates, which issomewhatmissing in the other books. Interesting books on
power system reliability have also been written in the German language:[88], [89],
and probably in other languagesas well. An overview of publications on power
system reliability in theinternational refereed literature, is published about once
every five years in theIEEE Transactionson Power Systems [90], [91], [92]. Other
sourcesof information are reportson power system reliability issued by national and
international organizations[93], [94]. Also more and morebooks on power system
analysis, design, or operation contain chapterson power system reliability. In the
remainderof this section,and in Section 2.5, some general thoughtswill be presented
about reliability evaluationof power systems.For more details, thereaderis referred
to the literature.
The power system is often divided into three functional parts,each with its own
specific design andoperationproblemsand solutions:
• generation
• transport(transmission)
• distribution
In the reliability analysis asimilar distinction is made between three so-called

hierarchicallevelsof reliability:
• level I: generation
• level II: generationand transport
• level III: generation,transport,and distribution
Virtually all books and paperson reliability use thisclassification,either implicitly or

explicitly, but nor everybodyactually uses the term"hierarchicallevels." This being a
useful educationalconcept,it is used in this section to discuss thevarious techniques.
The conceptof hierarchicallevels remains anapproximation,as most classifications.
The reliability of a generationstation dependsin part on the auxiliary supply, which
must be treatedas adistribution system, thus level III. Also, asubstantialpart of the
generationhas becomeembeddedin the distributionsystem, in somecountrieswell over
100AJ [120]. The amountof embeddedgenerationis likely to grow further, with more
industrial combinedheat and power(CHP), a growth in the useof small-scale renew-
able energy and possibly so-called micro-CHPsappearingwith domesticcustomers.
Section 2.4 • Overviewof Reliability Evaluation 51
Anotherdisadvantageof this conceptof hierarchicallevels isthat it is developed

for the largepublic supplysystem inindustrializedcountries.For developingcountries,
for small insularsystems,andfor industrial power systems,different thoughtsmight be
needed. At the end o f this section anequivalentof hierarchicallevels for largeindustrial
power systems will beproposed.
Despitethe shortcomingsof the classificationin hierarchicallevels, it still gives a
good insight into the subject. Newdevelopmentsare most likely to appearat those
places where theclassificationno longer holds, but to understandthosethe classifica-
tion should be understoodfirst.
2.4.1 Generation Reliability
As we saw from theobservationresults presentedin Section 2.2, outagesof

generatorshave no influencewhatsoeveron the interruption frequency nor on the
supply availability experiencedby a customer.Thus, for a customer,level I reliability
studies donot appearvery important.This conclusionis correctfor an existing, well-
planned,and well-operatedpower system. But in theplanning stage, level Istudies
are extremelyimportant. In modern power systems,generationof power takes place
at- the highestvoltagelevel; thus a lack of generationbecomesimmediatelya national
or even internationalproblem. Such asituation should be avoided as much as pos-
sible. Because asuitable reserve in generationcapacity has beenplanned and is
availableduring operation,the customerdoes not have toworry about lack of gen-
eration anymore.
AnnualPeak Load. The rule that the total generationcapacityin a power sys-
tem should exceed theannualpeak load is likely to be themost important planning
criterion in power systems. Planning and building of large power stations take
between 5and 10 years, thus decisions about these have to bem adeseveral years in
advance.The most basic level Ireliability study is to calculatethe probability that
the availablegenerationcapacityis lessthan the annual peak load in a certain year
(e.g., 7 yearsaheadof the decision date). The i nput data for such astudy consistsof
the expectedannualpeakload, the capacityof eachgeneratorunit, and its forced un-
availability. The forced unavailability is the fraction of time during which a unit is
not availabledue to forcedoutages,Le., during which it is in repair. The assumption
to be made is that the probability that the unit is not available during the annual
peak isequal to the forcedunavailability. This gives us sufficienti nformation to cal-
culate the probability that the available capacityis lessthan the annual peak load.
This probability is called the"loss of load expectation"(LOLE) of the annual peak.
Note that scheduledoutagesare not consideredin peak load studies. It isassumed
that preventivemaintenancewill not be scheduledduring the period of the year in
which the peakload can be expected.
Preventive Maintenance. Preventivemaintenanceof generatorscontributessig-

nificantly to their unavailability. The unavailability consistsof two terms: theabove-
mentioned"forced unavailability" and the "scheduledunavailability." The latter is
the fraction of time during which a unit is not available due to scheduledoutages
(Le., maintenance).The scheduledunavailability of a unit may exceed its forced
unavailability. The scheduledunavailability should not be treated as a probability,
like the forced unavailability. Generatormaintenancecan beplannedseveralmonths
or even more than a year ahead.The maintenanceplanning will be such that the
supply of the daily peak load willn ot be endangered.Typically, maintenanceis

scheduled away from the a nnualpeak: if theannualpeak occurs in winter,g enerator
maintenanceis done insummerand the other way around. In tropical areas, where
the temperatureand thus the load do not vary much during the year, this kindof
scheduling of maintenanceis not possible. Theconsequenceis that a higher LOLE
needs to be accepted part of the time, or that additional units are needed. The pro-
blem can be especially stringentin small systems(insular or isolated systems) where
the unit size is a largefraction of the total load.
A way of including preventivemaintenancein the level Ievaluationis to split the
year into periods of, e.g., 1 week. For each period aLOLE is calculatedfor the peak
load overthat period. Thegenerationcapacityfor eachperiod excludes the unitsthat
are in maintenance.Such a study is typicallyperformed as an aid inmaintenance
scheduling.
The maintenancefrequency (i.e., how oftenmaintenanceis performed)is nor-
mally assumed given in level I studies. When varying the maintenancefrequency it is
very importantto realizethatthis will influence thecomponentfailure rate. Anaccurate
model requires knowledge a bout the aging of thecomponentand the influence which
preventivemaintenancehas on this. This is an aspect of reliability evaluationwhich is
seldomconsideredin power systems. We will come back componentto aging in Section
2.5.6.
Load-Duration Curve. The loss-of-loadexpectation(LOLE) quantifiesthe risk

that the generatorcapacityis not sufficient to supply the(annual)peak load. It does
not quantify the unavailability of the supply due to insufficientgenerationcapacity.
To obtain the level I contribution to the unavailability, a more detailed study is
required. Not only the unavailability of each generatorunit needs to beknown, but
also its outagefrequency and therepair time distribution. The load variation with
time and scheduledmaintenancehave to betakeninto accounthere as well. A simple
method is to use theload-durationcurve, approximatethis through a number of
steps, andcalculatea LOLE for each load level. Theapplicationof such calculations
is ratherlimited as they are toocomplicatedto be of use inplanningstudies, but the
influence on thecustomeris too small to be of anyimportancethere. Exceptions are
power systems inunderdevelopedor very fast developingcountries, where lack of
generationcan seriouslycontributeto the supplyunavailability.
Derated States. The simplestLOLE calculationsassume twostatesfor a gen-

erator unit: available andoutage(unavailable).In reality this is a gross oversimplifi-
cation, especially for the larger units. It is very common that due to an auxiliary
failure the unit will reach a so-called
" deratedstate"in which it is only able to gener-
ate part of its maximum capacity.An example is the failureof one of theburners-
this limits the combustioncapacityand thus the powercapacity.Consideringsuch a
failure as acompleteoutageof the unit underestimatesthe level I reliability. In the
planning process this leads to an overestimationof the number of units that have
to be built. As costsreduction becameimportant several years ago, the interest in
derated state models increased. Anadditional factor explaining the use of more
detailed models is again the availability of faster computersenablingthe implementa-
tion of these more detailed models.
Operating Reserve. Reliability studies are typicallyperformed for planning

purposes,where questionslike "how many generatingcapacity should be available
Section 2.4 • Overview ofReliability Evaluation 53
ten years fromnow" are addressed.In that case it is assumedthat all generating
plants and linesthat are not in repair or in maintenanceare availablefor generation
and transport.For operationalreserve studies the situation is different: one needs to
take into account only those plants that are actually running or which can be
brought online at short notice and assess the riskthat the total load cannot be
supplied within the next few hours.
2.4.2 Transmission Reliability
Level II reliability concernsthe availability of power at so-called bulk supply

points: typically transmissionsubstationswhere power istransformeddown to distri-
bution voltage. Thepower not only has to begeneratedbut also transportedto the
customers.The availability of sufficient lines or cables has to be taken into account.
Level II reliability studies are much more difficult
thanlevel I studies, and are still
under
considerabledevelopment.Some of the difficulties and suggested solutions are dis-
cussed in theremainingpartsof this section.
Overloadingof Lines. Due to theoutageof a transmissionline the flow of ac-

tive and reactive powert hrough the transmissionsystem changes. This can lead to
overloadingof other lines. Thestandardexample is theoverloadingof a parallel line.
Normally parallel lines will be rated such that the outageof one of them will not
lead to overloadingof the other. Thus two lines feeding a 200 MVA loadshouldeach
be able totransport200 MVA. This so-called(n - 1) criterion has been animportant
part in the design of transmissionsystems: a systemconsisting of n components
should be able tooperatewith any combinationof (n - 1) components,thus for any
single-componentoutage. In important parts of the system, more strictcriteria are
used:(n - 2), (n - 3), etc.
Large transmissionnetworkshave become so complex that it is hardto realize the
actual loction of the parallel paths.In systemsthat are meshed across several voltage
levels,overloadingdue to anoutageis a serious risk as some recent interruptionsand
"almost-interruptions" have taught us. The risk has been increasedby the growing
transportof power over large distances.
For level II studies in large systems, a load flow
calculationhas to beperformed
for each outage.Thesecalculationsmake level II studies very timeconsuming.The
processingof overloadeventsdependson the policy used by the utility to rectify the
overload.Typically two models for this are used in reliability studies.
I. The overloadleads to anoutageof the overloadedcomponent,eitherimme-

diately or after a certaindelay which coulddependon the amountof over-
load. As this secondoutagecan lead tofurther overloadsa cascadeeffect may
occur.
2. The overloadis assumed to be alleviatedthrough the sheddingof load.
Reliability of the Protection. The power systemprotection'saim is to remove

faulted componentsfrom the system so as to limit the damageas much as possible.
Failure of the protection to remove thefaulted componentcan lead to significantly
more damage,including an interruption for customerswhich would normally not be
interrupted.It will be clear that the reliability of the protection is an important part
of the reliability of the supply. Protectionfailure is alreadymentionedas oneof the
underlying causes ofcomponentoutages.The power system protection can fail in

several ways.
1. The protectionfails to operatewhen required.In that case thebackuppro-

tection will operateand clear the fault. Thisbackupprotectionoften clears
more than only the faulted componentmaking the impact on the system
much bigger. As thetransmissionsystemoften has only singleredundancy,
such aprotectionfailure canpotentiallyeliminatethe redundancyandlead to
an unnecessaryinterruption.
2. The protectionoperateswhen not supposedto. If this happensindependently
of anotherevent it will simply lead to anoutageof the protectedcomponent.
The redundancyin transmissionsystems makesthat thesemaltrips do not
have a biginfluenceon the reliability of the supply.
3. The powersystemprotectionshows amaltrip when anotherrelay issupposed
to operate.This leads to the loss o f two componentsat the same time. The
large currentsflowing throughthe systemduring a shortcircuit makethis an
event which has to be consideredin the calculations.Accuratemodelsfor it
have not beendevelopedyet. The main problem is that each fault can in
theory lead to a malt ripof any of the other relays in thepower system.
4. The power system protection shows amaltrip due to anotherevent in the
system, e.g., aswitchingaction. Although the event itself doesn ot lead to any
required protectionintervention,it can still potentially eliminate the redun-
dancy. Thereasonis that several relays willexperiencea similar disturbance
and thus all might show amaltrip at the samemoment.
The reliability of powersystemprotectionis often split into two aspects," depend-

ability" and "security." The dependabilityis the degreeof certaintythat the protection
will operatecorrectly (point 1 above); thesecurity is the degreeof certainty that the
relay will not operateincorrectly. As shown above this neglects thedifferent aspects
within the "security.'
Dynamic SystemBehavior. Most componentoutagesare due toshort-circuit

faults. Occurrenceand clearing of a fault lead todynamic oscillationsin the system.
These can lead tooverloading or tripping of components.This so-called security
aspectof level II reliability is often not taken into account. To include it, detailed
dynamic models of the system are needed. In the reliability literature a distinction is
made between adequacy(static evaluation) and security (dynamic evaluation). The
adequacypart is taken care of by most evaluation techniques,but security is often
forgotten. In a well-designedtransmissionsystem ashort circuit should not lead to
loss of any generator,or overloadingof any component.But one canthink of several
situationsin which the dynamic system behaviorcan have asignificant influence on
the level II reliability.
• The system might be secure for each short circuit in an otherwiseundisturbed

system, but not for short circuits in a system in whichalreadyone or more
componentsare out of operation.Both thestatesbefore andafter the fault (i.e.,
after removal of the faulted component)might be healthy, but the transition
between the twomight not be healthydue to largedynamic oscillations.The
Section2.4 • Overview of Reliability Evaluation 55
system couldappearto have double or triple redundancywhere in reality it

only has singleredundancy.
• Failure of the protectioncan lead to fault clearing by the b ackupprotection;
this leads to a longerfault-clearing time and thus to more adverse dynamic
effects. The system might be stablewhen the fault is cleared by the primary
protectionbut not when the fault is cleared by the secondaryprotection.
• In small power systems with two centers generation,a
of fault close to a
generator might lead to somegeneratorsaccelerating,while others slow
down. The difference between their rotor increases very fast, leading to large
instabilities.This phenomenonis especially severe for systems withtransmis-
a
sion grid at voltagesof 10 to 30 kV with mainlyundergroundcables [113]. A
reliability evaluationstudy for such a system should not just considercable
outagesbut also theunderlyingshort-circuitfaults.
• In industrial power systems themaximum motor load connectedto a bus is
limited to a certain fraction of the short-circuit level of the bus. Theactual
motor load is oftenratherclose to this limit. If in the courseof time theamount
of motor load grows, some faults can lead loss-of-synchronism
to of synchro-
nous motorsor to stalling of induction motors.
Common-ModeOutages. The componentsin a level II study are often consid-

ered independent,i.e., the outageof one componentdoesnot dependon the stateof
the others. But sometimestwo or more componentoutagesoccur at the same time.
Classical examples are the collapse of a tower carrying two circuits and excavation
leading todamageof two parallel cables. Several of the other aspectsof level II relia-
bility studies (failure of theprotection, overloadingof a parallel line) are sometimes
also consideredcommon-modefailures. For example, a malt ripof a relay during a
fault on the parallel line will lead to anoutageof both lines. By modeling this as a
common-modefailure, no detailedprotectionmodel is needed.
Weather-RelatedOutages. The outagerate is in most studies considered- con-

stant, but in reality this is not the case.
Many outagesare weatherrelated (lightning,
storm, snow) and thusstrongly time dependent.For nonredundantsystems this does
not matterat all, but for parallel systems it will significantly increase the
interruption
rate, evenif the averagecomponentoutage rate stays the same. Some numerical
examplesof this effect are given in Section 2.8.
The IEEE standardfor collecting outagedata [198] recommendsto distinguish
between three levels of outagerate:
• normal weather
• adverseweather
• major storm disaster
The contribution of adverseweatheron the outageof transmissionand distribution

systemcomponents,for a U.K. utility, is shown in Table 2.9[199]. Different utilities
will have different contributing phenomena,especially when they are indifferent
climates (snowstorms are more likely in Scotland than in Texas), but the general
impressionis that adverseweatherrelated outagesare the biggestc ontribution to the
outagerate.
TABLE 2.9 VariousContributionsto theOutageRateof Transmissionand Distribution

Componerits
Causeof Outage TransmissionSystem Distribution System
Lightning strikes 9% 12%

Snowlice on lines 52% 11 %
High winds 32% 7%
Plant failures 50/0 39%
Line interference 2% 21°tla
Animal/bird strikes 8%
Adjacent loads 2°tla
2.4.3 Distribution Reliability
Most publishedwork on power system reliability concernsthe generationand

transmissionsystems,what has been called level and I level II before. Level III (dis-
tribution) reliability studiesare rather rare, although this is changingin the last few
years. The lackof interest in distribution reliability is clearly not due to the high
reliability of the distribution system. In fact,both interruptionfrequencyand unavail-
ability are mainlydeterminedby events atdistribution level, both mediumvoltage and
low voltage. A numberof reasonscan be given for the lacko f interestin distribution
system reliability:
• The interestin distributionsystem research is in general (much)lower thanthat

in transmissionand generation.
• Reliability of power transmissionand generationis of national interest,and
thus requires more effort. An i nterruptionoriginatingat thetransmissionlevel
will affect a largepart of the system,and is thus more likely to lead to news-
paperheadlines.
• Investmentsin transmissionsystems are easier than in distribution systems
because there are much moreof the latter. This meansthat a reliability analysis
of variousdistribution alternativesis not attractive.
• Reliability studies in distribution systems are relatively simple, which make
them lessattractiveto the academicworld.
• A reliability analysis would only beof interestto the customerif it would give
an absolutevalue of the interruption frequency oravailability. A widely held
belief used to bethat the results of reliabilitystudiescan only be used in a
c omparealternatives);such astudywould thereforebe of
relative sense (i.e., to
no use to thecustomer.
But, as already said, the interest in distribution system reliability is growing,

probably due to the increasingattention for the customers'interests. Distribution
system reliability has its ownproblemsand solutions,some of which we will discuss
below.
Radial Systems. Distribution systems are mostoften radially operated.The

consequenceo f this is that each componentoutagewill lead to a supply interruption.
To obtain the interruption frequency one only needs to sum the outagerates of all
Section 2.4 • Overviewof Reliability Evaluation 57
componentsbetween the' bulk supply point and the customer. Occasionally, parts of
the system areoperatedin parallel or meshed. As this concerns small parts of the
system, themathematicaldifficulties for calculatingthe interruptionfrequency remain
limited.
Duration of an Interruption. The main problem indistribution system reliabil-

ity concerns theduration of the interruption. As we will see later, the costs of inter-
ruption increasesnonlinearly with its duration. The probability distribution function
of the interruption duration is of great influence on the expected costs. Itfurther
is
importantto realizethat the restorationtime depends on the position in the network.
The averageinterruption duration, and thus theinterruption costs, cantherefore
vary significantly throughoutthe network. Theduration of an interruption consists
of a numberof terms, each of which has a stochastic character.A list of contributing
terms is given, e.g., in[121] and [122]; the most relevant ones are
• receive alarm,contactor travel to affectedsubstation;

• find fault location or faulted section;
• perform required switching actions;
• restore supply.
A well-known law in stochastictheory isthat the sum of a sufficient number of

stochasticterms has anormal distribution. Thus thedistribution of the interruption
durationbecause of itsstochasticnatureis likely to benormal and notexponentialas
assumed in mostcalculationmethods. This could give unrealistic values for the inter-
ruption costs.
The Availabilityof the Alternative Supply. The list of terms given above, con-
tributing to the duration of an interruption, assumesthat the alternativesupply is
available. Thus, themoment the fault is located (or the faulted section is identified)
the supply can be restored. But this is not always the case, as alternativesupply
the
can also beinterrupted,or the alternativesupply is only able to take over part of the
load. In that case the supply can only be completely restored after repair or replace-
ment of the faultedcomponent.When the supply can be restored by switching, the
customerexperiences a"long interruption." When the supply can only be restored
through repair/replacement,the customerexperiences a"very long interruption" as
defined in Section 1.3.3. The frequency of very long interruptionswill be rathersmall
in most distribution systems (with the exception o f remote rural networks), but the
interruption costs may become very large, which makesimportant it that they be-
come an essential part of the reliability evaluationresults.Another reason forputting
special emphasis on very long interruptionsmay bethat the utility has to publish the
number of interruptionsnot restored within acertain time, or has to pay damages
for these"very long interruptions."
To get exact detailsof the distribution of the duration of interruptions,compli-
catedstochasticmodelsof the system are needed. But a two-step approachcan be used
if one is only interested in the frequency of very long interruptions. For very long
interruptions,the time-scale of interest is longer
thanthe time needed for the alternative
supply to be made available. For the assessment of the numberof very long interrup-
tions the switches used to restore the supply can be considered in a closed position
already. Toevaluatethe reliability of the resulting system, techniques developed for
transmissionsystems may be used. The models requiredfor this are muchmore com-
plicated than for predictingthe total interruption frequency.
Some of the before-mentionedaspectsof transmissionsystem reliability (com-
mon-modefailures, adverseweather,overloading)have to beincorporatedin a level
III study if the number of very long interruptionsand/or the interruption duration
distribution are of interest.
Adverse Weather. Adverse weather not only influences thenumber of very

long interruptions(by increasingthe probability that both a feeder and itsbackup
are not available) but it also makesrepair much more difficult. Blizzardsand heavy
thunderstormscause asubstantialfraction of outages.During the storm, repair is
very difficult, if not impossible,and after the storm the largenumberof outagescan
make this processmore difficult given that repair crews have tohandle the outages
one after the other. Such aspectsof the reliability of the supply are extremely difficult
to take into accountin a stochasticmodel. As alreadymentionedbefore, oneof the
problemsis the lack of data, but certainly not the only one. But despite the mathe-
matical difficulties, more datacollection must be encouraged.Also, the collecteddata
should be madeavailablefor a wider public.
Embedded Generation.The presenceof embeddedgenerationsomewhatcom-

plicates thereliability calculations.But the amountof embeddedgenerationis seldom
large enoughto have asignificant influence on thereliability of the supply. Industrial
power systems are anexception because in such cases embeddedgenerationcan be
used toobtain a very high levelo f reliability.
Embeddedgenerationin public distribution systems consist mainlyo f wind tur-
binesand CHP units. In all cases the design of the distribution system is suchthat the
outageof one generatorunit will not lead to anoverload,and thusnot to an interrup-
tion of the supply for any of the customers,Thereforethe presenceof the embedded
generationdoesnot influence theinterruptionfrequency. Anexceptionare those cases
where outageof a generatorleads to aninterruption indirectly, e.g., when theheat
productionof a CHP unit is essentialfor an industrialprocess, or when caontractwith
the utilities requiresload sheddingupon a generatoroutage.
The presenceof embeddedgenerationcan have some influence on the availability
of the alternativesupply, and thus on the frequency o f very long interruptions.The
interruptionwill normally lead to the lossof all embedded generation connectedto the
affected feeder.Thus the alternativesupply also has tosupply this additional load.
Further, embeddedgenerationconnectedto the alternativefeeder can havetripped
on the voltage sag due to the fault which led to the interruption. The speed with
which this generationbecomesavailableagain will influence theprobability that the
alternativesupply is able to take over allload from the affected feeder.
2.4.4 Industrial Power Systems
Large industrial and commercialusers own andoperatetheir own medium vol-

tage distribution system. Thelargestusers even own ando peratea high voltage net-
work. The point-of-connectionto the public supply is somewhereat distribution or
transmissionlevel: thecustomeris responsiblefor the further distributionto thevarious
pointsof utilization. In these so-calledindustrialpowersystems the general structureis
often somewhatdifferent than in public systems. Also there is no need for separate
studies atseparatehierarchicallevels; all that mattersis the continuity (or whatever
Section2.4 • Overview of Reliability Evaluation 59
word one likes to use)o f the supply to theequipmentessential for theproduction

process. A possible listof questionsthat need to be addressed for a reliability study
in an industrial power system is given below. We will only discuss interruption fre-
quency below.Restorationof the supply will often take place faster comparedto the
time it takes torestartthe productionprocess. Of course this is not always the case, and
for someindustrial systems, thequestionsneed to be modified. The list below should
not be blindly followed, but be used as a basis for a specific study.
Each of the questionsgives feedback on the design of the system. The starting
point may be the existing system, or detailed design based on past experience. The
whole "design process"is shown in Fig. 2.10. The term"layer" has been used here
to distinguish from the "hierarchical levels" used for the reliability analysis
o f the
public supply, but in factboth terms denoteexactly the same.
I. How often will the availablegenerationnot be enough to~upply the load?

This layer correspondsto hierarchicallevel I in the public supply, for
which a largenumberof tools are available. Some aspects of calculations
the
are already mentionedin Section 2.4.1. A few pointsof special interest to
industrial systems need to bementioned.
• Maintenanceon generatorunits can play a veryimportant role in indus-
trial systems. The load does not show much variation through the year,
thus maintenancecannotbe scheduledduring a period of low load. This
means that the generation capacity will influence the scheduling of
Changegeneration
Changetransportsystem
Changestabilityaspects
Changedistributionsystem
Changeequipment
immunity
Changeequipmentreliability
andredundancy
Figure 2.10 Reliability layers in industrial

power systems and their role in system design.
maintenance.The lower the reserve (differencebetween loadandcapacity)

the less likelythat maintenancecan beperformed.
• The influenceof maintenanceon aging can only be assessed ratherquali-
tatively as accuratemodels are still lacking.T hereforea constantfailure
rate will often be used. Inthat case oneshouldrealizethat the calculation
resultscannotbe used tooptimize the maintenancefrequency.
• Powergenerationunits may be linked, e.g.,through the useof a common
steam circuit. This needs to be takeninto accountin the reliability studies
as it might increasethe probability that two or more·units have anoutage
at the same time.
• During capacity shortagesor when thecapacity margin is Iowa load
sheddingpolicy is often in place. This needs to be i ncorporatedin the
reliability calculations.
• When the plant is connectedto the public supply (which is mostly the
case), itsreliability needs to beconsidered.When the plant is fed via
multiple infeeds,common-modefailures need to beconsidered.
2. How often will a situation occur that the generationis available butthat it
cannotbe transportedto the load?
This layer correspondsto hierarchicallevel II in the public supply. The
variousconsiderationsare very similar,but with somedifferencein emphasis.
• Componentloading is higher in industrial systems,and more constant.

Thereforeassessmentof overloadsdue to outagesbecomesmore impor-
tant, but load variation often does not need to beconsidered.
• Distancesbetweensubstationsare much smaller,which makessubstation
failures toplayalargerrole (relatively speaking)thanin the public supply.
3. How often willtransientinstability lead to a plant trip?

This is arathernewsubject,correspondingsomewhatto the securitypart
of hierarchicallevel II. In industrial systems, with largemotor load, on-site
generation,and short distancesbetween them,t ransientstability aspectscan
play a very important role. What is needed first is aprediction of the fre-
quencyof variousshort-circuitevents,and next an assessment of the effects
of each event on the system stability. The event frequenciesfollow from
earlier reliability calculations.Assessing the effects o f the event requiresa
detailed model and can become a severe strain on the computer power.
Performinga detailedtransientstability calculationfor a large system is no
longer too difficult with modern computerspeed and memory, but for a
reliability study such acalculationneeds to beperformedfor many possible
systemstates(preferablyfor all possiblestates).Even amedium-sizedsystem
may requirethousandsof transientstability calculations,which still places a
severestrain on the computerpower. Two optionsare availableto limit the
calculationtime.
• Use a simplecriterion to assess the system stability, e.g., theratio between
fault levelandmotor load, or the differences inrotor angles at themoment
of fault clearing.For the latter, simple models can be used, e.g., change
the
in active power between thepre-eventand during-event steady states.
Apply this simple criterion to all (or at leastmany) system states.The
criteria might appeargross simplifications, which would never be accep-
Section 2.4 • Overview of Reliability Evaluation 61
table for aconventionaltransient-stabilitycalculation.But all we need to

know here is the sum of the frequenciesof all events leading to an
unstable
situation.
• Use adetailedsystem model, but limit thenumberof events to bestudied.
A first pruningis to look only at those events which involveshortcircuit
a
and for whichboth the initial steadystateand theresultingsteadystateare
stable. A secondpruning is to stop looking for stateswith more compo-
nents out, when astate has unstableevents associatedwith it. As an
example, if a fault leads totransientinstability when two of six generators
are out of operation,there is no need to study a fault when three genera-
tors are out.
One shouldnote that it is not theactualinstability limit which matters,
but whethergeneratorsor motorswill be tripped by their protection(under-
voltage, overcurrent,reverse-power,under-or overfrequency).This can hap-
pen in systems which are in principlestill stable.Thusa detailedmodel would
also requiresufficient detailsof the protectionpresentin the system.
4. How often will the distribution system fail totransportpower to the plant?
Layer 4of industrial powersystem reliabilitycorrespondsto level III in
the public supply. We can thus apply similar techniques,with the difference
that the duration of an interruption is often not so important in industrial
systems. As it is the assessment of the interruption duration which makes
reliability analysis indistribution systemscomplicated,the calculationsin
industrial distribution systems will be simplerthan in public systems.
The distribution systemstartsat the transportsystemstudiedin layer 2
and layer 3, and ends at the equipmentterminals.The various distribution
systems arenormally consideredindependentof each other. An industrial
distributionsystem can be extremely complex: many pieces of equipmentwith
many levelsof redundancyand importance.Some kindof pruning needs to
be made before a study' can startedwith
be a reasonablechanceof success. A
first pruningis to only considerthe supply toequipmentwhich is essential for
the operationof the plant.
A decision to be madebeforehandis where thetransmissionsystemstops
and thedistribution system begins. The answer to this will again dependon
the detailsof the study. For smaller systems itmight be appropriateto not
make anydistinction betweentransmissionand distribution, while for large
systems eachplant is consideredas aseparatedistribution system.
5. How often will the plantoperationbe interrupteddue to insufficient voltage or
currentquality?
In this layer allother power quality phenomena(i.e., apart from inter-
ruptions which were discussed in layers I through 4) have to be assessed.
Examplesof voltage quality events to bestudiedare:
• Transientovervoltages.
• Voltage sagsand swells.
• Notching and burstsof harmonicdistortion.
• High-frequencyconducteddisturbances.
To studyall these in as muchdepthas for the longinterruptionswould lead
to extremely long studieswithout much hope of useful results. The level of
detail againdependson the system. Anappropriatechoice is to only look at
first or secondorderevents (firstordereventsare shortcircuits in the normal

system,secondorder eventsare short circuits when alreadyone other com-
ponentis out of operation).
Thesekind of studiesare extremelyrare,andwhere they aredonedo not
contain much quantitative details. Still, even the decision to not study a
certain type of event in detail becauseit is not likely to be of influence is
alreadymuch better than simply forgetting aboutit.
To actually determinethe number of equipmenttrips is not possible
without a detailed knowledgeof equipmentimmunity. In the designphase
of the system, thisinformationis simply not available.It will then be easierto
determinethe electromagneticenvironmentwhich the equipmentwill experi-
ence and to proposeimmunity requirementsfor the equipmentto be used.
Here it becomesimportant to distinguish between(voltage) variations and
(voltage)events,as describedin Section 1.3.
Currentquality eventswill not directly lead to tripping of the plant, but
utility requirementsmight force a plant shutdown,e.g., when theharmonic
currentdistortionexceeds acertainlevel. If such ashutdownwill have severe
consequences, it needs to beconsideredin the reliability study.
6. How often will theplant operationbe interrupteddue to the failure ofessential
equipment?
Equipmentfailure is normally hot consideredas part of supply reliabil-
ity, but in an industrial system it isequally important. There is no need to
build a very reliable power system if theplant will stop twice a week due to
equipmentproblems.Industrial customersoften use theterm interruptionin
a more general meaning than the utility. The descriptive terms "voltage
interruption" and "interruption of plant operation" indicate the difference
in interpretationrather well.
Detailed knowledgeof the plant processis needed toperform a study
like this. Like in severalof the stepsbefore, some seriouspruning will be
neededto make the study feasible. It might even bethat only a qualitative
assessment is feasible.
Note that there is someoverlapwith layer 4 (distribution systems)and
layer 5 (equipmenttrips due to voltagequality events).
Additional aspectsto be consider~d are:
• redundancyof equipment,e.g., thefunction of a motor being taken over
by anotherone;
• "linkage betweenplantson the productionside, e.g., thesteamproduction
by one plant which is neededto operateanotherplant.
2.5 BASIC RELIABILITY EVALUATION TECHNIQUES
2.5.1 Basic Concepts of Reliability Evaluation Techniques
Stochastic Components.For a reliability evaluation study, the power supply

system is splitinto stochasticcomponents.The choice of componentsis rather arbi-
trary: the whole transmissionsystem might be one component,but a single relay
could be severalcomponents.Each componentcan be in at least two states:healthy
and nonhealthy,the latter often referredto as theoutagestate.For a two-statecom-
ponent,two eventscan occur: thetransition from the healthyto the nonhealthystate,
Section 2.5 • BasicReliability EvaluationTechniques 63
an outageor failure event; and the reverse transition(i.e., from thenonhealthyto the
healthystate), therepair or restore event.
The systemstateis a combinationof all event states; if thestateof one of the
componentschanges,the systemstatechanges. The system s tatefor a system withN
componentscan bethoughtof as a vectorof rank N. The valueof each element is the
state of the correspondingcomponent.An event is atransition between two system
states, due to thechangein stateof one or morecomponents.
EXAMPLE Consider,as an example, the system in Fig. 2.11:generatorwith a gen-

eratortransformer,feeding into a large system via two parallel transmissionlines and atrans-
former. We areinterestedin the reliability of the supplyinto the large system, thus, at
point C
in the figure.
Ll
Figure 2.11 Power systemexample,for choice L2

A
of stochastic components.
A possiblesubdivisioninto stochasticcomponentsis as follows:
1. generatorplus generatortransformerTl
2. substationA
3. line Ll
4. line L2
5. substationB
6. transformerT2
In case adetailedstudy is neededof the generatorplus thegeneratortransformer,component1

may besubdividedinto stochasticcomponentsas follows:
1. the mechanicalside of the generator,including the fuel availability

2. the electrical side of the
g enerator,including its protection
3. the generatorcircuit breaker
4. the auxiliary supply
5. the generatortransformer
6. the protectionof the generatortransformer
The Interruption Criterion. For each systemstateor for each event, an"inter-
ruption criterion" is used todetermineif this state or eventshould be countedas an
interruption or not. In most studies theinterruptioncriterion is rather trivial, but for
Monte Carlo simulation, the definition of the in-
more detailed studies, especially for
terruption criterion becomes animportant part of the modeling effort. It is recom-
mended to spend at least some time on defining interruption
the criterion for a
reliability evaluationstudy. Some simple examples of interruption criteria are given
below. Note that these arejust examples, andcertainly not the only possibilities.
• In a level I studya stateis an interruptionstateif the generatorc apacityis less

thanthe load demand.Note that thereis only oneinterruptioncriterion for the
whole system.Eachcustomeris equal at this level.
• In a level II study a state is an interruption state for a given transmission
substationif the maximum power that can be transportedto this substation
is less than the demand. For level II studies, each substationhas its own
interruptioncriterion, thus its own reliability.
• In a level II security study an event is an interruption event if the transient
phenomenondue to theevent leads totripping of generatorsand/orload.
• In a level III study a stateis an interruptionstatefor a given customerif the
voltageat the customerterminalsis zero.
• In a level III power quality study an eventis an interruptioneventfor a given
device if it leads to thevoltage at the device terminals to exceed certain
magnitudesand durations.
The GeneralComponentModel. Two quantitiesare normally used to describe

the behaviorof a stochasticcomponent:the failure rate and the (expectedor average)
repair time. The meaningof the term "expectedrepair time" is obvious: the expected
value of the time the componentresidesin the nonhealthystate. The failure rate A
gives the averageprobability that the componentwill fail in the next small period of
time:
. Pr(failure in period 6.t)
A = I1m - - - - - - - - - (2.8)
6t.....0 8.1
For componentsrepresentingprimary partsof the power system,which are the major-

ity of the componentsin moststudies,the term outageratemight be used.Herewe shall
use thegeneralterm failure rate.
The definition of failure rate in (2.8) is rathermathematical.It will becomeof use
below. A more practical way of defining the failure rate is through the number of
failures in a population.Considera populationof N similar components(e.g.,distribu-
tion transformers).During a period n, this populationshows K componentfailures.
The failure rate may be determinedas
K
A=- (2.9)
nN
The two definitions of failure rate are equivalentundera numberof assumptions.T he
most importantof which is that the componentis repaired(within a short time) after
every failure. The definition according to (2.9) is used toobtain failure rates from
observedfailures.
Someother quantitieswhich are in use will bedescribedbelow.
• The expectedtime to failure T is the reciprocalof the failure rate:

1
T=-A (2.10)
• The repair rate {t is the reciprocalof the expectedtime to repair R:

1
{t=- (2.11)
R
Section 2.5 • Basic Reliability Evaluation Techniques 65
Note that expectedtime to failure can be defined in asimilar way as the

expectedrepair time, and the repair rate similarly as thefailure rate according
to (2.8).
• The availability of the componentis the probability to find the componentin
the healthystate:
T
p=-- (2.12)
R+T
• The unavailability is the probability that the componentis in the nonhealthy
state:
R
(2.13)
Q=R+T
• The expectedtime betweenfailures (ETBF) is the sum of the expectedtime to
failure (ETTF) and the expectedrepair time. As the repair time is normally
muchsmallerthanthe time tofailure, ETBF and ETTF are aboutequalandas
a consequenceoften mixed up. From a mathematicalp oint of view, this is a
seriousmistake,but in engineeringthese kindof errors are commonand not
consideredvery seriously.
EXAMPLE A distribution company operates 7500 distribution transformers. Over a

period of 10 years, 140 of these transformers fail for various reasons. A small fraction of them
can be repaired, but most failures require replacement with a spare transformer. Records have
been kept of the repair or replacement time needed. Adding all these for the 140 failures gives
areob-
a total of 7360 hours. From these observation data, the values of the above parameters
tained:
140 _I
A = 10 x 7500= 0.0019yr (2.14)
1
T = 0.0019= 530yr (2.15)
7360
R = 140 = 52.6h = 0.006yr (2.16)
Jl = ~R = 167yr-1 (2.17)
530
p = 0.006+ 530= 0.999989 (2.18)
0.006 .
Q = 0.006+ 530= 0.000011= 6mtn/yr (2.19)
This can be interpreted in normal words,follows:

as
• Each transformer has a probability of 0.0019 to fail in the coming year. In the whole
population, 14 transformers are expected to fail.
• After such a failure, the repair or replacement of the transformer is expected to last 52.6
hours.
• Each transformer will be out of operation, on average, 6 minutes per year.
Note that we have usedpast-performance d atato predictfuture behavior.This is the basis for all
reliability analysis: theassumptionthat the averageperformancein the past gives theexpected
behaviorfor the future.
The Detailed Component Model.Describinga stochasticcom-ponentby means

of two quantities (e.g., failure rate and repair time) is a gross simplification of the
actual situation. Still this model is usedin more than 95% of all reliability evaluation
studies. To understandthe reasonsfor this, we first need to introduce the general
componentmodel. The componentis again assumedto be in one of two states.The
theory can be extendedto multi-statemodels, but describingthosewould not lead to
better understanding.For each of the two statesa probability distribution is defined
for the time the componentstaysin that state.Thereis thus one probability distribu-
tion function for the repair time (the time in the nonhealthystate) and one for the
lifetime (the time in the healthystate). Let T be the lifetime (expectedtime to failure)
of the component.The probability distribution function of the lifetime F(t) is the
probability that the componentfails beforeit reachesan age t:
F(t) = Pr(T s t) (2.20)
The probability density function is the derivative of the probability distribution

function:
f(t) = dF = lim Pr(t < T :::: t + M) (2.21)

dt L\t~O ~t
The probability density function I(t) is a measurefor the probability that the compo-
nent will fail aroundan age t:
l(t)6.1 ~ Pr(1 < T s 1 + ~t) (2.22)

The failure rate A( I) is definedas theprobability that the componentfails soonafter the
age 1 assumingthat it has not failed before age t:
. Pr(T~t+~tIT>t)
A()
t = L\t~O
Iim - - - - - - - -
~I
(2.23)
The failure rate can be calculatedfrom the probability density function I(t) and the
probability distribution function F( t):
A(t) = f(t) (2.24)

1 - £(t)
We will discussthe failure rate and its relation to componentaging in more detail in
Section2.5.6.
Similar definitionscanbe given for therepairtime, resultinge.g., in the repairrate
/1(t), a probability density function g(t) and a probability distribution function G(t).
The Weibull Distribution. A distribution often used in stochastictheory is the

so-called Wei bull distribution. The probability distribution function for a Weibull
distributedvariable T is
F(t) =I - ex p { -(~r} (2.25)

For m = 1 weobtainthe exponentialdistributiondiscussed before. We refer m to as the

shapefactor and to () as thecharacteristictime of the Weibull distribution. The prob-
ability density function .(t) is
1
-(0)t nil
nl
f(t) = m t om - {
exp (2.26)
The failure rateA(t) for a Weibull distribution is obtainedfrom (2.24):
A(t)=m-
r:' (2.27)
om
We seethat the failure rate increases for m > 1 and decreases for m < 1. From a
relatively simpleexpressionit is possible togeneratea whole rangeof lifetime distribu-
tions.
%
The ExponentialDistribution-Lifetime. As alreadystatedbefore, over 95 of
reliability evaluation studies use the simple model with a single failure rate and a
single repair rate. The underlying assumptionis that both repair time and lifetime
are exponentially distributed. The exponential distribution (also called "negative
exponentialdistribution") is defined through the following probability distribution
function:
F(t) = 1 - e-'At (2.28)
From the aboveequationsit follows easilythat A in (2.28) is the failure rateaccording

to (2.24).Thus,the negativeexponentialdistributionhas aconstantfailure (repair)rate
and the generalcomponentmodel can be used. Thereare anumberof reasonswhy this
distribution is almostthe only one used:
• Using nonexponentialdistributions makes that most reliability evaluation

techniquescurrently available can no longer be used.For many years the
choice was between using the exponentialdistribution or not doing any relia-
bility evaluationat all.
• Even the smallnumberof studies which are able to use nonexponentialdis-
tributions(the so-calledMonte Carlo simulationswhich we will discuss below)
often still useexponentialdistributions,becauseof the lackof data.Collection
schemesof componentfailure data normally only provide failure rates and
averagerepair times.
• The lackof experience withnonexponentialdistributionsmakesthat the results
of such a study areratherhard to interpret.
• In an actualpower system there is a mixture of componentswith different ages
for three reasons:preventive maintenanceis performed on componentsat
different times; componentsare replacedafter failure; and the system is not
built at once but has grown over time. The mixture of ages makesthat the
systembehavior,being a kindof averageof the componentbehavior,can be
described byassumingall componentsto have aconstantfailure rate.
• Most componentsin use are in their so-called "useful operatingtime": they
have passed the wear-in time, and have not yet reached theoftime serious
wear-out.This is based on the assumptionthat the failure rateof a component
versus time can be describedthrough a "bathtubcurve." During most of the
operatingtime of a component,it resides in the flatpart of the bathtubcurve

where the failure rate is
c onstant.
The ExponentialDistribution-Repair Time. For repair time distributions, the

above reasoningsdo not hold. Wealreadysaw in Table 2.1that the duration of an
interruption is nonexponentiallydistributed. If we assume theinterruption duration
to be Weibull distributed,the shapefactor in (2.25) can becalculatedfrom the avail-
able data:
In( -In(Fr3 »
(2.29)
m= In(~)
with Fr3 the fraction of interruptionsnot restoredwithin three hours and () the char-
acteristicrepairtime. If we take theaveragerepairtime as thecharacteristicrepairtime,
we only makea smallerror as long asm > 1. Including the effectof the shapefactor on
the averagerepair time would make thecalculation too complicated.The resulting
shapefactors for the interruption durationsare given inTable 2.10. We find shape
factors somewhatin excessof unity.
The IEEE Gold Book [21] gives,amongothers,repair times for large electrical
motors in an industrial environment.As both the average and the median value are
given, it is again possible to
estimatethe shapefactor assuminga Weibull distribution.
In mostcases themedianvalue ismuchlarger thanthe average, whichindicatesa shape
factor less than one. An alternativeexplanationis the combinationof two Weibull
distributions,both with shapefactor greaterthan one, but with significantlydifferent
characteristicor averagerepair times.
More theoreticalmodelingand observationwork is needed tovalidatethe useof
the exponential distribution in power system reliability evaluation. Based on the
evidencepresented,the following preliminary conclusionscan bedrawn:
• The exponentialmodel appearsan acceptableapproximationfor lifetime dis-

tributions,with the exceptionof studies in which the effect
of preventivemain-
tenanceis evaluated.
• The exponentialmodel isnot correctfor the repair time.
A short discussionon componentaging will be given in Section 2.5.6.
TABLE 2.10 ShapeFactor for Weibull Distribution of Interruption

Duration
() Fr3 ShapeFactor
2.38 0.193 2.15

1.38 0.098 1.09
1.42 0.073 1.29
1.45 0.070 1.35
1.63 0.115 1.27
1.62 0.086 1.46
2.27 0.134 2.50
1.38 0.071 1.25
2.5.2 Network Approach
Whenusing the so-callednetworkapproach,the system ismodeledas a"stochas-

tic network." The stochasticbehaviorof the system isrepresentedgraphicallyby means
of a numberof network blocks, connectedin parallelor in series.Eachblock refers to a
stochasticcomponentin the system. The model is such that the system ishealthy(i.e.,
the supply is available)as long as there is paath through the network. This graphical
charactero f the methodmakesit very suitableto get an overviewof the reliability of the
system. An additional advantageof the network approachis the similarity with the
electrical network. Electrically parallel componentsare often modeled as a parallel
connectionin the stochasticnetwork. An electrical seriesconnectionin most cases
results in astochasticseriesconnection.
When the reliability is quantified by using a stochasticnetwork, a number of
mathematicalapproximationsare needed. Thecalculationsassumethat the repair
time and the lifetime areexponentiallydistributedfor all components.
Each block(network element)is characterizedthrough an outagerate A and an
expectedrepair time r. For each element we further define the"availability" P and the
"unavailability" Q.
P = I - Ar (2.30)
Q=Ar (2.31)
Sometimesa different form of these expressionsis used: theoutagerate is given in
failures per year,a ndthe repairtime in hours,leading to the following(mathematically
not fully correct,but very handy)expressionsfor availability and unavailability:
Ar
P = 1 - 8760 (2.32)
Ar
Q = 8760 (2.33)
EXAMPLE Considerthe supply system in Fig. 2.12. A possiblestochasticnetwork

for this system is shown in Fig. 2.13 where the
numbers refer to the following typesof
failure:
On-sitegeneration
Public
supply
Figure 2.12Single-linediagram of a supply

system.
Figure 2.13Stochasticnetwork
representationof the systemshownin Fig.
2.12.
1. outage of the public supply

2. outage of agenerator
3. bus outage
4. transformeroutage
5. circuit breakerfailure (maltrip or short circuit)
6. circuit breakerfailure (maltrip)
7. circuit breakerfailure (short circuit)
All componentsin the network in Fig. 2.13 are stochastically independent,so that simple mathe-
matics can be applied. Note that the capacity of one generator(5 MW) is not enoughto supply
the load (7 MW). To supply the load the public supply needsbetopresent, or both on-site
generatorsneed to be inoperation.In the networkdiagramthis is shown as the"public supply"
in parallel with both "on-site generators"in series. Also note the difference between a circuit
breakermaltrip and a short circuit in the breaker. In the
lattercase theprotectionon both sides of
the breakerwill trip leading to the loss of twoprimary componentsat the same time.
Various methodsare availableto calculateinterruption rate and expectedinter-

ruption durationfrom componentfailure rateandrepairtime; all thesemethodsreplace
the wholenetwork by one equivalentcomponent.
An obvious methodfor network reductionis to find seriesand parallel compo-
nents. A parallelconnectionrepresentsredundantcomponents,where thesupplyis not
interrupteduntil all of them are in theoutagestate. A seriesconnectionrepresentsthe
situation where eachcomponentoutageleads to aninterruption of the supply. The
correspondencewith electrical seriesand parallel connectionsis clear but not one-to-
one. Consideras an example twotransformersin parallel. If one of them fails theother
one can take over the supply. This is clearlystochasticparallelconnection.But
a if the
total load is much morethan the maximumloading of one transformer,the other one
will also soon fail or be tripped by its overload protection. In that case astochastic
seriesconnectionis a betterrepresentation.
Stochastic Series Connections.Considerthe seriesconnectionof two stochastic

componentswith outagerates AI and A2 and repair time r and '2, as shown in Fig.
2.14. Wewant to derive expressionsfor outagerate As and repair time r s of the series
connection,so that the seriesconnectioncan be replaced by one equivalentcompo-
nent.
Al
rl
-<. As
rs
A2
r2
Figure 2.14Stochasticseriesconnection.
A seriesconnectionfails wheneitherof the componentsfails. The outagerate for

the seriesconnectionis thus the sumof the outagerates of the components:
As = Al + A2 (2.34)
The seriesconnectionis not availablewhen oneof the componentsis not available,
giving for the unavailability of the seriesconnection:
(2.35)
Using thedefinition of unavailability(2.31) gives anexpressionfor the equivalentrepair
time of the seriesconnection:
Air. + A2r2
r ----- (2.36)
S - Al + A2
For n componentsin series, the followingexpressionscan be derived:
n
As= LA;
;=1
(2.37)
r.s = L"'IA'"
'=; I ' (2.38)
LJ=I AJ
In deriving the expressionsfor equivalentoutage rate and repair time a number of

assumptionshave been made, all coming back to the system being availablemost of
the time, thusAr « 1. Exact expressionswill be derived inSection2.5.3.
StochasticParallel Connections. A parallel connectionof two stochasticcom-

ponentsis shownin Fig. 2.15.
A parallel connectionfails when one of thecomponentsis not availableand the
other one fails: thus when 1 isunavailableand 2 fails or when 2 isunavailableand 1
fails. The outagerate of the parallel connectionis
Figure 2.15Stochasticparallel connection.
Ap = QI A2 + Q2 AI (2.39)
= AI A2(' 1+ '2)
The parallel connectionis not availablewhen both componentsare not available. The
unavailability of the parallel connectionis
o, = QI X Q2 (2.40)
The repair time of the parallel connectionis obtainedfrom (2.39)and (2.40):
'p =-'1'2
- (2.41)
'I +'2
The equationscan beextendedto a system with threecomponentsin parallel by con-
sidering it as theparallel connectionof one componentand the equivalent of the
parallel connectionof the two other components.This results in the following expres-
sions for outagerate and repair time:
(2.42)
1 1 1 I
-=-+-+- (2.43)
'p '1 '2 '3
The same process can be repeatedseveral times, resulting in the following general
expressionsfor a systemconsistingof n componentsin parallel:
n n 1
-. = Il
;=1
Aj'j L -:
j=1 ,}
(2.44)
(2.45)
Minimum Cut-Sets. A secondmethodfor analysisof stochasticmethodsis the

so-called "minimum-cut-setmethod." A "cut-set" is a combination of components
whose combinedoutagewould lead to aninterruption. In the stochasticnetwork in
Fig. 2.16 thecombinations{I, 2, 3} and {4,5} are examplesof cut-sets. Acut-setis a
"minimum cut-set" if the removal of anyoneof the componentsfrom the cut-set
would make it no longer a cut-set. Inother words, if the repair of anyonecompo-
nent would restore the supply. In Fig. 2.16 thecut-set {I, 2, 3} is not a minimum
Figure 2.16 Example of stochastic network,

for explaining the minimum cut-set method.
cut-set becauserepair of component3 does not restore the supply, even though
repair of component 1 or component 2 does. The cut-set {4, 5} is a minimum
cut-set becauseboth repair of component4 and repairof component5 restore the
supply. For each network there are a limitednumberof minimum cut-sets.Finding
all minimum cut-sets is the first step of the
minimum-cut-setmethod.
The network in Fig. 2.16 has the following minimum cut-sets:
{1,2}
{4,5}
{1,3,4}
{2, 3, 5}
The supply isinterruptedwhen anycombinationof thesecomponentsis not available.

The systembehaviorcan thus also be described as a series connectionof four parallel
connections,representingthe four minimum cut-sets. This is shown for this example in
Fig. 2.17'. After having found theminimum cuts-sets, thecalculationproceedsstraight-
forward: outagerates andrepairtimes aredetermined,first for the parallelconnections,
next for the resulting series connection.The latter gives the interruption rate and
expectedinterruptionduration for the supply.
Figure 2.17 Alternative drawing of the

network in Fig. 2.16: series connection of
parallel connections.
EXAMPLE Considerthe following outageratesand repair times for thenetwork ele-

mentsin Fig. 2.16:
AI = 1 '1 = 0.2 At') = 0.2

A2 2 = '2 = 0.1 A2'2 = 0.2
A] = 0.5 '3 = 0.1 A3'3 = 0.05
A4 = 0.8 r 4 = 0.15 A4'4 = 0.12
As = 1.5 's = 0.2 AS'S= 0.3
Equations(2.44) and (2.45) giveequivalentfailure rate and repair time for the parallel connec-
tions representingthe four cut-sets.
(2.46)
'cl = ( -1 + -1)-1= 0.067

'1 '2
'c2
1
= ( -+- I)-I = 0.086
'4 '5
= ( -I + -1 + -1)-1 =
(2.47)
'('3 0.046
'1 '3 '4
'('4
1
= ( -+-+-
1 1)-1= 0.04
'2 '3 '5
The failure rate A and repair time r of the whole system can be
calculatedby consideringit as a
seriesconnectionof the four cut-sets:
(2.48)
r = Ad'cl + Ac2' c2 + Ad',,3 + Ac4' c4 = 0.072 (2.49)

Ad+ Ac2 + Ac3 + A('4
A second example of the use of the network approachis shown in Fig. 2.18 and Fig.
2.19. The first figure showsp art of a subtransmissionsystem. Thetransmissiongrid is
assumed to be fully reliable. Also substationsA, B, and C areassumednot to fail. The
load of interestis connectedto substationD. The networkrepresentationfor the system
in Fig. 2.18 is shown in Fig. 2.19. Component8 representsoutagesin the local sub-
station(D) which lead to aninterruptionfor the loadof interest.This network can no
longer be reducedthrough series andparallel connections,but the minimum cut-set
methodcan still be used.
6 7
D 8 Figure 2.18 Exampleof public supply, with

single redundancy.
Figure 2.19 Network representationof the

supply in Fig. 2.18.
The following minimum cut-sets can be

found for this network:
{8}
{6,7}
{I,2,4}
{I,2,5}
{I, 3, 7}
{2, 3,4, 6}
{2, 3, 5,6}
These minimum cut-sets are shown in Fig. 2.20 from where the term ..set
cutbecomes
clear. A cut-set cuts allpathsbetween the source and the load.minimum
A cut-setcan
be described as "ashortestcut."
1----------
Figure 2.20Network representationof the

supply in Fig. 2.18, with minimum cut-sets
indicatedas dottedlines.
A third example is shown in Fig. 2.21. This supply system

containsa substation
with a third bus (4), aconfiguration used in industrial systems toprevent a circuit
breakerfailure from leading to loss of the wholesubstation.The variouscomponents
have beennumberedin the figure.Translatingthis to anetworkdiagramis not obvious,
as component3 is in series with 1, 4, and 6, but 1 and 4 are in parallel. A possible
solutionis shown in Fig. 2.22.Components3 and 5,representingbus outages,are now
placed in a triangle with themselves. The
network might seemsomewhatartificial, the
list of minimum cut..sets can beobtainedin a normal way, resulting in
{8}
{1,2}
{I, 5}
{2,3}
{3,5}
{3, 7}
{5,6}
{6,7}
{I, 4, 7}
{2, 4, 6}
The advantageof the networkapproachis thatit gives a fastunderstandingof the

reliability of the system. It also enables reliability
calculationsin large systems and
provides,through minimum cut-set techniques, an insight into the weak points of the
supply system.Drawing the stochasticnetwork is a useful exercise in itself, often more
usefulthan the actualresults. Thedisadvantageis that approximationerrorsare made
in each step of thecalculationprocess. This could lead to seriouserrorsin the results,
3 5
6 7
8
Figure 2.21 Industrial system withthree-bus
substation.
3 5
6 7
Figure 2.22 Network representationof the

system in Fig. 2.21.
especially for large systems. The

errorsare due to theassumptionsmade when replacing
series and parallelconnectionsby one element. Theassumptionsmade arethat the
unavailability of the element is small and
t hat the elements are
stochasticallyindepen-
dent. Thelatter assumptionis no longer fully correct when the seriesconnectionof
minimum cut-setsis replaced by one element. As the same network componentcan
appearin more than one minimum cut-set,the minimum cut-setswill becomestochas-
tically dependent.
2.5.3 State-Based and Event-Based Approaches
In the state-baseda pproachthe systembehavioris describedvia states andtransi-

tions between states. sAtateis eitherhealthyor nonhealthy.A healthystateis a statein
which the supply is available,a nonhealthystate one in which the system is not avail-
able. Theprobability of all the nonhealthystatesis calculatedand added. This sum is
the probability that the supply isnot available. In addition to probability it is also
possible tocalculateother parameters,like the expectednumberof interruptionsper
year, or the average d urationof an interruption.
In the event-basedapproachthe systembehavioris described by means of events.
For each event theconsequencesfor the supply aredetermined.In case analytical
techniquesare used the system is often still modeled ascollection
a of states and
transitions. But now the transitions are either healthy or nonhealthy.A transition
between twohealthystatesis NOT necessarily healthy.
A Four-State Component Model.The basiccomponentmodel for astate-based

approachconsistsof two states: { inoperation}; and { not in operation}, often shor-
tened to { in } and { out }. A more detailedmodel is shown in Fig. 2.23. This model
consists of four states: {healthy}, { faulted }, { out of operationfor repair }, and
{ out of operationfor maintenance}. We can see from the figure t hat the component
cannot fail while in maintenance,but that maintenancecan start while the compo-
nent is in repair. We also see that a faulted componentwill first be repairedbefore it
becomes"healthy" again. The faultedstaterepresentsa short-circuit fault, the dura-
tion of which is much smallerthan of the other states.Thereforethis state is often
combinedwith the repair state. But in studiesof power systemprotection,the faulted
stateplays an essential role.
Figure 2.23Four-statecomponentmodel.
A Protective Relay. An example of astate model for a protective relay is

shown in Fig. 2.24. We see the same healthy, repair, maintenance
and statesas in
Fig. 2.23, but now thecomponentcan fail in threedifferent ways. A maltrip leads di-
rectly to an outageof the componentto be protected,after which the relay needs to
"dormantfail to trip") meansthat the relay
be repaired. A hidden failure (also called
will no longer trip when it needs to. This failure will only reveal itself when the relay
needs to trip, thus when there isshort
a circuit in the componentto be protected.A
potentialmaltrip is a situationwhere the relay will send an incorrecttrip signal under
certain systemconditions.Maintenancecan bring the relay from the"hidden failure"
or "potential maltrip" states back to the"healthy" state.
Figure 2.24 Model for protective

relay,consistingof one healthy and
six nonhealthy states.
An Industrial Supply. Considerthe system shown in Fig. 2.25. The industrial

load is fed via threeoverheadlines from two generatorunits plus the public supply.
The rating of the componentsis such that one line is sufficient to supply the whole
load; also onegeneratoror the public supply are sufficient. We further assumethat a
failure of a line and a failure of the public supply are
associatedwith a short circuit,
but that a generatorfailure only involves thetripping of the unit.
It is assumedthat eachcomponentcan be in one of two states. Only failures of the
public supply, the on-sitegeneratorsand theoverheadlines, areconsidered.This results
in the system states as shown in Fig. 2.26. The system consistscomponents,
of 6 each
with two states. Thenumberof system states is thereforeequal to 26 = 64, but only 23
states are shown in Fig. 2.26. By assuming
that the three lines are identical, and the two
On-sitegeneration
Public
supply
Industrial
Figure 2.25 Example of industrial supply load
with double redundancy.
on-site generatorsalso, states can be aggregated.For example, state 2 {I line out}

representsthree basicstates{line lout, line 2 out, line 3 out}; state 5 {2 lines out}
also representsthree basic states: {line 1 and line 2 out}, {line 1 and line 3 out}, {line 2
and line 3 out}. Thestateshown on top is the one with all componentsin operation.
From this statethe system can reach three other states:
• One line outof operation.

• One generatorout of operation.
• The public supplyout of operation.
An interruptionof the supply can be due to the system being inunhealthystate

an
(e.g., three lines out), but also due to anunhealthytransition between twohealthy
states. Astate-basedstudy would onlyconsiderthe states,n ot the transitionsbetween
states. To includeinterruptionsdue to unhealthytransitions,an event-basedapproach
is more suitable.
In this system it can beassumedthat only short-circuitfaults lead tounhealthy
o f the public supply. Thesepotentially
transitions,thus only line failures and failures
unhealthytransitionsare indicated by an arrow in Fig. 2.26. From the state{2 lines
out}, again, threetransitionsare possible:
• The failure of the last remainingline will anyway result in aninterruption as

the final stateis an unhealthyone. Thistransitiondoesnot need to befurther
studied.
• The failure of a generatorleads to the state {2 lines and one generatorout}
which is ahealthystate. Thetransitionis not associatedwith a shortcircuit and
does not requirefurther study.
• The failureof the public supply isassociatedwith a shortcircuit and it leads to
a healthystate. Thistransition requiresfurther study.
80 Chapter 2 • Long Interruptions and
Reliability Evaluation
,,
,
,
,,
\
\
,
\
,, ,
I \
"~
8 ~
,,
-,
... I
/ ,
,
... I ,
...
'",
I
, ,
/ \\, "
"
I ... ,
I , ,
\\,',
I
/ "" \
Figure 2.26 Statesand transitionsfor the systemshownin Fig. 2.25.The solid

lines indicate transitionsbetweenhealthystates,the dotted lines
indicate transitionsbetweena healthystateand anonhealthystate,
the arrowsindicatetransitionsassociatedwith a short-circuitevent.
2.5.4 Markov Models
Markov models are amathematicalway of calculating state probabilities and

event frequencies instochasticmodels. In Markov-model calculations all lifetimes
and repair times are assumed
exponentiallydistributed.A Markov model consistsof
a numberof states, withtransitionsin between them; several examples will be given
below.
One-Component Two-State Model. The simplest Markov model is shown in

Fig. 2.27: atwo-statemodel of one component.In state 1 the componentis healthy,
Section2.5 • Basic Reliability EvaluationTechniques 81
Figure 2.27 Two-state Markov model.
in state2 it is nonhealthy.The transition rates areA and J-L, as indicated.This model

will be used tointroducesomeof the basic concepts and calculationtechniques.
To derive the expressions for the state probabilities, one should consider an
infinite number of stochasticallyidentical systems. At a timet a fraction PI of the
systems is instate 1 and afraction P2 in state 2, withPI + P2 = 1. In mathematical
terms: theprobability of finding the system in state 1 is equal PI'to The transitionrate
from state 1 tostate2 is A. Thus in a veryshortperiod t1t a fraction At1t of the systems
in state 1transitsto state 2. In the mean time fraction
a J-Lt1t of the systems in state 2
transitsto state I. The fraction of systems instate1 at time t + t1t becomes
(2.50)
A similar expression isobtainedfor the probabilityto find the system in state 2.
Making
the transitionfor !:!t ~ 0 gives the followingdifferential equationsfor the stateprob-
abilities:
dpi
-dt = -API + J-LP2 (2.51)
dP2
We seethat' +' - = JlP2 -API

dt
= 0, which isunderstandableif one realizesthat
PI + P2 = 1
(2.52)
(2.53)
i.e., the sumof state probabilitiesequalscertainty.To calculatethe stateprobabilities
only oneof the expressions (2.51) and (2.52) is needed, togetherwith (2.53).
From (2.51) and (2.53) we can solve theprobability that the system is instate1,
thus that the componentis healthy. It is assumed t hat the componentis healthyfor t =
o which correspondsto PI (0) = 1.
P (t) = _Jl_ + _A_e-t(A+Jl) (2.54)
1 A+J-L A+1l-
We seethat the probability reaches aconstantvalue after anexponentiallydecaying
transientwith a timeconstantA~ • For almost any engineering system we may assume
k
that repairis much faster thanf:ilure, thus A «/1.. When we also realizethat is the
averagerepair time, we seethat the probability reaches aconstantvalue within a time
of interestis normally much largerthan
scale equal to the repair time. The time period
the repair time (years versus hours) so that we can considerthe system states and
transition frequenciesconstant.This holds not only for atwo-componentmodel but
for every Markov model in which repair takes place much faster than failure.
Steady-StateCalculation. As the transition between the initialcondition and

the steady-stateprobabilities can be neglected, we can directly calculatethe steady-
state probabilities. In steady state, the state probabilities are constantas a function
of time; thus,
dpi =0 (2.55)
dt
The equationswhich describe thestateprobabilitiesbecomealgebraicequations,which
can be easily solved.For the two-statemodel weobtain
o = -API + ttP2
o = API - IlP2 (2.56)
PI + P2 = I
One of the equationsin this set isredundant,so that only oneof the first twoequations
is needed.From this one and thethird equation,the steady-stateprobability becomes
PI = A +tt JL (2.57)
P2 =-A- (2.58)
A+1l
Operating Reserve. We mentionedbefore that we can neglect thetransition to

the steadystateand thuscalculatesteady-stateprobabilitiesdirectly. Two exceptions
to this rule must be mentioned:one for veryshort time scales,and one with a very
long repair time. When looking at a veryshort time scale theexponentiallydecaying
componentof the stateprobability can nolonger be neglected. Veryshort time scales
are of interestin operatingreserve studies, where one knows that a componentis in
operation,and wants to know the probability that it fails within a time flt. For a
two-statemodel we derived before:
P2(flt) = I - Pl(flt) = _A A_e-~t(A+tL) (2.59)

A+Jl A+Jl
Assumingthat 6.t « h« *we obtain the following approximatedexpression:
A
P2(6.t) ~ -Jl6.t = A~t (2.60)
JL
Note that the same result isobtainedif we assumethat the componentmay fail but that
it is not repairedwithin the period flt.
Hidden Failures in a Protective Relay.A second example in which the expo-

nentially decaying termcannotbe neglected is aprotectiverelay with hidden failures.
Hidden failures of protective relays havealready been discussed in Section. 2.4.2. If
we neglect allother failures of the relay, and assume that repair takes placeinstanta-
neously when thehidden failure is detected,we obtain the statemodel shown in Fig.
healthy and a fault in the primary componentto be pro-
2.28. In state 1 the relay is
tected is cleared asintended.If the relay is in state2, the fault will not be cleared by
this relay, but instead some backup protection needs to take over. The third state
shown in Fig. 2.28 is therepair state. The failure rateA2 is the fault frequency in the
primary component. We will initially assume that no preventive maintenanceis
performedon the relay.
Section2.5 • BasicReliability EvaluationTechniques 83
Figure 2.28 Model for relay withhidden

failure (left); the relay ishealthyin stateI and
containsa hiddenfailure in state2. The figure
on the right gives thetwo-statemodel which is
obtainedby neglectingthe repair time 11.
From the three-statemodel in Fig. 2.28 weobtain the following setof equations
for the stateprobabilities:
(2.61)
From this it is possible toobtain expressionsfor the stateprobabilitiesPI, P2, and P3

and for thetransition frequenciesAIPI, A2P2, and J-LP3'
Neglectingthe transientto steadystategives the followingequationsfor the state
probabilitiesin steadystate
AIPI = I-tP3
A2P2 = AIPI
IlP3 = A2P2 (2.62)
PI + P2 + P3 = 1 (2.63)
EliminatingPI andP3 from the first threeexpressionsand substitutingthis in thefourth

one results in
(2.64)
The frequencyof fail-to-trip events insteadystateis
(2.65)
If we assumethat repair (the transitionfrom state3 to state1) takes placemuch faster

than detectionof the hidden fault (from state2 to state3), we can neglects tate3 and
obtain the two-statesystemshownon the right of Fig. 2.28. This model results in the
following equations:
dpi
dt = -AIPI + A2P2 (2.66)
PI + P2 = 1 (2.67)
which correspondsto the equationsfor the two-statesingle-componentm odel in Fig.

2.27 and (2.51) through (2.53). The resultingprobability of being in the hidden-failure
stateis
P2(t) = AI
Al +A2
[I _e- /()..I+A2>] (2.68)
The fail-to-trip frequencyis equalto A2P2 and reachesits steady-statevalue with a time
constant A LA,' This holds if we assumethat hidden failures only reveal themselves
during a f~urt in the primary component.In case maintenanceis performed with a
frequencyA3 the transition rate from state2 to state1 is A2 + A3' The probability that
the relay is instate 2 becomes
P2(t) = AI [I _e-IO'I+A2+A,l>] (2.69)

Al + A2 + A3
Maintenancereduces the time constant with which the steady-stateprobability is
reached,and (more importantly) it reducesthe steady-stateprobability. The number
of fail-to-trip eventsper year nm l remain equal to A2P2, thus given by the following
expression:
n (1) =
mt v. Al
AI A2
+ A2 + A3
[I' _e 3>]
-t(AI +A2+ A (2.70)
We seethat for maintenanceto be effective, the maintenancefrequency needsto be

higher than the sum of the fault frequencyin the primary componentand the hidden-
failure rate of the relay
(2.71)
Two-Component Model. Considera system that consistsof two components:

component1 and component2, with failure rates At and A2, and repair rates J,Lt and
~2' If we model eachcomponentthrough two states,this systemhasfour states:
• State 1 with both componentsin operation.

• State 2 with only component2 in operation.
• State 3 with only component1 in operation.
• State4 with none of the componentsin operation.
The resultingstatemodelis shownin Fig. 2.29.The equationsfor the stateprobabilities

are
dpi
dt = -(AI + A2)PI + JLIP2 + JL2P3 (2.72)
dP2
dt = AIPI - (JLI + A2)P2 + JL2P4 (2.73)
dP3
dt = A2PI - (J.t2 + At)P3 + J.tIP4 (2.74)
dP4
dt = A2P2 + AIP3 - (J.tl + J,L2)P4 (2.75)
PI + P2 + P3 + P4 = 1 (2.76)
Section 2.5 • BasicReliability EvaluationTechniques 8S
Figure 2.29Two-component,two-state
Markovmodel.
Thesecan be solvedagain like for the previousexamples,but there is an alternative

solution method.We haveassumedthat the two componentsare stochasticallyinde-
pendent.This assumptionhas not beenmadeexplicitly but by making the failure and
repair ratesof the componentsindependento f the stateof the othercomponent.If the
componentsare stochasticallydependent,the transition rate from state 1 to state2 is
not the same as the one from s tate3 to state4 (both representfailure of component1),
etc. For stochasticallyindependentc omponentswe can multiply the componentstate
probabilitiesto get the systemstateprobabilities.Thus, with Pidown and Piup the prob-
abilities that componenti is in the "up" and in the "down" state, respectively, we
obtain for the stateprobabilities
PI = Plup X P2up (2.77)
P2 = PIc/own X P2up (2.78)
P3 = Plup X P2down (2.79)
P4 = Pldown X P2down (2~80)
Theseequationshold for eachmomentin time, thusfor the transientto steadystate,as

well as for thesteadystate.Using the expressionsfor the stateprobabilitiesin the one-
componentmodel the steady-stateprobabilitiesin the two-componentmodel become
/-LI/-L2
PI = 0"1 + ILI)p + 1L2)
o2 (2.81)
AI/-L2
P2 = pol + IL] )().o2 + IL2) (2.82)
/-L IA2
P3 = po] + ILI)P'2 + 1L2) (2.83)
AI A2
P4 = (>"] + ILI)O'2 + 1L2) (2.84)
Series and ParallelConnections. We can use theseresults to obtain exact

expressionsfor the failure rate and repair time of series and parallel connections,
approximationsfor which were given inSection 2.5.2. For a seriesconnection of
components1 and 2, state 1 is the healthy state. System failure is a transition from
state 1 to state2, or from state 1 to state3. The systemfailure rate As is the sumof
these twotransition rates:
A - A A _ /-L1/-L2(AI + A2) (2.85)
s - PI I + PI 2- p.] + ILI)P'2 + IL2)
The systemis unavailablewhen it is not in state 1. The systemrepair time's is found

from the unavailability Qs:
As's= Qs = I - PI (2.86)
The averagerepair time for the seriesconnectionis
AI112 + A2111 + AIA2
,~=------- (2.87)
. 111112(AI + A2)
In a similar way expressionscan be derived for the parallel connection.For a parallel
connection,states1, 2, and 3 arehealthy,and systemfailure is a transitionfrom state2
to state4 or from state3 to state4. The resulting expressionsfor failure rate Ap and
repair time 'p are
(2.88)
(2.89)
Exact Solutionof Large Markov Models. For a systemwith a large numberof

states, the underlying equationscan be derived in the same way as shown in the
above example. The set of differential equationscan be written in the following
matrix form:
-dP
dt
-
= AP(t) (2.90)
with A the matrix of statetransitionsand P the vector of stateprobabilities. For the

Markov model in Fig. 2.29we get
(2.91)
and
o
112
A= (2.92)
JLl
-J-l1 - J-l2
The off-diagonal element Aij is the transition rate from statej to state i. The diagonal
elementA ii is minus the sum of all transition ratesaway from state i:
Aij=\i (2.93)
A ii = - LAij (2.94)
j
Togetherwith an initial condition for the stateprobability vector

75(0) = Po (2.95)
we obtain the following solution for this initial value problem:
P(I) = Sexp[-Al]S-IPo (2.96)
with S the matrix of eigenvectorsof A and A the diagonalmatrix of eigenvaluesof A.

BecauseA is a singularmatrix (the sumof all transitionsis zero) oneof the eigenvalues
is zero. That leads to aconstantterm in the solution
P(t) = v: + LPie-~
;>1
(2.97)
In most cases wecan neglect thetransientsand are only interestedin the steady-state
solution r;Note that the steady-statesolutionis independento f the initial values.The
steady-statesolution can be obtaineddirectly from the transition rates by setting the
time derivativesto zero:
(2.98)
(2.99)
Approximate Solutionof Large Markov Models. The main problem with the
exact solution of large systemsis that all stateprobabilities have to becalculatedat
the same time, even those with a very low probability. For an N-state model, an
N x N matrix has to beinverted to find the steady-stateprobabilities.Assumingthat
all componentshave two states(up and down) an It-componentsystem requires 2n
states.Thus, a IO-componentsystemalready requires 1000 states,and a 150-compo-
nent model requires the inversion of a matrix of size 1045• In other words, this
methodhas seriouslimitations. We might be able tosomewhatreducethe numberof
states,but exact solutionsfor systemswith more than 10 componentsare in practice
not possibleto obtain. To overcomethese limitations, one can use anapproximated
method, which gives recursive expressionsfor the state probabilities [145]. The
assumptionsmadeare as follows:
• The statewith all componentsin operationhasa probability equal to one.

• The repair rate of a componentis much larger than its failure rate.
• The probability of a statewith k componentsout of operationis much lower
than the probability of a correspondingstatewith (k - 1) componentsout of
operation.
All these assumptionscan be brought back to one basicassumption:the components

are repaired much faster than they fail. This is a reasonableassumptionfor most
engineeringsystems.An exceptionare theso-called"hiddenfailures" discussedbefore.
For hidden failures the model requiressomeadjustments.
Consideragain the statemodel for an industrial supply, as shown in Fig. 2.26.
Partof this figure has beenreproducedin Fig. 2.30.Here A and JL arefailure and repair
rates,respectively.The index 1 refers to lines, the index 2 to
generators,a nd the index 3
to the public supply.
The exactexpressionsfor the stateprobabilitiesof states1 through4 are
(2.100)
Figure 2.30 Part of a multistateMarkov

model. (Reproducedfrom Fig. 2.26.)
(2AI + 2A2 + A3 + J-tl )P2 = 3AtPI + 2J-tIPs + J-t2P6 + J-t3P7 (2.101)

(3AI + A2 + A3 + /l2)P3 = 2A2PI + J-ttP6 + 2J-t2PS+ J-t3P9 (2.102)
(3AI + 2A2 + J-t3)P4 = A3PI + /lIP7 + J-t2P9 (2.103)
The approximatedmethod starts with assumingthat the system is almost certainly

healthy, thus
PI =1 (2.104)
According to the third assumption,we neglectthe termswith Ps, P6, P7,pg, and P9 on
the right-hand side of (2.101) through (2.103). That gives the following equationsfor
the states2 through 4:
(2AI + 2A2 + A3 + J-tl)P2 = 3AIPI (2.105)

(3AI + A2 + A3 + J-t2)P3 = 2A2Pt (2.106)
(3A) + 2A2 + J-t3)P4 = A3PI (2.107)
As PI is known we obtain the stateprobabilitiesof thesethreestateswithout having to

know the other stateprobabilities:
3AI
P2=------- (2.108).
2A) + 2A2 + A3 + J-tl
2A2
P3=------- (2.109)
3AI + A2 + A3 + J-t2
A3
P4 = (2.110)
3Al + 2A2 + J-t3
A correctioncan be madeby recalculatingthe probability PI from
PI = 1- LP;
;>1
(2.111)
The samemethod can be applied to states5 through 15, each time resulting in an
equationin which only one stateprobability is unknown. Insteadof having to solve
all stateprobabilitiesat the sametime, this procedureallows solving stateprobabilities
sequentially. For very large systems,not all statesare of equal interest, which can
further reduce thecomputationalrequirements.The recursiveprocedurecan, e.g., be

stoppedwhen the stateprobability drops below acertainvalue.
2.5.5 Monte Carlo Simulation
Basic Principles. In all precedingexamples, theunknown quantitieswere actu-

ally calculated. We saw several timesthat approximationsand assumptionswere
needed toobtain a solution. In a Monte Carlo simulation, or simply simulation,
theseassumptionsand approximationsare no longer needed. The Monte Carlo simu-
lation methoddoes not solve theequationsdescribing the model;insteadthe stochas-
tic behaviorof the model issimulatedand observed.
The behavior of the system(stochasticprocess isactually a better term) is
observed many times or for a long period of time. The averageobservationis used
as anestimatefor the expectedbehaviorof the system.
The basisof each Monte Carlo simulation involves using a so-calledrandom-
number generator.The random-numbergeneratoris needed to bring thestochastic
element in thecalculations.One could use a physical random-numbergeneratorlike
a dice or a coin, but anumericalrandom-numbergeneratoris more suitablefor com-
puter-basedcalculations.
A coin can be used to model statewith
a a probability of 50% • Consideras an
example athree-component system with500/0 availability for eachcomponent.The coin
is used togeneratecomponentstates, with the second columnin Table2.11 the resulting
sequence. Thisrepresentsthe stateof one of thecomponentsover 24consecutiveI-hour
periods. The same is done for component2 and component3, resultingin columns3
TABLE 2.11 MonteCarloSimulationwith 50% Probabilities
Hour Component1 Component2 Component3 SystemI System2 System3

I up up down up up up
2 up down up up up up
3 down down up down up down
4 down up down down down down
5 up down up up down up
6 down down down down down down
7 up up up up up up
8 up down up up up down
9 down up down down up down
II up up down up down dow
12 up down up up down down
13 up up down up up down
15 down down up down down down
16 up up down up down down
17 up down up up down down
18 down up up up up down
19 up down down down up down
20 up up down up up up
22 up up up up up up
23 down down up down up down
and 4, respectively. The column labeled"systemI" gives thestateof a system which is

available if at least twocomponentsare available.
One can make thisM onte Carlo simulationas complicatedas one wants. In the
column labeled"system2" the system is down if less than twocomponentsare available
for two consecutivel-hour periods, and if the system is down it remains down for at
least 3 hours.For "system3" the system needs three componentsto beavailablein the
hourly periods 8through 18, but only two for theother periods . As a second example
consider threecomponentswhose lifetime is uniformlydistributed between 0 and 6
years. To generate the lifetime of thesecomponentswe can use a dice. By using this
we simulatethe behaviorof this three-componentsystemduring 10 years. In Fig. 2.31
three possibleoutcomesof this "experiment" are shown . Each possible outcomeis
called a "sequence."During sequence 1, the firstcomponentfails after 3 years and
again after 6 years; the secondcomponentfails after 2, 6, 7, 9, and 10 years, etc.
Sequence I
3 6 21
I
~~
I 4 I I 4
Sequence 2
o--L-o 6 G>>-+-~-~e
6
o~
cr--1--o--i--o--,,--
6----,,.--- - 0
Sequence 3
3 4 2 4
6
010 0
5
--0
4 3 I 5 Figure 2.31Threesequencesof a Monte
Carlo simulation.The circles indicate failures
.. 10 years
•
;
followed by repair ; the numbers in between

indicate times-to-failure.
At time zero all threecomponentsstart their first lifetime. Upon failure they are
repaired and a new lifetime determined.This
is process isrepeateduntil t = 10 years is
reached .F rom the outcomeof this stochasticexperiment,many different outputpara-
meters can be chosen, for example,
• Total numberof componentfailures in a IO-year period . In this case the values

11, 7, and 8 are found .
• Total numberof events with two or morecomponentfailures in the same year,
with values 3, 2, and 1 being found .
• Probability distribution function of the componentlifetime.
Numerical Random-Number Generators. In practice one never uses physical

random-number generatorslike dice or coins. The reason is that it is difficult to
actually use them in acomputer program and hand-calculationsof Monte Carlo
simulationsare verycomplicated,as will be clearafter the preceding examples.
A numerical random-numbergeneratorcreates a rowof integers of pseudo-

random nature. The row is not really random as a numerical algorithm is used to
calculateit-therefore,the term"pseudo-randomnumbergenerator."Most computer
simulationsuserandom-numbergeneratorsof the following form:
U;+1 = (aU;)modN (2.112)
where a and N have to be chosen. The
output of this is a rowof integers with values
between 1 and(N - 1).
EXAMPLE Considerthe values N = 11 and a = 7. That gives the following row of

integers:
1,7,5,2,3,10,4,6,9,8,1,7,5,2,3,10,4,6,9,8,1,
etc.
if one realizesthat thereare only
The row repeatsitself after 10elements,which isunderstandable
10 possibleoutcomesof (2.112). A cyclelength 10 (in general(N - 1) ) is the longestpossible
value. To showthat shortercycle lengthsare also possible,considerthe random-numbergen-
eratorwith N = II and a = 5 which has twopossiblerows, eachof cycle length 5:
1,5,3,4,9,1
2,10,6,8,7,2
The random-numbergeneratorsin use in Monte Carlo simulationshave much longer

cycles lengths, andtherefore much higher valuesof N. A popular value is N =
231 - 1 = 2 147483647.Most valuesof a give a cycle length less
t han N - 1. A value
of a which gives themaximumcycle length isa = 950 706376.Startingfrom U = 1 we
get the following rowof integers:
1, 950706376,129027 171,I 782259899,365181143,1966843080,etc.
The resulting integer is often divided byN to get arandomnumberbetween 0 and 1,
which leads to a slightlydifferent version of (2.115):
u _ aNU;modN (2.113)
;+1- N
The resultof (2.113) is arandomdraw from the uniform distribution on the interval
(0,1). Neither zero nor one can beobtainedthrough this method, which is often an
advantageas it preventsdividing by zero in further processingof the result. This
standarduniform distribution is the basis for allM onte Carlo simulations.
EXAMPLE For N = 11 and a = 7, (2.113) results in thefollowing row of samples:

0.09,0.63,0.45, 0.18, 0.27, 0.91, 0.36,
0.55,0.82,0.73, 0.09, etc.
Simulating a Probability-RandomMonte Carlo Simulation. Two types of

Monte Carlo simulation can bedistinguished:random simulation and sequentialsi-
mulation. An example of random simulation is the simulation shown in Table 2.11.
In a random Monte Carlo simulation each componenthas aprobability of being in
a certainstate. Thesimulation generatescombinationsof componentstates.For each
resulting combination the systemstate (healthy or nonhealthy) is evaluated.This
whole process isrepeateduntil a certainaccuracyis obtained.
The basisof a randomMonte Carlo simulationis the probability: an eventtakes

place with acertain probability, a quantity has acertain value with a certain prob-
ability, or a componentis in a certainstatewith a certainprobability. A probability is
simulated by drawing a value from the standard uniform distribution introduced
before. Let p be the probability that the componentis in state 8 1; otherwise, the
componentwill be in state 8 2, then the Monte Carlo simulation proceedsas follows:
• Draw a value U from the standarduniform distribution.

• If U :s p the componentis in stateSI.
• If U > P the componentis in state S2.
Note that for U = p the componentstateis actually not defined. In this examplethis
situationis attributedto stateSI but it could equally have beenattributedto state S2.
This ambiguity has to do with our discretizationof the uniform distribution. For a
continuousdistribution the probability that U =p is zero. For a random-numbergen-
erator with a cycle length of 231 - 1 this probability (5 x 10-1°) is small enoughto
neglect in allpracticalcases.
Simulating a Time Distribution. The basis of a sequentialsimulation is the

time distribution. Thereforewe need amethod of obtaining other distributions than
just the standarduniform distribution, Le., the uniform distribution on the interval
(0,1).
The uniform distribution on an interval (T1, T 2) is obtainedfrom a sampleof the
standarduniform distribution U as follows:
(2.114)
where X is a sample from the uniform distribution on the interval (Tt , T 2) . More
general:a stochasticvariable S with a distribution function F(s) is obtainedfrom
(2.115)
where U is a stochasticvariablewith a standarduniform distribution.To provethis, we

look at the probability distribution function of the stochasticvariable S accordingto
(2.115), thus at the probability that S is lessthan a certainvalue s.
Pr{S < s} = Pr{F-1(U) < s} (2.116)
As F is a non-decreasingfunction, we can write this as
Pr{S < s} = Pr{ U < F(s)} (2.117)
The stochasticvariable U has astandarduniform distribution; thus,
Pr{ U < x} = x, for 0 < x < 1 (2.118)
As 0 < F(s) < 1 we get theintendedexpression,which proves that S is distributed

accordingto F(s).
Pr{S < s} = F(s) (2.119)

Consideras anexample,the Weibull distribution introducedby (2.25).From (2.115) it

follows that a sample W from the Weibull distribution with characteristictime 0 and
shapefactor m is obtainedfrom a sampleU from the standarduniform distribution by
W = Oy!-ln(l - U) (2.120)
For m = 1 we obtain the exponentialdistribution as a special case o f the Weibull
distribution. A sample E from the exponentialdistribution with expectedtime 0 is
obtainedby
E = -Oln(l - U) (2.121)
Sequential Monte Carlo Simulation.The examples in Fig. 2.31 show sequen-

a
tial simulation. In a sequentialMonte Carlo simulation, the whole timebehaviorof
a system issimulated,with failure and repair of componentsthe main subject in a
reliability study. But alsoother events, like loadswitching and weatherchanges,can
be part of the simulation. This kind of simulation offers the most opportunitiesof
obtainingoutput, but it also requiresthe most programmingand computingefforts.
"Thedetailsof a sequentialM onte Carlosimulationvary widely anddependon the
particular application,the kind of programminglanguageavailable,and on personal
tasteof the programdevelopers.Below, a possiblestructureis given which was used
successfully by theauthorfor evaluatingthe reliability of industrialpowersystems[61],
[62], [63]. Only onesequenceof a given length is described here. This sequence
shouldbe
repeateda largenumberof times to getstatisticallyrelevantresults.
I. Set up an initial event list. At thestart of each sequence, times for the first
event aredrawn for eachcomponent.The first event is typically a failure or
start of maintenance.These events aresorted on time of occurrenceand
placed in a so-called"event list." Part of an event list would typicallylook
as follows:
0.15 years component2 failure
1.74 years component5 maintenance
3.26years component1 hidden failure
4.91 years component5 failure
5.67 years component2 maintenance
6.21 years componentI maltrip
This event listshouldbe interpretedas follows: at t = 0.15 years,c omponent
2 will fail; at t = 1.74years,maintenanceon component5 is planned,etc. Not
all events in the list willactuallyoccur. We will see belowthat events may be
removedfrom the' event listand that events may beinserted.Furtheron in
the simulationof this sequence, it will always be the event top on of the list
which will be processed,a fter which the event list will beupdated.When the
event list isempty the simulationof this sequence is over.
2. Processthe event on top of the event list.Processingof the event on topof the
eventlist (thusthe next event tohappenin the system) is themain part of the
simulation, which will take up most time in programmingand deciding
about. This is where thestochasticmodel of the power systemand its com-
ponentsis implemented.The processingof an event typicallyconsistsof
making changesin the event list and making changesin the electrical
model of thepowersystem.Changesin the powersystem can be the removal
of a component(e.g., due to theinterventionof the protection)or the inser-

tion of a branch(e.g., repair of a componentor due to ashort-circuitfault).
To assess the effect of the eventon the load, eitherthe newsteadystateor the
electrical transientdue to theevent need to beevaluated.The interruption
criterion needs to beappliedto decideif this eventleads to aninterruptionor
not. The changesin the eventlist will be discussedbelow for different events.
(a) Short-circuitevent. The next event after a short-circuit event will be an
intervention of the protection. Some rules areneededto decide which
relays will intervene: the relay or relays which need to clear this fault;
thosewhich incorrectly intervene;and thosewhich take over the protec-
tion in case one orm oreof the primary relays fails totrip. For eachrelay
a time until tripping needs to bedetermined.Tripping of the fault nor-
mally takesplace very soon after the short-circuit event. Thereforeone
can decide totreat fault initiation (short-circuitevent)and fault clearing
(protectioninterventionevent)as one event.H ere they areconsideredas
two events.
(b) Protectionintervention event. During the processingof this event one
needs todistinguishbetweenthe last relay totrip and all the other pro-
tection interventionevents.After the last relay hastripped the repair of
the faulted componentc an startand also theswitching neededto restore
the nonfaultedcomponentstripped by the protection. For the Monte
Carlo simulation this meansthat times to repair and times to switching
need to bedetermined.Alternatively one can determineall these times
when processingthe short-circuitevent.
(c) Repairevent. When a componentis repaired,it can fail again.Therefore
a time to failure needsto be determinedfor all its failure modes:short
circuit, maltrip, hiddenfailure, etc. Different failure modeswill typically
have different lifetime distributions.
(d) Maltrip event. A maltrip eventis associatedwith the power systempro-
tection, either with a circuit breakeror with a protectiverelay. The next
eventsto bedeterminedarerepairof failed componenta ndrestorationof
the primary componenttripped.
(e) Hidden failure event. Ahidden failure eventwill not reveal itself imme-
diately. Thereforeit will only changethe way the relay will infuture react
to a short-circuitevent. Only when ahidden failure reveals itself,either
due to ashort circuit or due tomaintenance,will the repair start.
(f) Start of maintenanceevent. Start of maintenancewill require the sche-
duling of an end of maintenanceevent. For an accuratemaintenance
model, one needs tointroducean additional event called "maintenance
attempt." Maintenanceattemptsare scheduledand either immediately
lead to astart of maintenanceevent or to a new maintenanceattempt
event. Somerules areneededto decideif the systemstateis suitablefor
maintenanceto beperformed.The rules will dependamongotherson the
companyrules for performingmaintenance.S omeexamplesare
• Maintenancecannotbe performedat more than one componentat the
same time, e.g.,becausethere is only one maintenancecrew available.
• Maintenancewill not be performedif it leadsto an interruptionof the
supply for any of the loads.
• Maintenancewill not be performedwhen aparallel or redundantcom-

ponentis out of operation.
When processingthe start of maintenanceevent, the time for an endof
maintenanceevent needs to bedetermined.
(g) End ofmaintenanceevent. When the maintenanceis finished a newmain-
tenanceattempt or start of maintenanceevent needs to bedetermined.
Also some future fail events will be influenced by the maintenance.
Typically the componentis assumedto be"as-good-as-new"a fter main-
tenance.In that case allfuture fail eventsare removedfrom the eventlist
and new ones aredrawn from appropriatedistribution functions.
Some additional rules might be neededto control the processingof events.
One might, for instance,decidethat a componentc annotfail while it is out of
operation(for any reason).One can makea checkduring a failure event to
see if a componentis in operation and simply draw a new failure event
without any additional processingif the componentis not in operation.
One can also decide to shift all failure events belonging to a component
further into the future with a time equal to the time during which it is out
of operation.
3. Update the event list. All new events whichoccur before the end of the
sequenceare placed in the event list; the eventjust processedis removed;
the eventlist is sortedagain;after which the eventthat appearson top of the
event list is processed.
Errors in the Monte Carlo Simulation. An exampleof the result of a Monte

Carlo simulation is shown in Fig. 2.32. The figure has beenobtainedby taking sam-
ples from the uniform distribution on the interval (0,1), followed by calculating the
averageover all the proceedingsamples.For an increasingnumber of samples,the
averagevalue approaches0.5. As wecan see from the figure, theerror is still rather
large after 100 samples.
Figure2.33 gives thebehaviorfor a much largernumberof samples.A fter 10000
samples,the error has becomelessthan 1%, but is still not zero. An importantproperty
of the Monte Carlo simulation is that the error approacheszero, but never becomes
zero. Figure 2.33 also showsanotherpropertyof the Monte Carlo simulation: the fact
0.4
~
Q)
~ 0.3
I
0.2
Figure 2.32 Outcomeof a Monte Carlo 20 40 60 80 100

simulation. Samplenumber
0.55 .------~--~--~--~--_,
2000 4000 6000 8000

Samp le number
that each simulation may give a different result. The figure gives the result of 10
simulations, each using adifferent starting value of the random-numbergenerator.
Note that exactly the sameresultsare obtainedif the samestarting value is used for
the random-numberg enerator.
The error in the result of a Monte Carlo simulationcan be estimatedby usingthe
so-calledcentral-limit theorem.This theoremstatesthat the sumof a large numberof
stochasticvariableshas anormal distribution. Supposethat eachsequenceof a simula-
tion gives a value Xi for a certain stochasticvariable X. This value can be the total
number of interruptionsduring 20 years, but also the fraction of interruptionswith
durationsbetween1 and 3 hours.What we areinterestedin is the expectedvalueof such
a variable.To estimatethe expectedvaluewe usethe averagevalue, which is astandard
procedurein statistics. Let X be the averageof N samplesof Xi:
(2.122)
For sufficiently large N, X is normally distributedwith expectedvalue ux andstandard

deviation aA" where Ilx and ax areexpectedvalue and standarddeviationof Xi' Thus,
_ 'iN
X is an estimatefor Ilx (the expectedvalue of X) . The error in the estimateis propor-
tional to the standarddeviation. Note that obtainingthe valueof ux is the aim of the
simulation.
The Stopping Criterion. The fact that the error in a Monte Carlo simulation
will never becomezero meansthat we have toaccepta certain uncertaintyin the re-
sult. This issometimesmentionedas a disadvantageof the Monte Carlo simulation,
but also analytical calculationsare uncertain, due to theassumptionsand approxima-
tions madein the model. Where the error in an analytical calculationis often impos-
sible to estimate(unless a better model is used), theuncertainty in the result of a
Monte Carlo simulation can be estimated.The outcomeof any Monte Carlo simula-
tion will be a stochasticquantity with a normal distribution. For the normal distribu-
tion we know that 95% of all values are within two standard deviations of the
expectedvalue. We saw above that the standarddeviation after N samplesis equal
to ~. The 95% confidenceinterval of the estimateis thus,
- ax - ax (2.123)
X-2-</lx<X+2-
./N ./N
quantity X, ax , can beestimatedthroughthe
The standarddeviation of the stochastic
following expression:
ax ~
I ?=xl- [1
N_ I
N N
N?= Xi
]2 (2.124)
1=1 1=1
At regular momentsduring the simulation, e.g., after every 100 sequences, error
the in
the estimates may becalculatedand comparedwith the required accuracy. When the
required accuracy is reached the
simulationcan bestopped. Note that to determine the
of the sum of theXi values but also of the sum
error, one needs not only keep a record
of their squares .
Convergence Tests.Because of the slow convergence process Monte of a Carlo

simulationit is hard to recognize a case in which the average no longer converges to
the expected value. Such situation
a arises, e.g., when the
random-numbergenerator
has ashort cycle length.
-:fN. One
the (X - u.x ) decreases as
Consider again (2.123), which shows that error
can conclude from this that the function
(2.125)
neither converges nor diverges. The convergence parameterC has been plotted in Fig.
2.34 for 10simulationsof 10000 samples each. The underlying simulationis the same as
in Figs. 2.32 and 2.33. We see
that the plotted quantity remains within a bandaround
zero, thusthat the averageX indeed converges to the expected value /lx .
In Fig. 2.35 the same convergence parameteris plotted for a simulation which
does not converge. The divergence is clearly visible.
(From sample 2000onward, the
random-numbergeneratorwas given a cycle length of 1000 samples.)
!l 0.5
I
.,
~
~
~
U - 0.5
Figure 2.34 Convergence p arameterfor 10 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

identical Monte Carlo simulations. Sample number
~ 0.5
I
os
0..
"
g
"e!'
"c>
o
U -0.5 ,
2000 8000 10000

Figure 2.35 Con vergence
parameterfor a
non-con vergence case.
2.5.6 Aging of Components
In most studies it is assumed that both failure rate and repair rate are
constant.
The underlyingreasons are a lack of dataand a lack ofevaluationtechniques. At the
moment, only the Monte Carlo simulationis capableof incorporatingnonexponential
distributionsfor nontrivial systems. But despite the lack applicationof
of nonexponen-
tiallifetime distributions, it is still worthwhile to have a closer look at the
variousaging
phenomena.Nonexponential repair time distributions are easier to understand,
althoughequally difficult to incorporatein the reliability evaluation.
Two Typesof Aging. Aging is used in daily life as thephenomenonthat the

failure rate of a componentincreases with its age. Here it will be used in a slightly
more general sense: aging is the
phenomenonthat the failure rateof a componentis
dependenton:
• the actual age of thecomponent.

• the time since the last repair or
maintenance
.
To quantify the dependenceof the failure rate on the age of the component,the
so-called"bathtubcurve" is often used. Acommonway of drawingthe bathtubcurve is
shown in Fig. 2.36. The period between 0 and T) is called the wear-in period, after T 2
the wear-out period, and betweenT) and T 2 the useful life or the periodof random
failures. One should realizethat the bathtubcurve is only a stylized version of whatcan
be a rathercomplicatedfunction of time. The actual failure rate as a functionof time
can beof completely different shapealthoughit
, is likely to containat least an initial
wear-in period and an overall increasingfailure rate for oldercomponents[146].
This aging effect can be included in the reliability
evaluationmodels, byrepeating
the calculationsfor different componentage.For each age one assumes that all failure
rates areconstant.From the expressionsobtainedby usingMarkov models in Section
2.5.4, we knowthat the timeconstantwith which the system reacts to changes is of the
order of the repair times. For such s hort time scales we can safely assume the failure
rate to be constant.That way one can assess the aging of the system, e.g., the inter-
ruption frequency as afunction of time. When performing such a study one should
Section 2.5 • Basic Reliab ilityEvaluationTechniques 99
Figure 2.36Bathtubcurve :component o

Component age
failure rate versus age.
realize that also the repair time and the

durationof maintenanceare likely to increase
when thecomponentgrows older. The second type of aging, the fact that the failure
rate depends on the time elapsed since the last repairmaintenance,
or is more difficult to
consider in a reliabilityevaluationstudy. Here it is essentialthat nonexponentialdis-
tributions are used for thecomponentlifetimes. Techniques like M arkov modeling and
network representationscan no longer be used. For smaller systems one might use
highly mathematicaltechniques like renewal theory [123], [215]; for larger systems
only Monte Carlo simulation remains as a practical tool.
As an exampleof the second type of aging, assume that the failure rate only
depends on the time until maintenanceand that maintenanceis performed at regular
intervals. The failure rate as a function of time is as shown in Fig. 2.37: the failure rate
increases untilmaintenanceis performedon thecomponent,at whichinstantthe failure
rate drops to its initial value again. The
dotted line in Fig. 2.37 represents a kind of
average failure rate .
Figure 2.37 Failure rate versus time for

regular maintenanceintervals. Time -
In Fig. 2.38 the failure rates of two

componentsare plotted (the dashed and the
It is assumed here
dottedline), plus the average of the two failure rates (the solid line).
that maintenanceon the secondcomponenttakes place in between two maintenance
instantsfor the first component.We seethat the average of the two failure rates varies
less than each of the failure rates. It is easy to imagine
that the failure rate of a large
number ofcomponentsbecomesconstantwhen maintenanceon them isperformedat
different times.
In reality the failure rate not only depends on the time elapsed since the last
maintenancebut also on the time elapsed since the last maintenanceor repair.
tOO Chapter2 • Long Interruptionsand Reliability Evaluation
t
• Avejrage A COlmpo~ent I
..
••
.
, ,'t ..
.'
. : ",1: ..0:
,',' o·
"" .
0.
• 0
ee
Figure 2.38 Failure rate versus time for two
Time----+ components.
Similar reasoningsas given formaintenancecan be used for failure, with the difference
that the failure instantsare lessregularly positionedthan maintenanceinstants.
As-Good-As-Newor As-Bad-As-Old. In Fig. 2.37 and Fig. 2.38 it was assumed

that the failure ratedropped to its original value after maintenance.This model is
called maintenance(or repair) "as-good-as-new."The oppositemodel is called main-
tenance(or repair) "as-bad-as-old."In the latter case themaintenanceor repair has
no influence on the failure rate; thus the failure rate just after maintenanceis the
same asjust before. The two models are shownin Fig. 2.39.For repair as-bad-as-old
the failure ratedependson the ageof the component,for repair as-good-as-newit
dependson the time since last repair.
The actualfailure rate isnormally a combinationbetweenas-good-as-new and as-
bad-as-old.This can bemodeledas the sumof two failure rate, thus twocomponentsin
series: one beingrepairedas-good-as-newand theother being repairedas-bad-as-old.
The latterone will lead to an average increase in failure rate which leads towear-out
the
phase in thebathtubcurve.
As-bad-as-old
i As-good-as-new
t=O i
Age of thecomponent-e-->
Repairor Figure 2.39 Repair as-good-as-new and as-
maintenance bad-as-old.
Failure Rate Increase due toMaintenance. Somethingthat should also be con-

sidered in reliabilityevaluationis that maintenanceand repair can lead to anactual
increase in failure rate. The
s tandardexampleis the screwdriverleft inside the switch-
gear. But alsomore subtle effects are possible. In ma aintenanceoptimization study
Section 2.6 • Costsof Interruptions 101
one has to take this intoaccountone way or the other. Alsod uring maintenancethe
chance of anoutage of anothercomponentis increased: itsloading is higher and
there is activity in theneighborhoodwith the associatedrisk of errors.
Many aspects of aging are extremely difficult quantify,
to but shouldat least be
consideredin a qualitative way in reliability evaluationstudies. A serious difficulty in
includingcomponentaging is the lackof availabledata:not just componentfailure data
is needed, but alsorepair and maintenancerecordsof all the components.
Aging Data. Information on aging of power systemcomponentsis hard to

find. A few examplesof good data are given below. There are more publications
addressingthis problem [107], but the total amount of data is not enough to
include aging with sufficient confidence into the reliability
evaluation.
• A number of Dutch utilities published "expert opinions" on the ageof a

componentat which the failure rate significantlys tarts to increase [124]. A
group of expertswas asked to give their estimationof this age forcomponents
operatedunder "good circumstances,""averagecircumstances,"and "bad
circumstances. "
• Bathtubcurves for transformersare presented in reference [125]. One of the
conclusionsis that newer generationsof transformershave not only a lower
overall failure rate but also a longer useful life. The useful life is the period
during which the failure rate is more or less constant.Newer productiontech-
niques have however not been able to significantly reducenumberofthe wear-
in failures.
• Another interestingstudy is publishedin reference[126]. By using purchasing
records anassessment is madeof the age at whichtransformersfatally fail, i.e.,
a failure severeenoughfor them to bescrapped.It turnedout that the failure
rate stayedconstant,at about0.01 per year, for the first 12 years. After that,
the failure rate increased until 1 per year at an age of 29 years.
• A bathtubcurve for circuit breakersis presentedin [127], based on the obser-
vation of a largenumberof breakers.The failure rate decreases from 0.2 for
age zerothrough 0.05 for 8 years after which it rises to 0.15 for 10-year-old
breakers.
• In reference [128] the failbehaviorof circuit breakersis studiedby dividing the
causeof failures into three categories:
- initial failures.
- randomfailures.
- wear-outfailures.
By plotting the failure rate as afunction of age for eachcategory,it is shown
that the failure rateof initial failures decreases,
that the failure rateof random
failures staysconstant,and that the failure rateof wear-outfailures increases
with time.
2.8 COSTS OF INT.RRUPTIONS
To considerinterruptionsof the supply in the design andoperationof power systems,

the inconveniencedue tointerruptionsneeds to bequantifiedone way or theother.The
term inconvenienceis rather vague andbroad. Any seriousquantification requires a
.....Reliability costs
- - . Buildingcosts
- Totalcosts
Figure 2.40 Costs versus reliability: costs of

building and operation(dashed curve), costs
of supply interruptions(dottedcurve), and
Reliability
total costs (solid curve).
translationof all inconvenienceinto amountof money. In theremainderof this section

we will considercostsof interruptionsin dollars, but any othercurrencycan be usedof
course.
Many publications on costs of interruption show a graph with costs against
reliability. Such a curve isreproducedin Fig. 2.40. The ideabehind this curve isthat
a more reliable system is more expensive to build and operate,but the costsof inter-
ruption (either over the lifetimeof the system, or per year) are less. The
total costs will
show aminimum, which correspondsto the optimal reliability. Even if we assumethat
both cost functions can bedeterminedexactly, the curve still has some seriouslimita-
tions. Figure 2.40 should only be used as a qualitativedemonstrationof the trade-off
between costs and reliability.
• Additional investmentdoesnot always give a more reliable system: an increase

in the numberof componentscould even decrease the reliabiity.
• Reliability is not a single-dimensionalquantity. Both interruption frequency
and duration of interruption influence theinterruptioncosts.
• Thereis no sliding scaleof reliability and costs. The system
designercan choose
between a limitednumber of design options; sometimesthere arejust two
options available. The choice becomes simply comparisonof
a advantages
and disadvantageso f the two options.
• The two cost termscannotsimply beadded.One term (building and opera-
tional costs) has a smalluncertainty,the other term (interruptioncosts) has a
large uncertaintydue to theuncertaintyin the actualnumberand durationof
interruptions. A more detailed risk analysis is neededthan just adding the
expected, costs.
The cost of aninterruption consistsof a number of terms. Each term has its own
difficulty in being assessed. Again simply adding the terms toobtain the total costs
of an interruptionis not the right way,but due to lackof alternativesit is often the only
feasibleoption.
1. Direct costs.These are the costs which are directly
attributableto the inter-
ruption. The standardexample fordomesticcustomersis the lossof food in
the refrigerator. For industrial customersthe direct costs consist,among
others, of lost raw material, lost production, and salary costs during the
non-productiveperiod. For commercialcustomersthe direct costs are the
Section 2.6 • Costsof Interruptions 103
loss of profit and the salary costs during the non-productiveperiod. When
assessing the direct costs one has towatchfulbe of double-counting.One
shouldat first subtractthe savings made duringthe interruption.The obvious
savings are in the electricity costs, but for
industrial processes there is also a
saving in useof raw material.An example ofdouble-countingis addingthe
lost salesandthe salary costs (as the priceof the productalreadyincludes the
salarycosts). Also to besubtractedfrom the costsof interruptionis the lost
productionwhich can be recovered later. Some plants only run part of the
time. Extra salaryduring overtime needed to recover lost productionshould
be addedto the direct costs.
2. Indirect costs. Theindirect costs are muchharderto evaluate,and in many
casesnot simply to express inamountof money. Acompanycan losefuture
orderswhen aninterruptionleads to delay in delivering paroduct.A domes-
tic customercan decide to take an insuranceagainstlossof freezercontents.
A commercialcustomermight install a battery backup. A large industrial
customercould even decide to move plant a to an area with less supply
interruptions.The main problem with this cost term isthat it cannot be
attributed to a singleinterruption, but to the (real or perceived) quality of
supply as a whole.
3. Non-material inconvenience. Someinconveniencecannot be expressed in
money. Not being able to listen to the radio for hours 2 can be a serious
inconvenience,but the actual costs are zero. Inindustrial and commercial
environments,the non-materialinconvenience can also be big without con-
tributing to the director indirect costs. A wayof quantifyingthese costs is to
look at theamountof money acustomeris willing to pay for not having this
interruption.
To evaluatethe costs of supplyinterruptions,different methodshave beenproposed.

For large industrial and commercial customersan inventory of all the direct and
indirect costs can be made, and this can then be used in the system design and
operation. Even for small customerssuch a study could be made, e.g., to decide
about the purchaseof equipmentto mitigate interruptions. However, for small and
domestic customersit is often the non-material inconveniencewhich has a larger
influence on the decisionthan the direct orindirect costs. For a group of customers,
such an individual assessment is nolonger possible. The only generally accepted
method is the large surveyamong customers.Customersget asked anumber of
questions. Based on the answers the average costs of interruption are estimated.
These results are typically the ones used by utilities in decision making. When com-
paring the resultsof different surveys, it isimportant to realizethat they not all ask
the samequestions.Some surveys ask a very specific question:"What are the costsof
an interruption of 2 hours on a Monday afternoonin January?"Other surveys use
more indirect questioning:"What is a reasonablecompensationfor an interruption"
or "What would you be willing to pay to reduce the i nterruption frequency from 4
per year to 3 per year?"Different questionsobviously lead to different estimatesfor
the costsof interruption.
To quantify the costs of aninterruption,again differentmethodsare in use. Some
values can be easilycalculatedinto eachother, with some values acertainamountof
care is needed. Worse thatis it is not always clear from thecontext which methodis
actually used.
• Costsper interruption. For an individual customerthe costsof an interruption

of duration d can beexpressedin dollars.Thereis no confusionpossibleabout
this. For simplicity, we neglectthe fact that the costsnot only dependon the
duration but on many other factors as well. The costsper interruptioncan be
determinedthrough an inventory of all direct and indirect costs.
• Costsper interruptedkW. Let C;(d) be thecostsof an interruptionof duration
d for customeri, and L; the load of this customerwhen therewould not have
been aninterruption.The costsper interruptedkW are defined as
C;(d)
(2.126)
L;
and are expressedin $jkW. For a group of customersexperiencingthe same
interruption,the costsper interruptedkW are defined as theratio of the total
costsof the interruptionand the total load in casetherewould not havebeen
an interruption:
(2.127)
• Costsper kWh not delivered. Inmany studiesthe assumptionis madethat the

costof an interruptionis proportionalto the durationof the interruption.The
cost per kWh not deliveredis defined as
C;(d)
(2.128)
st;
andis constantunderthe assumption.T hecostper kWh is expressedin S/kWh.
For a group of customersthe cost per kWh not deliveredis defined as
L; C;(d) (2.129)
dL;L;
Someutilities obtain an averagecost per kWh not deliveredfor all their cus-
tomers.This value isassumedconstantand used as areferencevaluein system
operationand design. The term "value of lost load" is sometimesusedfor the
cost per kWh not deliveredaveragedover all customers.
• Costsof interruption rated to the peak load. A problem in surveysis that the
actual load of individual customersin case there would not have been an
interruption is often not known. One should realize that surveys consider
hypotheticalinterruptions,rarely actual ones. For industrial and commercial
customersthe peak load is much easierto obtain, as it is typically part of the
supplycontract.Thecostof an interruptioncanbe divided by the peakload, to
get a value in$jkW. Somecare is neededwhen interpretingthis value, as it is
not the same as the cost per kW interrupted (also in $/kW). For planning
purposesthe cost of interruption rated to the peak load can still be a useful
value. The design of a systemis basedfor a large part on peak load, so that
rating the cost to the peak load gives adirect link with the design.
• Costsper interruptionratedto the annualconsumption.For domesticcustomers
it is easierto obtain the annualconsumptionthan the peak load. Rating the
Section 2.6 • Costs ofInterruptions lOS
cost of an interruption to the annual consumptiongives a value in $/kWh.

Note that this has no relation to the costs per kWh not delivered.
Someof the results of a Swedish survey after costsinterruptions[200]

of are given in
Figs. 2.41 and 2.42. The survey wasconductedamong 4000 customers in 1993 and
resulted in interruption costs per kW of peak load for interruptionduration of 2
2.41 gives the costs for a forced inter-
minutes, 1hour, 4 hours , and 8 hours . Figure
120
0 2 min
•
0
I hour
4 hours -
• 8 hours
~ 60
o
1 40
20 f---
r--"
f - - - - """ f---
-
-
o -- J W _ .,.... lJ - ~ ,', ' ~

--'--'=' -
Domestic Agriculture Trade and Small Textile Chemical Food
services industry industry industry industry
Figure 2.41 Int erru ption costs in S/kW for different customers, for forced
interruptions . Results from a Swedish stud y 1993in [200).
120
0 2 min
• I hour
0 4hours -
• 8 hours
~ 60
8
§
}40 r-r-
20
o ---
Domestic
..r
f-------
Agriculture
•
Trade and
services
--f
Small
industry
~ J
Textile
industry
Chemical
industry
...
Food
industry
Figure 2.42 In terruption costs in S/kW for different customers. forscheduled

interruptions. Res ults from a Swedish study in 1993[200).
ruption, i.e., in case thecustomerreceives nopre-warningof the interruption. Figure

2.42 relates to scheduled i nterruptions where the customer receives sufficient pre-
warning. An exchange rateof 7.32 Swedishcrowns per U.S. dollar has been used
and an inflation rate of 2.5% per year, toobtain the costs in 1998 dollars.
The valuesindicated are averages over n aumber of customers.Surveys have
shown that the range betweendifferent customersis very large, even within one type
of industry. Rangesof interruptioncost within one typeof industry are given bySkof
[147]. For a I-minute interruption the cost for automobilefactories varies between
0.001$/kW and 6$/kW. For a l-hour interruption the range is from 0.3 to40$/kW.
Thus, an industry averageshould be treated with care when assessing the cost of
interruption for a specificindustrial customer.Where possible, it isrecommendedto
usecustomer-specificdatainsteadof industrynationalaverages. Several otherpublica-
tions give survey resultsa nd resultsof otherways toestimatethe interruptioncosts; an
admittedlyincompletelist is [21], (129], [130], [131], [132], [216].
2.7 COMPARISON OF OBSERVATION AND RELIABILITY EVALUATION
Despite all the reliability analysis toolsavailable, simple past-performancerecords

remain the main sourceof information on systemperformance.This does not imply
that reliability analysis has no value. To the contrary, analysistechniquescan obtain
results much fasterandwith a higher degreeo f accuracythanpastperformancerecords.
This holds especially forindividual sites. For the evaluationof operationalreserve,
past-performanceis simply not available.Stochasticprediction techniquesare the
only option here. However,comparisonbetweenstochasticprediction techniquesand
pastperformancemeasuresis a highlyundervaluedarea. Very little work has been done
on this often with thejustification that it is not possible.
Some kind of verification of stochasticprediction techniquesremains needed,
especially asmany engineersremain, rightly or wrongly, skepticalabout the outcome
of reliability evaluations.The emphasison past-performance recordsis, in the author's
view, also determinedby the skepticism toward stochasticprediction techniques. A
number of ways of comparingobservationsand the resultsof reliability evaluation
are given in the following list:
• Apply stochasticprediction techniquesto a systemthat has not changedtoo

much over alongerperiod,andfor which dataare availableon thenumberand-
durationsof supply interruptionsover this period. As the transmissionnet-
works in most industrializedcountrieshave remainedmore or less the same
over the last 10 years or so, such a verification
techniquecould be used here.
• Use a largenumberof observationpoints,e.g., allurbandistribution networks
within one utility. Somefurther selection might be needed to get a homoge-
neous group of systems. Applystochasticprediction techniquesto a typical
configurationand comparethe results with the average observationresultsof
all existing networks.This verification techniqueis suitablefor level III (dis-
tribution) reliability studies.
• Use acommondataset.Choosea system for whichinterruptiondataas well as
componentfailure dataare known over a numberof years. Use the observed
failure rates asinput for the stochasticprediction, thus eliminating the data
uncertainty.Any differences between observed and predictednumberof inter-
ruptionscan becontributedto model limitations.
Section 2.8 • ExampleCalculations 107
• Perform detailed analysis of the underlying events of interruptions. Assess

whetherthese events orcombinationsof events arepart of the stochasticpre-
diction model. Thistechniquemight be somewhattrivial for distribution sys-
tems, but itappearsespecially useful fortransmissionand generationsystems
where onlymultiple events lead tointerruptions.
2.8 EXAMPLE CALCULATIONS
2.8.1 A Primary Selective Supply
Consideran industrial customerwith a so-calledprimary selective supply, as

shown in Fig. 2.43.P rimary selectivesuppliesand other ways of improving the relia-
bility are discussed in detail in
C hapter7.
'A,r
At,r,
Figure2.43 Example ofreliability
calculation:primaryselectivesupply.
For this example we use the following

c omponentdata:
• A = 5 year-I, failure rate of each of the two public supplies.

• r = 0.00025 years= 2 hoursand 11minutes,averagerepair time of the public
supply.
• At = 0.02year-I, transformerfailure rate.
• r t = 0.0114 year = 100 hours,transformerrepair time.
• Ps = 30/0, transferswitch failure probability.
The frequencyof interruptionsdue to overlappingoutagesis obtainedfrom the equa-

tion for the failure rateof two parallel components(2.39):
Ap = 2rA2 = 2 x 0.00025X 52 = 0.0125interruptionsper year (2.130)
The averageduration of an interruption is the equivalentrepair time of the parallel

connectionas obtainedfrom (2.41):
r
rp = 2" = 0.000125 years= 1.1hours (2.131)
In otherwords, the secondof two overlappingoutagesstartson averagein the middle

of the first outage.From the interruption rate and theinterruption duration, we can
obtain the unavailability due to overlappingoutages:
Qp = Aprp = 1.56 x 10-6 = 0.014hoursper year (2.132)

In a primary selective supply, atransformeroutagecan also lead to aninterrup-

tion. The transformeroutagerate (0.02year-I) is of the sameorderof magnitudeas the
outagerate due to overlappingoutagesin the supply. Theduration of transformer
outagesis much longer. Theunavailability due to transformeroutagesis
Q, = A,r, = 2.28 x 10-4 = 2 hoursper year (2.133)
When very longinterruptionsare aconcern,a secondtransformershould be placed in
parallelwith the existing one and the switching
shouldbe performedon secondaryside.
This leads to the so-called
secondaryselective supply. Theinterruptionfrequency due to
overlappingtransformeroutagesis very small:
A,p = 2r tA; = 9.1 x 10-6 interruptionsper year (2.134)
Apart from overlappingsupply outagesand transformerfailures, interruptionscan be
due to a failureof both supplies at the same time and due to a failure of the transfer
switch. Failure of both supplies at the same time mainly
is due to outagesat a higher
voltage level, either medium voltage distribution or transmission,dependingon the
supply configuration.Interruption rates associatedwith this vary significantly, with a
typical range between 0.05 and 0.5 interruptionsper year. Aseparatestudy is needed
for eachsupply configuration,or alternativelyinformation needs to beobtainedfrom
the utility. The probability that the transferswitch fails was given as P.f = 3%, which
meansthat the switch willnot transferthe loadcorrectlyin 3% of the cases for which it
is supposedto do so. The frequency o f cases in which thetransferswitch issupposedto
transfer the load is equal to the outagerate of one of the supplies. Theinterruption
frequency due totransferswitch failure is thus,
Ps x As = 0.15 per year (2.135)
We seethat the transferswitch is apparentlya weak part in the supply. Toobtain a
reliable supplyit is thus essential tochoosea reliabletransferswitch. Alsomaintenance
on the transferswitch plays animportantrole.
2.8.2 Adverse Weather
Consideragainthe primary selective supply in Fig. 2.43. We considerthe factthat

the failure rate is not constantduring the year.Most overheadline outagesare due to
adverseweatherlike snow, storm, or lightning. Overheadline outagesare much more
likely during adverseweatherthan during normal weather.The failure rate as a func-
tion of time will look like in Fig. 2.44: the failure rate is low
mostof the year,but high
during a numberof short periodsof adverseweather.
The adverseweatherperiodsare not fixed but stochasticin time as well. AMonte
Carlo simulationwould be anappropriatetool, if sufficient dataandmodel detailswere
available.To enablea simplified analysis, weconsidera two-statemodel, asshownin
Fig. 2.45. The failurerate during adverseweatheris Al and during normal weatherA2'
The adverseweatheris presentduring a fraction T} of the time and normal weather
during a fraction T2• The average failure rate A is obtainedfrom
A = Al T I + A2T2 (2.136)
For both statesan interruption frequency can bedetermined,after which the annual
of these two.Supposeas anexamplethat 75% of
interruptionfrequency is the average
supplyoutagesare due to adverse weatherwhich takesplaceduring 100hoursper year.
The failure ratesduring adverseandnormalweatherare, respectively:Al = 329 per year
~ Adverseweather
Figure 2.44 Failure rate as a function of Normalweather

time-normaland adverse weather.
Adverse
weather
Averagefailure rate
Normalweather
A21---------------'
Figure 2.45Two-statemodel with normal

and adverse weather. 1 year
andx, = 1.25per year. The averagefailure rateis the sameas in thepreviousexample:

A = 5 per year. The repair time is also likely to beaffectedby the adverseweather.We
usethe following repairtimes: '1 =
2.59 hour (during adverseweather)and '2 = 1 hour
(during normal weather)leadingto the sameaveragerepair time as before (r=2 hours
11 min).
_ At T ,] + A2 T2'2
, = -t- - - - - (2.137)
A]T] +A2T2
The normal weatherinterruption rate is found by using the sameexpressionfor the
parallelconnectionas before,with the exceptionthat failure rateand repairtime during
normal weatherare used insteadof the averagevalues.
Ap2 == 2'2A~
= 0.0003566per year (2.138)
Normal weatheris presentduring a fraction T2 = ~~~~ of the year, which gives for the
expectednumberof interruptionsper year due to normal weather:
T2A p2 == 0.0003525interruptionsper year (2.139)
The adverseweatherinterruption rate is
ApI = 2,)AI = 64 per year (2.140)

This is a very high value, but normal weatheris only presentduring a fraction T I =
8170~O = 0.0114of the year. The contribution of adverseweatherto the annualinterrup-
tion frequencyis
TIApl = 0.73 interruptionsper year (2.141)
The annualinterruptionfrequencyis thereforevery much affectedby adverseweather.

Note the large differencewith the interruption frequencyfound before by assuminga
constantfailure rate (0.0125 per year). It is clear that the influenceof adverseweather
cannotbe neglectedin reliability evaluationstudieswith parallelconnections.F or series
connectionsthe interruption rate is the sum of the componentfailure rates and the
averageinterruption rate is the sum of the averagecomponentfailure rates. Only for
parallel connectionsdo we need to explicitly consideradverseweather.
2.8.3 Parallel Components
Considera systemconsistingof n identical componentsin parallel. Eachcompo-

nent has an outagerate A and an averagerepair time r. The interruption rate of the
systemcan be calculatedfrom expression(2.44), resulting in
(Ar)"
Al = n - (2.142)
r
Apart from interruptionsdue to theseoverlappingoutages,the systemcan be inter-
ruptedwhen a failure in onecomponentl eadsto the outageof all components.O necan
think of failure of the protection, tripping of equipmenton the voltage sag or on
anothertransient, or transient instability. Supposethat there is a probability ex that
the underlyingfailure of a componentoutageleadsto a systeminterruption.For an n-
componentsystemwith a componentoutagerate A, this gives an additional interrup-
tion frequencyof
A2 = an): (2.143)
The total numberof interruptionsis given by the following expression:
(Ar)n
Ato l = A) +)...2 = an): + n -r - (2.144)
For mostcomponents>..r « ] so that the secondterm reducesvery fast for increasingn,

while the first term increaseslinearly with the numberof parallelcomponents.T he first
term will rather quickly start to dominateafter which an increaseof the number of
parallel componentsonly decreasesthe reliability. Assume the following component
=
data: A 1 per year, r = 0.001 year,ex = 10/0. The resultinginterruptionratesaregiven
in Table2.12. Wenotethe somewhats urprisingresult that threecomponentsin parallel
is less reliable than two componentsin parallel.
TABLE 2.12 Influenceof Numberof ParallelComponentson Interruption

Rate
n Individual Overlapping Outages Total Interruption Frequency
1 0.0 I per year I per year 1.0I per year

2 0.02 per year 2 x 10-3 per year 0.022 per year
3 0.03 per year 3 x 10-6 per year 0.030 per year
model,the interruptionfrequencyfor n = 3 needsto

To justify a three-component
be lessthan for n = 2, thus
(Ar)3 (Ar)2
3aA+ 3 - - < 2aA+ 2 - - (2.145)
r r
resulting in the following upper bound for the probability that a componentoutage
leadsdirectly to a systemoutage
a < 2AY - 3(Ar)2 (2.146)
For the previousexamplethis givesa < 0.002. Thus,a three-componentsystemis only

justified if the protectionof the componentis very reliable,the risk of transientinstabil-
ity is low, etc.
2.8.4 Two-Component Model with Aging and Maintenance
To assess the effect

of aging and maintenanceon a parallel connection,we con-
sider two componentswith a time-dependento utagerate:
(2.147)
with t the time since lastm aintenance.F or maintenanceperformedevery 4 years,the

averageoutagerate is
-=4I[
A 0 A(t)dt = 0.16 outagesper year (2.148)
We will calculatethe interruption frequency of the parallel connectionof these two

components.We assumethat both repair time r and maintenanceduration m are on
average100 hours. For eachof the modelsto be discussedwe will calculateboth the
interruption rate due to overlappingoutages(AQo ) , and the interruption rate due to
outageduring maintenance(Aom)'
Average FailureRate-OverlappingOutages. Using the averagefailure rate for

the two components,we can calculatethe interruption rate of the parallel connection
due to overlappingoutages:
2
Aoo = X 2r = 5.84 x 10-4 interruptionsper year (2.149)
The expectednumber of interruptions due to overlapping outagesduring a 4-year
period is equal to 2.34 x 10-3 •
AverageFailure Rate-OutageDuring Maintenance. When one componentis

being maintained, an outage of the other componentwill lead to an interruption.
One of the two componentsis in scheduledoutageduring a period 2m every 4 years.
An outage during this period leads to an interruption. The expected number of
outagesduring maintenanceduring a 4-year period is thus,
4Aom = Zm):- = 3.65x 10-3 outagesper4 years (2.150)
Maintenance Every FourYears-OverlappingOutages. When the failure rate

of the componentsis time dependent,it is still possibleto determinethe interruption
rate due to overlappingoutages.The only difference with the previous case isthat
the outageratesare timedependenta nd thereforethe interruption rate as well:
Aoo( l ) = A(I)22r = 2.28 x 10- 6 16 interruptionsper year (2.151)
3
The averageinterruption frequency is 1.334 x 10- interruptions per year, and the
maximuminterruptionfrequencyGustbeforemaintenance)is 9.34 x 10- 3 interruptions
per year.The expectednumberof interruptionsdue to overlappingoutages,during a
4-yearperiod, is equal to 5.34 x 10-3 •
Maintenance Every FourYears-OutageDuring Maintenance. Normally main-

tenancewill not be performed on both componentsat the same timebecausethat
would lead to an interruption. Maintenanceis performed first on one component
and then on theother. During maintenanceon the secondcomponentthe first one is
as-good-as-new,has a failure rate close to zero,and the risk of an outagecan be
neglected.The situation is completely different for maintenanceon the first compo-
nent, becausethe other componenthas its highest failure rate. The probability that
the secondcomponentwill fail while the first one is beingmaintainedis
4A om = mA(4) = 8170~0 x 0.64 = 7.31 x 10-3 interruptionsper maintenanceinterval

(2.152)
Maintenance Every TwoYears-OverlappingOutages. Above it was assumed

that maintenanceon the two componentsis done immediately after each other. An
alternative is to spread the maintenanceover time; that is, by performing main-
tenanceevery 2 years and each time only on one component.Supposethat main-
tenance has been performed on component 1 at t = 0 and on component 2 at
t = -2. The componentfailure ratesbecome
A) (t) = 0.0113 (2.153)
A2(1) = 0.01(1+ 2)3 (2.154)
The interruption rate due to overlappingoutagesis
Aoo(/) = A)(t)A2(t)2r = 2.28 x 10-6t3(t + 2)3 interruptionsper year (2.155)
Note that this expressionis valid betweent = 0 and t = 2 after which component1 and
component2 switch roles. Theaverageinterruption rate over this 2-yearperiod is
-. = ~ 1 2
Ap(t)dt= 2.18 x 10- interruptionsper year
4
(2.156)
The expectednumber of interruptionsdue to overlappingoutages,during a 4-year

period, is equal to 0.87 x 10-3.
Maintenance Every TwoYears-OutageDuring Maintenance. Failure during

maintenancecan happenfor eachof the two components.W hen maintenanceis per-
formed on one component,the other componenthas an"age" of 2 years; thus, its
failure rate is 0.08 per year.The expectednumberof outagesof the parallel compo-
nent during maintenanceon the other componentis equal to
mA(2) = 8170600 x 0.08 = 0.913 x 10-3 interruptionsper maintenance (2.157)

Such asituation occurs twiceduring a 4-year period, sothat the expectednumberof

interruptionsdue to outageduring maintenance,over a 4-yearperiod, is 1.83 x 10-3.
Overview. The results of thevarious models aresummarizedin Table 2.13.

We seethat the aging/maintenancemodel influences theinterruption frequency over
almost afactor of 10. Also notethat the numberof interruptionsdue to outages dur-
ing maintenanceis, for eachof the models, higherthan the numberof interruptions
due to overlappingoutages.Further optimization studies would be needed to assess
if the total interruption rate can bebrought down. An obvious choice is to reduce
the duration of maintenance,as the number of interruptionsdue to outagesduring
maintenanceis directly proportional to the duration of maintenance.One should
take a certain care with that, as thequality of the maintenancemight also become
less. In the abovecalculationsit has been assumed t hat the outagerate is brought
back to zero aftermaintenance,and that the outagerate of the parallelc omponentis
not increasedduring the maintenance.
Without any optimizationstudy, it is obvious, however, that maintenanceshould
be scheduled as much as possible during periodswith low interruptioncosts.
TABLE2.13 Influenceof Aging and MaintenanceModel on Interruption

Rate
MaintenanceEvery MaintenanceEvery
ConstantFailure Rate 4 Years 2 Years
Interruptionsdue to
overlappingoutages 2.34 x 10-3 per 4 years 5.34 x 10-3 per 4 years 0.85 x 10-3 per 4 years
Interruptionsdue to failure
during maintenance 3.65 x 10-3 per 4 years 7.31 x 10-3 per 4 years 1.83X 1-0-3 per 4 years
Short Interruptions
3.1 INTRODUCTION
A short interruptionhas the same causes as a long interruption: fault clearing by the
protection,incorrectprotectionintervention,etc. When thesupplyis restoredautoma-
tically, the resulting event is called short
a interruption. Long interruptionsand very
long interruptionsresult when the supply is restoredmanually.Automatic restoration
can take place by reclosing the circuit breakerwhich cleared the fault or by switching to
a healthy supply. The former takes place mainlyoverhead in distributionnetworks,the
latter is a typical solution in industrial systems.
Shortinterruptionsin the public supply are due to a ttemptsby the utility to limit
the duration of interruptions.We sawalreadyin Section 2.3that the duration of an
interruptionis an importantaspectof distribution and transmissionsystem design.By
using automaticreclosing theduration of an interruption can bebrought back from
typically about 1 hour, to typically lessthan 1 minute. For many yearsinterruptions
shorterthan severalminuteswerenot consideredas a causeof concernto most custo-
mers. Recently this has changed: more and more equipmentis sensitive to veryshort
duration events, and more and more customers(domestic as well asindustrial) view
short interruptionsas a seriousimperfectionof the supply. This ispart of the trends
mentionedin Section 1.1 for the increased interestin power quality in general.Short
interruptionsalso occur inindustrial power systems due to the operationof automatic
transferswitches. We discuss this in Chapter7.
3.2 TERMINOLOGY
There is some seriousconfusionaboutterminologyon interruptionsof different dura-

tion. Terms likeshort interruptions,momentaryinterruptions, temporary interrup-
tions, instantaneousinterruptions, and transient outagesare all used with more or
less the same meaning. The definition of short interruptionsused for thischapteris
not based onduration but on themethodof restoringthe supply. Thischapter(short
115
116 Chapter3 • Short Interruptions
interruptions)discussesautomatic restoration,where Chapter2 (long interruptions)

discussesmanualrestoration.
Below, an overview is givenof the various terms and definitions used in the
EuropeanstandardEN 50160and in three IEEE standards.The definitions used in
EN 50160 areidentical to the IEC definitions.
• EN 50160
- Long interruption: longer than three minutes.
- Short interruption: up to threeminutes.
• IEEE Std.1159-1995
This standardis consideredby many as providing the basic power quality
definitions. It distinguishesbetween momentary, sustained,and temporary
interruptions. Note.the overlap between sustainedand temporary interrup-
tions.
- Momentaryinterruption: between0.5 cyclesand 3 seconds.
- Sustainedinterruption: longer than 3 seconds.
- Temporaryinterruption: between3 secondsand I minute.
• IEEE Std.1250-1995
This standardwas publishedat about the same time asIEEE Std.1159-1995,
but it usessomewhatdifferent definitions. The differenceis especiallystriking
for interruptions.
- Instantaneousinterruption: between0.5 and 30 cycles(half a second).
- Momentaryinterruption: between30 cyclesand 2 seconds.
- Temporaryinterruption: between2 secondsto 2 minutes.
- Sustainedinterruption: longer than 2 minutes.
• IEEE Std.859-1987
This somewhatolder standarddocumentgives definitions for terms relatedto
power system reliability. A distinction is made between different types of
outagesbased on theduration of the outage. This standarddoes not give
specific timerangesbut uses therestorationmethodto distinguishthe different
types. Although outages and interruptions are different phenomena(see
Section2.1.3) they arerelatedclosely enoughto comparethe terminology.
- Transientoutagesare restoredautomatically.
- Temporaryoutagesare restoredby manualswitching.
- Permanentoutagesare restoredthrough repair or replacement.
3.3 ORIGIN OF SHORT INTERRUPTIONS
3.3.1 Basic Principle
Figure 3.1 shows anexampleof an overheaddistribution network. Each feeder

consistsof a main feederand a numberof lateral conductors.Most faults onoverhead
lines aretransient:they requireoperationof the protection,but do not causepermanent
damageto the system. Atypical causeof a transientfault is a lightning stroke to an
Section 3.3 • Originof Short Interruptions 117
overheadline. The lightning stroke injects a very highcurrentinto the line causinga
very fast rising voltage. The lightning current varies between 2and 200 kA in peak
value. Thetypical lightning currenthas apeakvalue of [peak = 20 kA which isreached
within IlJ,s after its initiation. If the wave impedanceZ",ave of the line is 2000, the
voltage cantheoreticallyreach a valueof
Vpeak = -2-Ipeak
Z"'ave = 1000 x 20 kA = 2 MV (3.1)
The voltagewill never reach such a value in reality (with the possibleexceptionof
transmissionsystems withoperatingvoltagesof 400 kV or higher), because flashovera
to groundor betweentwo phaseswill resultlong before thevoltagereachessuch a high
value. The result is anarcing fault betweenone phaseand ground or between two or
morephaseswith or without ground.Soonafter the protectionremoves thefaultedline
from the system, the arc disappears.A utomatic reclosingwill restorethe supplywithout
any permanentd amageto the system.
Also, smallerobjectscausinga temporarypath to groundwill only cause atran-
sient shortcircuit. The object(e.g., a smallb ranchfallen from a tree) willeitherdrop to
the ground or evaporatedue to the highcurrentduring the fault, leaving only an arc
which disappearsagainsoonafter the protectionintervenes.The durationof an inter-
ruption due to a transient fault can thus be enormouslyreduced by automatically
restoringthe supply after an interruption. In caseof a fault somewhereon the feeder,
the circuit breakeropensinstantaneouslyand closesagainafter a "reclosinginterval"
or "dead time" ranging from lessthan one second up to several minutes.There is of
coursea risk that the fault wasnot a transientone but permanent.In that case the
protectionwill againnotice a largeovercurrentafter reclosureleadingto a secondtrip
signal.Often the reclosergives the fault a second chanceat extinguishing,by meansof a
longer tripping time and/ora longer reclosinginterval.
3.3.2 Fus.Saving
A practiceassociatedwith reclosing and short interruptionsis "fuse saving." In

Fig. 3.1 thelateralsaway from themain feeder areprotectedby meansof expulsion
fuses. These are slow fuses which will
not trigger when atransientfault is clearedby the
main breaker/recloser.Thus, a transientfault will be clearedby the recloserand the
supply will be automaticallyrestored.
A permanentfault can also beclearedby the main breaker,but thatwould lead to
a long interruptionfor all customersfed from this feeder.Instead,a permanentfault is
/Lateral
Recloser
J
Distribution
substation
Figure 3.1 Overheaddistribution network

with fusesand reclosers. 2
tt8 Chapter3 • Short Interruptions
cleared by anexpulsionfuse. To achieve this, the recloser has two settings:instan-

an
taneoustrip and a delayed trip. Theprotectioncoordinationshould be suchthat the
instantaneoustrip is faster than the expulsionfuse and the delayed trip slower, for all
possible faultcurrents.
From the abovedescriptionwe canconcludethat the following trade-offhas been
made: ashort interruption for all customers(fed from this feeder)insteadof a long
interruption for some customers.The alternativewould be more longinterruptions;
however, not everyshort interruptionwould become a longinterruption.
3.3.3 Voltage Magnitude Events due to Reclosing
The combination of reclosing and fuse saving, as decribed above, leads to

different voltage magnitude events for different customers. Figure 3.2 shows the
events due to one reclosing action as experienced by caustomeron the faulted feeder
(indicatedby "1" in Fig. 3.1) and by acustomeron anotherfeeder fed from the same
substationbus (indicated by "2"). In Fig. 3.2, A is thefault-clearingtime and B the
reclosing interval. The customeron the faulted feeder (solid line) willexperiencea
decreasein voltage during the fault, similar in causeand magnitudeto a voltagesag.
The difference between the two customersis in the effectof the fault clearing.For the
customeron the nonfaulted feeder, the voltage recovers to its pre-eventvalue. The
customerwill only experience a voltage sag. For the customeron the faulted feeder,
the voltage drops to zero.
The customeron a neighboringfeeder(dashedline) will see avoltagesag with a
durationequal to the fault-clearingtime. The momentthe recloseropens,the voltage
recovers. If the fault is stillpresentat the first reclosure, the
c ustomeron thenonfaulted
feeder will experience a second voltage sag. Customerson thefaulted feeder will experi-
ence a secondshort interruption or a long interruption.
Figure 3.3 [11] shows anactual recordingof a short interruption.The top figure
correspondsto the dashedline in Fig. 3.2 (customeron a nonfaulted feeder). The
bottom figure is for a customeron the faulted feeder (solid line in Fig. 3.2). The
fault-clearing time is about two cycles, the dead timea bout two seconds. The first
reclosureis not successful, the second one is. The top figure shows avoltage sag to
about75% of two-cycleduration,the bottomfigure avoltagereductionto 50% for two
cycles followed by zero voltage for abouttwo seconds.
f---- 1
Voltage sag
r •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
1
~
-
Short
interruption Figure 3.2 RMS voltageduring a recJosure
sequence on the faulted feeder (solid line) and
+----..~
A
-------.
B
Time on thenonfaultedfeeder(dashedline). A =
fault-clearingtime; 8 = reclosing interval.
Section 3.3 • Originof Short Interruptions 119
1472 April 29, 1994at 22:14:20PQNodelocaltrigger

PhaseB voltage
RMSvariation
120~ E I
i :ft!
Duration
~[C
0.050 s
Min 65.80
I
Ave 90.10
Max 100.5
60 0- -0.05-0-'-.1--0......
L
' - 15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Time(seconds)
150
lIOO
'~ 50
f 0
~ -50 ~
-1000 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Time(milliseconds)
(a) Uplinemonitoringlocation
2592 April 29, 1994at 22:14:20PQNodelocaltrigger

PhaseB voltage
RMSvariation
~100
o I
J
Jil_.. . ._..,.. . .~ :
120[ lJ
234 5 6
Duration
4.983 s
Min 2.257
Ave 8.712
Max 100.2
Time(seconds)
J_;; I
00 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200

Figure 3.3 Recorded rms voltage during a
Time(milliseconds)
short interruption. (Reproduced from Dugan
(b) Downlinemonitoringlocation
et al. [II].)
When comparingFig. 3.2 and Fig. 3.3, note t hat the horizontalaxis of Fig. 3.2 is
not to scale, B is much largerthan A. This is the typicalsituation. The fault-clearing
time (A) is only a few cycles, whereas the reclosing time (B) can be up to several
minutes.
Anotherexample of theinitiation of a shortinterruptionis shown in Fig. 3.4 [3].
We seethat the voltagemagnitudeinitially drops to about 25% of nominal and to
almost zero after three cycles. The spikes in the voltage are due to the arc becoming
instablearoundthe currentzero-crossing.Apparentlythe arc gets more stable after two
cycles.
3.3.4 Voltage During the Interruption
The momentthe circuit breakerin Fig. 3.1 opens, the feeder and the load fed from
it are no longer supplied. The effect of this normally
is that the voltagedrops to zero
very fast. There are, however,
situationsin which the voltagedrops to zero relatively
slow, or even remains at nonzerovalue.
a Thelatter would strictly speakingnot be an
150
100
,-... 50
e 0
~
l!
~ -50
-100
-150
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Time inmilliseconds
Figure 3.4 Recorded voltage during the initiation of a short interruption.

(Reproduced from IEEE Std.I I 59 [3].)
interruption,but the origin is similar tothat of an interruptionso that a shortdescrip-

tion of the phenomenonis appropriatehere.
• Inductionmotor load is able tomaintainsome voltage in the system forshort a

time. This contribution is typically rather small because themotors have
already been feeding into ashort circuit for a few cycles; thus,p art of the
rotor field of the inductionmotorswill begone already.M ost inductionmotors
will thus only give a small voltagecontributionand only for a few cycles.
• Synchronousmotorsmaintain their field even when the supply voltage disap-
pears. They will be able tom aintainsome system voltage until their load has
come to astandstill, which can take several seconds. If there is a significant
amountof synchronousmotor load present,its fault contributioncould make
fault extinguishingdifficult. Typically synchronousmotors will be tripped by
their undervoltageprotectionafter about 1 second, after which they no longer
contributeto the feeder voltage.
• Synchronousand inductiongeneratorsconnectedto the feeder (e.g., wind tur-
bines orcombined-heat-and-power installations)arecapableof maintainingthe
feeder voltage at n aonzerovalue evenduringa longinterruption.This could be
a potential problem when largeamountsof generationare connectedto the
feeder. This so-calledembedded generation is often not equippedwith any
voltage or frequencycontrol (relying on the grid tomaintainvoltageand cur-
rent within limits) sothat an islandingsituationcan occurin which voltage and
frequency deviate significantly from their nominal values. Especially overvol-
tage andoverfrequencycan lead to serious damage. preventsuch
To asituation,
most embeddedgenerationis equippedwith a loss-of-gridprotectionthat dis-
connectsthe generatorwhen anunusualvoltage or frequency is detected.
All this assumesthat the short-circuitfault is no longerpresenton the feeder. As

long as the fault ispresent,all above-mentionedmachinesfeedinto the fault sothat the
feeder voltage remains low. The fault-current contribution makes that the arc is less
likely to extinguish, but after extinguishing of the arc there will be a chance of a
remaining voltage on the feeder.
For interruptionsdue toincorrectprotectioninterventionthere is noshort-circuit
fault presenton the feeder and themachinesconnectedto the feeder may cause a
Section 3.4 • Monitoring of Short Interruptions 121
temporaryor permanentnonzerovoltage. Also thecontribution of induction motors

will be larger.
3.4 MONITORING OF SHORT INTERRUPTIONS
As shortinterruptionsare due toautomaticswitching actions, their recording requires

automaticmonitoring equipment.Unlike long interruptions,a short interruptioncan
occur without anybodynoticing it. That is one of the reasons why utilities do not yet
collect and publishdataon shortinterruptionson a routine basis. One of the problems
in collecting thisdata on a routine basis isthat some kind ofmonitoring equipment
needs to be installed on all feeders.numberof
A surveys have beenperformedto obtain
statisticalinformation aboutvoltagemagnitudevariationsand events. With those sur-
veys,monitors were installed at anumberof nodes spreadthrough the system. The
surveys will be discussed in more detail Chapter6.
in As with long interruptions,
interruption frequency andduration of interruption are normally presented as the
outcome of the survey. Again like with long interruptionsmuch moredata analysis
is possible, e.g.,interruptionfrequency versus time of day or time of year,
distributions
for the time between events, variation amongcustomers.
3.4.1 Example of Survey Results
Figures 3.5, 3.6, and 3.7 show some results of analysis ofdataobtainedby
the a
large North American survey [68]. Figure 3.5 gives theinterruption frequency as a
function of theinterruptionduration. Each vertical bar gives the average
numberof
interruptionsper year, with aduration in the given interval. The average
numberof
interruptionshas beenobtainedas follows:
3.5
j
>. 3
!
~ 2.5
5
~ 2
tt=
8
',= 1.5
~
-- .
B I
~
•
-
0.5
o O-Ie - -
2-3c 4-5c 6-IOc 20e-0.5s 1-2s 5-108
II
30-60s 120s-
Durationof interruption
Figure 3.5 Interruption frequency (number of interruptions per year) as a function
of interruption duration. (After data obtained from Dorr
[68].)
(3.2)
where Nfl') is the numberof events in ranger observedby monitor i during a monitoring
interval T;, and FIr)
the resulting averageas plotted in Fig. 3.5. We see from Fig. 3.5
that the typical eventhas aduration between 1and 30 seconds.Eventsshorterthan six
cycles (100 ms) are very unlikely. These "very short interruptions"are most likely due
to short-circuit faults close to themonitor position. One should realize that in this
survey anevent is recordedas an interruption if the rms voltage somewhereduring
the eventdrops below 100~ of nominal. Note also that the horizontal scale is non-
homogeneous.F rom the data shown in Fig. 3.5 one cancalculate the probability
densityfunction of the interruption duration by dividing each value by the sum of all
values:
N(r)
f(r) = I:Fl k ) (3.3)
(k)
The probability distribution function of the interruptiondurationcan beobtained

by addingthe valuesof the density function up to acertainduration.
F(t) = I:!(r) (3.4)

(")<1
The resultingprobability distribution function is presentedin Fig. 3.6. This curve gives
the fraction of interruptionswith a durationnot exceeding theindicatedvalue. We see
that 10% of interruptionslasts lessthan 20 cycles,and 80% of interruptionslessthan 2
minutes(thus 20% morethan2 minutes).From an equipmentpoint of view the reverse
dataare of more interest,the fraction of interruptions(or the absolutenumber)lasting
longer than a given duration. This will give information about the numberof times a
device will trip or (for a givenmaximum trip frequency)about the immunity require-
mentsof the device.Figure3.7 plots the numberof interruptionsper yearlastinglonger
than the indicatedvalue. Apart from a small shift (due to thediscretizationof the data)
1.2,..------------------..-,
s=
o
.~
.&J 0.8
'Een
:.a
~0.6
:.0
.se 0.4
c..
0.2
O................
-==~:::...J----'-___L.---L---Jl.._._.L...._.J..._...L._....L_..J......_.J
Figure 3.6 Probability distribution function
Ic 3e 5e JOe 0.5s 2s lOs 60s info of interruption duration. (From the data in
Duration Fig. 3.5.)
Section 3.4 • Monitoring of Short Interruptions 123
18,..--------------------,
16
r------ __
~ 14
g.~ 12
~ 10
5
.~ 8
j 6
4
2
OL--..a...-....&..-_'___....I----£--L..---L.-L----.I~J..__..&.___'___~_.I_.-L..___I
Figure 3.7 Number of interruptions lasting
longer than the indicated value. (From the
Oc 2c 4c 6c 20c Is 5s 30s 120s
data in Fig. 3.5.) Durationof interruption
and amultiplication factor equal to thetotal numberof interruptions,the curve is the

complementof the curve in Fig. 3.6. We can conclude from the figure that equipment
which trips for aninterruption of 20 cycles will trip on average 14 times per year. To
limit the equipmenttrip frequency to four per year, the equipmentshould be able to
tolerateinterruptionsup to 30 seconds induration.
3.4.2 Difference between Medium- and Low-Yoltage Systems
The numberof short interruptionshas beenobtainedby various power quality

surveys.Comparisonof the numbersobtainedby each survey gives information about
the average voltagequality in the variousareas. Acomparisonbetween thenumberof
short interruptionscountedat various places in the system can teach us how the inter-
ruptions "propagate"in the system. Such caomparisonis madein Table 3.1 for two
large North American surveys: theEPRI survey and theNPL survey [54]. TheEPRI
surveymonitoredboth distribution substationsand distribution feeders.
From Table 3.1 we seethat the overall trend is for thenumberof shortinterrup-
tions to increase when moving from the source to the load. This understandable
is as
there are more possibletripping points the further one movestowards the load.
Especially interruptions lasting several seconds and longer mainly originate in the
low-voltage system.F or interruptionslessthan one second induration,the frequency
remainsaboutthe same, which makes us concludethat they probablyoriginatein the
distributionsubstationor even higher up in the system. The large
numberof very short
TABLE 3.1 Interruption Frequency (number of events per year) for Three
Points in the U.S. Distribution System
Duration
Survey 1-6c 6-IOc lo-20c 20-30c 0.5-1 sec 1-2 sec 2-10 sec> 10 sec
EPRI substation 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.8 0.5 0.9 1.1 1.3
EPRI feeder 1.6 0.1 0.2 0.6 0.5 1.1 2.3 1.7
NPL low voltage 0.2 0.3 0.7 0.8 1.2 1.5 3.3 4.2
Source: After data obtained from[54].

TABLE 3.2 Interruption Frequency(per year) forPrimary and Secondary

Systems inCanada
Duration
Survey 1-6c 6--IOc 10-20c 2Q-30c 0.5-1 sec 1-2 sec 2-10 sec > 10 sec
CEA primary side 1.9 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.7
CEA secondaryside 3.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.5 0.5 2.1
Source: After data obtainedfrom [69].
TABLE 3.3 Interruption Frequency(per year) forDistribution and

Low-voltageSystems inNorway
Duration
Survey 0.01-0.1 sec 0.1-0.5sec 0.5-1.0sec 1-3 sec 3-20 sec > 20 sec
EFI distribution 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 5.2

EFI low-voltage 1.1 0.7 0.0 0.7 0.9 5.9
Source: After data obtainedfrom [67].
interruptions(lessthan six cycles) ondistribution feeders ishard to explain, especially

as they donot show up in the low-voltagedata.
Similar conclusionscan bedrawn from the CEA survey [69] and from the E FI
survey [67], some results of which are shown in Tables 3.2 and 3.3. againsee
We a larger
number of interruptions,mainly of 1 second and longer, forlow-voltage than for
medium-voltagesystems. Both theCanadian(CEA) and theNorwegian (EFI) data
show a considerablenumber of very short interruptions,for which no explanation
has been found yet.
3.4.3 Multiple Events
A direct consequenceo f reclosingactionsis that a customermay experience two

or more events within as hortinterval. When theshort-circuitfault is still presentupon
the first reclosure, thecustomersfed from the faulted feeder will experience a second
event. This isanother short interruption if a second attempt at reclosing is made.
Otherwisethe second event will be a long interruption. A customerfed from a non-
faulted feeder experiences two voltagesags in ashort period of time.
For a few years a discussion has been goingaboutwhetherto
on countthis as one
event or as multiple events [20]. The most recentpublications of North American
surveysconsidera l-minute or 5-minute window. If two or more events take place
within such a window, they are c ountedas one event. The severity of the multiple event
(i.e., magnitudeand duration)is the severity of the most severe single event within the
window. Some examples of the working of a "five-minute filter" are shown in Fig. 3.8.
Using such a"filter" is suitablefor assessment of the numberof equipmenttrips,
as theequipmentwill trip on the most severe event or not at all. The cumulativeeffect
of the events is neglected, but the generalimpressionis that this effect is small.T his has
however not been confirmed hy measurements yet. In some cases it could still be needed
to know thetotal event frequency, thus countingall events even if they come very close.
Two possibleapplicationsare: (I) componentswhich show acceleratedaging due to
shortundervoltageevents; and (2)equipmentwhich only tripsduring a certainfraction
Section 3.5 • Influence onEquipment 125
Time
i
~
Q
Time Time
Go)
C)O
~
~
Figure3.8 Effect of a"five-minute filter" on
the voltage magnitude events. The figures on
Q
the left show the recorded rmsvoltages;the
figures on the right show the equivalent event
after thefilter. Time Time
TABLE3.4 Number of Singleand Multiple Interruptions per Year, NPL

Low-Voltage Survey
Duration
Survey 1-6c 6-IOc 1(}-20c 2(}-30c 0.5-1 sec 1-2 sec 2-10 sec > 10 sec
No filter 0.3 0.3 0.8 0.9 1.4 1.9 4.2 5.7

5-min filter 0.2 0.3 0.7 0.8 1.2 1.5 3.3 4.2
Percent reduction 33°A. 12% 11% 14% 21% 21% 26%
Source: After data obtained from[54].
of its load cycle. In thelattercase theequipmenthas aprobability to trip duringeachof

the three events, and the total probability is of course largerthanthe probability to trip
during the most severe event only.
The NPL low-voltage datafor short interruptionshave beenpresentedwith and
without the above-mentionedfilter in Table 3.4[54]. The three rows give, from top to
bottom: the numberof shortinterruptionswhen each event is countedas one event no
matter how close it is toanotherevent; thenumberof events when multiple events
within a 5-minute interval arecountedas one event; the reductionin numberof events
due to theapplicationof this filter.
3.5 INFLUENCE ON EQUIPMENT
During a shortinterruptionthe voltage is zero; thus, there is no supply of power at all

to the equipment.The temporaryconsequences are that there is no light,that motors
126 Chapter 3 • Short Interruptions
slow down, that screensturn blank, etc. All this only lasts for a few seconds, but the
consequences can last much longer:disruptionof productionprocesses, lossof contents
of computermemory,evacuationof buildings due to fire alarms going off, and some-
times damagewhen the voltage comes back (uncontrolledstarting).
For most sensitiveequipment,there is no strictborderbetween a voltage sag and
an interruption:an interruptioncan be seen as a severe sag, i.e. one with remaining
zero
voltage. The effecto f voltage sags onequipmentis discussed in detail inChapter5.
Many of the conclusionsin thatchapteralso hold forshortinterruptions.In this section
only some general aspects of the load behaviorare pointedout.
3.5.1 Induction Motors
The effectof a zero voltage on aninduction motor is simple: themotor slows

down. Themechanicaltime constantof an inductionmotor plus its load is in the range
of 1 to 10 seconds. With dead times of several seconds,motor the has not yet come to a
standstillbut is likely to have slowed down significantly. Thisreductionin speedof the
motorsmight disrupt the industrial process so muchthat the processcontrol trips it.
The motor can re-acceleratewhen the voltage comes back, if the system strong
is
enough.For public distribution systemsre-accelerationis seldom aproblem.
Also the settingof the undervoltageprotectionshouldbe suchthat it does not trip
before the voltage comes back. This calls forcoordinationbetween
a theundervoltage
setting of themotor protectionand the reclosureinterval setting on the utility feeder.
Induction motors fed via contactorsare disconnectedautomaticallyas the con-
tactordropsout. Without countermeasures this would always lead to loss
of the load.
In someindustrial processes the induction motorsare automaticallyreconnectedwhen
the voltage comes back: either instantaneouslyor staged (the mostimportant motors
first, the rest later).
3.5.2 Synchronous Motors
Synchronousmotors can normally not restarton full load. They aretherefore

equippedwith undervoltageprotectionto preventstallingwhen the voltage comes back.
For synchronousmotors the delay timeof the undervoltageprotectionshould be less
than the reclosing interval. Especially for very fast reclosure this can problem.We
be a
see here asituationwhere aninterruptioncauses a more serious threatto the synchro-
nousmotorsthe faster the voltage comes back. With most otherload thesituationis the
other way around: the shorterthe interruption,the less severe it is to the load.
3.5.3 Adjustable-Speed Drives
Adjustable-speeddrives are very sensitive tos hort interruptions,and to voltage

sags as we will see in
C hapter5. They normally trip well within I second, sometimes
even within one cycle; thus even the
shortestinterruptionwill cause a lossof the load.
Some of the moremoderndrives are able toautomaticallyreconnectthe momentthe
voltage comes back. But being disconnectedfrom the supply for several seconds will
often havedisruptedthe processbehindthe drive so muchthat reconnectiondoes not
make much sense anymore.
Section 3.6 • Single-Phase
Tripping 127
3.5.4 Electronic Equipment
Without countermeasures electronics devices will trip wellwithin the reclosing

interval. This leads to theinfamous"blinking-clock syndrome":clocks of video recor-
ders, microwave ovens, and electronicalarmsstart blinking when the supply is inter-
rupted; and they keep on blinking until manuallyreset. An easysolution is to install a
small rechargeablebattery inside of the equipment,to power the internal memory
during the interruption.
Computersand processcontrol equipmenthave basically the same problem. But
they require more than a simplebattery. An uninterruptiblepower supply (UPS) is a
much-usedsolution.
3.8 SINGLE-PHASE TRIPPING
Single-phasetripping is used intransmissionsystems tomaintainsynchronicitybetween

both sidesof a line. Single-phasetripping is rarely used indistribution or low-voltage
systems.Not only will it requiremore expensiveequipment,but it will also reduce the
chanceof a successful reclosure. The faultcurrentcontinuesto flow via the nonfaulted
phases. This reduces the chancethat the fault will extinguishand thus increases the
numberof reclosureattemptsand thenumberof long interruptions.But if the reclosure
is successful,single-phasetripping has clearadvantagesover three-phasetripping and
thereforejustifies being discussed here. We will have a look at the voltages experienced
by the customerduring single-phasetripping. A distinction is made between two dis-
tinctly different situations,both assuminga single-phase-to-ground fault followed by
tripping of the faulted phase.
• The low-impedancepath between the faulted phase and ground (the fault) is
still presentso that the voltage in the faulted phase remains zero or close to
zero. We will call this the"during-fault period."
• The fault hasextinguished,the short circuit has now become an o pencircuit
because thebreakerin that phase is still open. This we will call the
" post-fault
period."
3.8.1 Voltage-During-Pault Period
The phase-to-neutralvoltages in theduring-fault period are, with a the faulted

phase:
Va =0
Vb = (-~-~jJ3)E (3.5)
V(' = (-~+~jJ3)E
with E the magnitudeof the pre-eventvoltage. It has been assumed here that the pre-
event voltages form a balancedthree-phaseset,andthat the voltage in thefaulted phase
is exactly equal to zero. We will in most of the remainderof this book use per unit
voltages, with thepre-eventvoltagemagnitudeas base. Inthat case we getE = 1 and
(3.5) becomes
VlI=O
Vb =- ~ - ~jvS (3.6)
V =
c
_!+!J·vS
2 2
Figure 3.9 shows thephase-to-neutralvoltages as aphasordiagram.In this and sub-

sequentphasordiagramsthe during-eventvoltage isindicatedvia solid lines, the pre-
event voltage (i.e., thebalancedthree-phasevoltage) viadottedlines, if different from
the during-eventvoltage. If single-phasetripping would take place in alow-voltage
network, the voltages in Fig. 3.9 would be the voltages experienced bycustomers.
the
Only one outof three customerswould experience aninterruption. The otherswould
not noticeanything. Single-phasetripping would thus reduce then umberof interrup-
tion eventsby a factor of three.
Va
........................•
Figure 3.9 Phase-to-neutralvoltages for

single-phase tripping.
For tripping taking place onmedium-voltagefeeders, thephase-to-phase voltages

are of more importance.Large equipmentfed at medium-voltagelevel is in most cases
connectedin delta; small single-phase
equipmenttends to beconnectedbetween a phase
and neutral but at a lower voltage level fed via delta-starconnectedtransformer.In
a
both cases theequipmentexperiences the pu value of the phase-to-phasevoltage at the
medium-voltagelevel.
The phase-to-phasevoltages in pu areobtained from the phase-to-neutral
voltages as follows:
(3.7)
The factor .J3 is needed because 1 puof the line(phase-to-phase)voltage is.J3 times as
big as I pu of the phase(phase-to-neutral)voltage. Themultiplication withj results in a
rotationover 90° suchthat the axisof symmetryof the disturbanceremainsalongphase
a and along the real axis. The transformationin (3.7) will be the basisof a detailed
analysisof unbalancedvoltage sags in theforthcomingchapters.When we leave away
the prime " weobtain the following expressions for the voltages due to single-phase
tripping at the terminalsof delta-connectedequipment:
Section 3.6 • Single-PhaseTripping 129
~
\ .•..
~~:
A
Vb /
/ .../.
Figure 3.10Phase-to-phase
voltages for
single-phase tripping. ,l
Va = 1
Vb = _!_!jJ3 (3.8)
2 6
Vc = -~+~jJ3
Figure 3.10 again shows the voltages at the equipment terminals in phasor-
diagramform. Using the definitions given in the variousstandardsthis shouldnot be
called ashort interruption but a voltage sag. It would again bring up the discussion
betweenconsequence-based terminologyand cause-based terminology.In the first case
this event would have to be called a voltage sag, in latter
the case it would be ashort
interruption. But no matterwhich name is given to the event, it is clearly less severe
than the effect ofthree-phasetripping, when all three phase voltages go down to zero.
An exception to this might have to be made for inductionmotors.The voltagesduring
single-phasetripping contain a large negative sequence voltage component(0.33 pu)
which may lead tooverheatingof induction motors. With a negative sequence impe-
dance 5through 10 times as small as the positive sequence impedance,the negative
sequencecurrent would become 170through 330% of the rated (positive sequence)
current.It is unlikely that inductionmotor load is able towithstandsuch anunbalance
for longer than several seconds.
Low-voltage customersalso experience the voltages in Fig. 3.10. None of the
customersexperiences a zero voltage, but two-thirds of the customersexperience an
event with aduring-eventvoltage of 580/0 magnitudewith a change in voltage phase-
angle of 30°.
3.8.2 Voltage-Poet-Pault
Period
When the fault extinguishes, the situation in the faulted phase changes from a
short circuit to an open circuit. In many cases a change in voltage occurs, thus the
resulting voltage is no longer equal to zero. The voltage in the faulted
phasedependson
the typeof load connected. Tocalculatethis voltage we need to considerthe coupling
between the phases or use the theory of symmetricalcomponents.The latter, which is
normally used for the analysis of nonsymmetricalfaults, isdescribedin detail in many
reference books. A good and detailed descriptionof the useof symmetricalcomponents
for the analysis ofnonsymmetricalfaults is, e.g., given in reference [24], and is not
repeatedhere.
To analyze an open circuit, the system has to be modeled as seen from the open-
circuit point. This results in three
equivalentcircuits: for the positive sequence, for the
s, ~V:J
c~V2:J
[91V0:J Figure 3.11 Sequencenetworksfor the

analysisof single-phaseopen-circuitfaults:
positive sequence(top), negativesequence
(center),and zerosequence(bottom).
negativesequence,a nd for the zero sequence.T hesethree networksare shown in Fig.

3.11: ZSb ZS2' and Zso are positive, negative, and zero-sequenceimpedanceof the
source; ZL), 2 L2 , and ZLO are positive, negative,and zero-sequenceimpedanceof the
load; 6 V1 , 6 V2 , and 6. Vo are positive, negative,and zero-sequence v oltagedrop' at the
open-circuitpoint; and E 1 is the positive-sequence s ourcevoltage. Negativeand zero-
sequencesourcevoltagesare assumedzero, and the load is assumednot to containany
sources.Below we again assumeE) = 1.
Sequencevoltagesand currentsat the open-circuit point can be calculatedfor
different types of open-circuit faults, by connectingthe three sequencenetworks in
different ways. For a single-phaseopen circuit, the voltagedifferencein the two non-
faulted phasesis zero and the current in the faulted phaseis zero:
6. Vb =0
6. Vi' = 0 (3.9)
III =0
where a is the faulted (open-circuited)phase.Transformingtheseequationsto symme-

trical componentsgives thefollowing set of equations:
II + 12 + /0 = 0
6. VI = 6.V2 (3.10)
6. VI = 6. Vo
Theseexpressionscorrespondto a connectionof the sequencenetworks,as shown in

Fig. 3.12. From Fig. 3.12 thepositive-sequence
v oltagedrop at the open-circuitpoint
can bewritten as
1
6. VI = 6.V 2 = 6.Vo = 1 + 2 Ll +ZS) + Z LI +2
SI
(3.11)
ZLO + Zso ZL2 + ZS2

and the voltagedrop in the faulted phaseis
Section 3.6 • Single-PhaseTripping 131
Figure 3.12 Connectionof the sequence

networksin Fig. 3.11 for asingle-phaseopen
circuit.
3
~ Va = ~ VI + ~ V2 + ~ Vo = 1 + Z Ll + ZSI + ZLl + ZSJ (3.12)
ZLO + ZSO ZL2 + ZS2

Normally the load impedance dominates over the source impedance (ZLi»
ZSi' i = 0, 1, 2) sothat we can write with goodapproximation:
3
~Va = Z Z (3.13)
1+~+~
ZLO ZL2
The voltage at the load side

of the open phase is
V -1- 3 (3.14)
a-I 2 Ll ZLI
+-+-
ZLO ZL2
which can bewritten as an expressionusing admittancesby introducing YLI = -Zl,

LI
YL2 = -Zl,
L2
and YLO = -zl,
LO
resultingin
Va = I - 1 hI (3.15)
3(YL 1 + YL2 + YLO)
From (3.15) the voltage experienced by the load during the interruptioncan be found
for different types of load. As can be seen it is the ratio between the sequence impe-
dancesof the load whichdeterminesthe voltage. The source impedancedoes have a
small influence as the load c urrent will give a voltage drop between the load and the
open-circuitpoint. This influence was neglected when going from (3.12) to (3.13).
3.6.2.1 Star-connected Static Load.For star-connectedstatic load, the three

sequenceimpedancesare equal: YLI = YL2 = YLO, (3.15) gives
(3.16)
In other words, this typeof load does not affect the voltage in the
openphase. Single-
phase,low-voltageload cannormally be representedin this way.
3.6.2.2 Delta-connectedStatic Load. Delta-connectedstatic load is found in

medium-voltagepublic distribution networks. The delta-starconnectedtransformer
feeding thelow-voltagecustomerscan beconsidereda delta-connectedstatic load, as
long as mainly single-phaseload is present. For this kind of load, positive and
negative sequence impedancesare equal and the zero-sequenceimpedanceis infinite
va . -- .....••••••••••·•••••
Figure 3.13Phase-to-groundvoltagesduring
single-phase reclosure with
delta-connected
load .
..
.. :
Figure 3.14Phase-to-phase voltages during

single-phase reclosure with
delta-connected
load.
because of the lack of any

r eturn path; in admittanceterms, YLI = YL2 and YLO = 0,
resulting in
1
Va = --2 (3.17)
In high-impedancegrounded or isolated-neutralsystems, the zero-sequence source

impedanceis very large or even infinite.F rom the aboveequationsit is easy to prove
-!.
thatthe resultingvoltagein the open phase is again equal to The phase voltages and
the line voltages fordelta-connectedstatic load are shown in Fig. 3.13 and Fig. 3.14,
respectively.
3.6.2.3 Motor Load. For motor load, a typical load inindustrial systems and
in some public systems, the
zero-sequenceimpedanceis again infinite, and the nega-
tive sequenceimpedanceis smaller than the positive-sequenceimpedance: YL2 > YLI
and YLO = o. The resulting expression for the open-phase voltage is, with
YL2 = YYLI
y-2
V =-- (3.18)
a y+ I
For y = 1, whichcorrespondsto staticdelta-connectedload, we againobtain Va = -!,
for y = 2 we obtain Va = O. A typical rangeof the-ratiobetween positive and negative
sequenceimpedanceis: y = 3··· 10 resulting in Va = 0.25···0.73. When theinduction
motors slow down, the negative sequence impedancestays about the same while the
positive sequenceimpedancebecomes smaller, until they are equal when motor the has
come to astandstill.From equation(3.18) we canconcludethat the open-phasevoltage
decays wheny gets smaller, thus when the motorsslow down. Theopen-phasevoltage
0AJ and 700/0 of the pre-faultvoltage,
for a system withmotor load is initially between 50
Tripping 133
decaying to -50% of pre-fault voltage (i.e., 500/0 of magnitude,but with opposite

phase).
From the above examples, we can concludethat the voltage in the open phase
varies between-0.50 and + 0.75times thepre-faultvoltage. When we use the symbol V
to indicatethis voltage, we get the followingphasorexpression for the voltages in the
three phases:
Va = V
Vb = _!_!jY'3 (3.19)
2 2
Vc = _!+!jY'3
2 2
Using the transformationas defined by (3.7), we get for the line voltages (i.e., the
voltages experienced by delta-connected
a load)
(3.20)
We seethat a delta-connectedload experiences a voltage drop in two phases, but this

voltagedrop is smallerthanthe voltagedrop in the open phase as experiencedby a star-
connectedload. Also the load is less influenced by
single-phasetripping than by three-
phasetripping.
3.6.2.4 Transfer to Lower Voltage Levels. Transfer to lower voltage levels

often takes placethrough delta-starconnectedtransformers.The first transformer
simply changes lineinto phase voltages,resulting in expression(3.20) but for the
phase voltagesinsteadof for the line voltages.
To obtain the line voltagesafter a delta-starconnectedtransformer,or the phase
voltages after two such transformers,the transformation(3.7) has to beapplied a
second time, to (3.20),
resultingin
I 2
Va =-+-V
3 3
Vb = - -1(1-+-V
2 ) --jY'3
I (3.21)
2 3 3 2
1 (1-+-V
V.=-- 2 ) +-jY'3
1.
c 2 3 3 2
The resulting voltages fordifferent types of load are summarizedin Table 3.5. The
transferof this kind of voltage events to lower voltage levels is discussedmuchmore
in
detail in Section 4.4.Therewe will denotethe voltage events in(3.19), (3.20),and (3.21)
t
as sags of type B withmagnitudeV, of type C with magnitude + ~ V, and of type D
with magnitude!+ ~ V, respectively.
TABLE 3.5 Voltages Due to Single-Phase

Tripping, for Various Types of
Load
Induction Motor Load

Star-connected Delta-connected
Load Load Initial Motor Slowed Down
Voltage in the Open Phase
Va=O Va=-0.5 Va =0.75 Va = 0.25

Voltages After theFirst Dy-transformer
Va = J Va = J Va = I Va = J
Phasors Vh = -!-!j~ v, =-! Vh = -! - f2jJ) Vh = -1- !.iv'3

Vc = -!+~jJ3 V(.= -! Vr = - ! + fijv'3 Vc = -! + iJv'3
Magnitudes 100%, 57.7%,57.7% 100%, 50%,50% 100%,87.80/0,87.80/0100%, 66.1%, 66.1%

Voltages After the Second
Dy-transformer
Va =! Va=0 Va =~ Va =!
Phasors Vh = -!-!jJ) Vh = -!jJ) Vh = -fi - !jJ3 Vb = -!-!JJ)
VC = -~+!j~ Vr =- !jJ3 Vr = -fi + !Jv'3 Vr = -! + !jv'3

Magnitudes 33.3%,88.20/0,88.2% 0, 86.6%,86.60/0 83.3%, 96.1%, 96.1
% 50%, 90.1%, 90.1%
3.8.3 Current-During-Fault Period
As we have seen in the previous section, the voltage in the faulted phase
duringthe
post-fault period is not necessarily zero. Anonzerovoltage after fault extinguishing
implies a nonzerocurrent while the fault is present. This makes fault extinguishing
more difficult.
To calculate the fault current after single-phasetripping but before the fault
extinguishes, weconsider the circuit in Fig. 3.15. Source and load impedancesare
indicatedby the same symbols as before. Voltages and currentsat the system side of
the openpoint are indicatedas Va' Vb, etc., and at the load side asV~, V;" etc.
The electricalbehavior of this system can be described through 12 equations,
three equationsdescribing the source (with again £] = 1):
l-ZSlI] = V]
-Zs212 = V2 (3.22)
-ZsoIo = Vo
three equationsdescribing the load:
r; = ZLll{
V~ = ZL2I~ (3.23)
Vo = ZLolo
Tripping 135
ZS2
Zso
Figure 3.15 Single-phase tripping with the
short circuit still present.
threevoltageequationsat the open point:
V~ =0
v; = Vb (3.24)
V; = Ve
and threecurrentequationsat the open point:
fa =0
fb =Ib (3.25)
t, = l~
If we neglect thesourceimpedances,the voltagesat the systemside of the open point
are equalto the sourcevoltages:
VI =1
V2 =0 (3.26)
Vo =0
From (3.24) relationscanbe obtainedbetweenthe componentvoltageson both sidesof
the openpoint:
I 2 I 1
VI = 3" VI -"3 V2 - "3 Vo
I 1 2 1
V2 = -"3 VI +"3 V2 - "3 Vo (3.27)
I 1 1 2
Vo = -"3 VI -"3 V2 + "3 Vo
With (3.26), thecomponentvoltagesat the load side of the open point can be found.
Togetherwith (3.23) and I~ = I~ + 11 + 12we obtain an expressionfor the fault current
after single-phasetripping:
, 2 1 1
I a =- - - - - - - - (3.28)
3ZL1 3ZL2 3ZLO
We seethat the currentdependson the load impedancesin positive, negative,and zero
sequence.As these impedancesare significantly larger than the source impedances
(typically a factor of 10 to 20) thecurrent becomesmuch smaller than the original
fault current.This certainlyhelps theextinguishingof the fault, but still the fault is most
likely to extinguishwhen thecurrentis close tozero,thuswhen: 2YLt ~ YL2 + YLO with
YL l = -Zl,
LO
etc. Not surprisingly this is also thecondition for which the voltage after
fault extinguishingis zero, accordingto (3.15).
3.7 STOCHASTIC PREDICTION OF SHORT INTERRUPTIONS
To stochasticallypredict the number of short interruptions experiencedby a

customerfed from acertain feeder, the followinginput data is required:
• Failure rate per km of feeder,different valuesmight be used for the mainand

for the lateral conductors.
• Length of the main feederand of the lateral conductors.
• Successrateof reclosure,if multiple reclosureattemptsare used: success
rateof
the first reclosure,of the secondreclosure,etc.
• Position of reclosingbreakersand fuses.
We will explainthe varioussteps in astochasticpredictionby using the systemshownin

Fig. 3.16.Note that this is ahypotheticalsystem.Stochasticpredictionstudiesin larger,
albeit still hypothetical,systems have beenperformedby Warren[139]. The following
datais assumedfor the system in Fig. 3.16:
• The failure rate of the main feeder is:0.1 faults per year per kmof feeder.
• The failure rate of the lateral conductorsis: 0.25 faults per year per kmof
feeder.
• The success rate o f the first reclosureis 75%; thus, in25% of the cases asecond
trip and reclosureare needed.
• The success rate o f the secondattemptis 100/0 of the numberof faults. Thus,
for 15% of the faults thesecondattemptdoesnot clear the fault.Thosefaults
are "permanentfaults" leadingto a long interruption.
The reclosingprocedureused is as follows:
I. The circuit breakeropensinstantaneouslyon theovercurrentdue to the fault.

2. The circuit breakerremainsopen for a short time (1 sec);75% of the faults
clearsin this period.
3. The circuit breakercloses. If the fault is stillpresentthe breakeragainopens
instantaneouslyon overcurrent.This is requiredin 25% of the cases.
4. Thecircuit breakernow leaves alongerdeadtime (5 sec).A nother 10% of the
faults clear in this period.
Lateral0: 3 km Lateral C: 7 km
Recloser l----
]] km of main feeder
• --Fuses
Figure 3.16 Example of overhead

distribution feeder, for stochastic prediction
I
Lateral B: 4 km LateralA: 8 km study.
Section 3.7 • Stochastic Prediction of Short
Interruptions 137
5. The circuit breakercloses for asecondtime. If the fault is still presentthe

breakerremainscloseduntil the fuseprotectingthe lateralconductorhashad
time to blow.
6. If the fault is still present(i.e., if the current magnitudestill exceeds its
threshold)after the time needed for the fuse to clear the fault, thebreaker
opensfor a third time and now remainsopen. Furtherreclosurehas to take
place manuallyand the whole feeder willexperiencea long interruption.
The total numberof faults on the feeder is
11 km x 0.1faults/kmyear + 22 km x 0.25faults/kmyear = 6.6faults/year (3.29)
Each fault will lead to a voltage magnitudeevent. There are four different events
possible:
• a short interruptionof 1 secondduration.

• two short interruptions; one of 1 second duration and one of 5 seconds
duration.
• two short interruptionsfollowed by avoltagesag.
• two short interruptionsfollowed by a longinterruption.
Due to short-circuitfaults on this feeder, 6.6 events per

year occur, of which
• 750/0 = 5.0 per year needone trip, leading to one short interruption for all
customers.
• 100/0 = 0.7 per year need two trips,
leadingto two short interruptionsfor all
customers.
• 15% = 1.0 per year arepermanent,leadingto two shortinterruptionsfollowed
by a voltagesag or followed by a longinterruption.
The numberof shortinterruptionsis equalfor everycustomerconnectedto this feeder:
5.0/yearof 1 secondduration.
0.7/yearof 1+ 5 secondsduration.
The numberof long interruptionsdependson the position at the feeder. Apermanent

fault on the main feeder leads to a longinterruption for all customers.A permanent
fault on oneof the lateralsleads to a longinterruptiononly for customersfed from this
lateral. The numberof permanentfaults is, for the different partsof the feeder:
• lateral A: 8 km x 0.25faults/kmyear x 0.15= 0.3faultsperyear

• =
lateral B: 4 km x 0.25faults/kmyear x 0.15 0.15faultsper year
• lateral C: 7 km x 0.25faults/kmyear x 0.15= 0.26faultsper year
• lateral D: 3 km x 0.25faults/kmyear x 0.15= 0.11faultsper year
• main: 11 km x 0.1faults/kmyear x 0.15= 0.17faultsper year
The number of long interruptionsexperiencedby customersconnectedto different

partsof the feeder, is
• main: 0.17/year
• lateral A: 0.17 + 0.3 = 0.47/year
• lateral B: 0.17 + 0.15 = 0.32/year
• lateral C: 0.17 + 0.26 = 0.43/year
• lateral D: 0.17 + 0.11 = 0.28/year
Gettingrid of the reclosureschemeand letting a fuseclearall faults on the lateral

conductorswould lead to long interruptionsonly.
• main: Lljyear
• lateral A: 3.1/year
• lateral B: 2.I/year
• lateral C: 2.9/year
• lateral D: 1.9/year
Table 3.6 comparesthe numberof long and short interruptionsfor systemswith

and without a reclosurescheme.For equipmentor production processessensitiveto
long interruptionsonly, the systemwith a reclosureschemeis clearly preferable.It leads
to a reduction of the number of long interruptions by 85%. But when equipment/
productionprocessis sensitiveto short and to long interruptions,it is betterto abolish
the reclosure schemeand trip permanentlyon every fault. That would reduce the
number of equipmenttrips by a factor between2 and 5, dependingon the position
of the load on the feeder. Inreality this decision is not that easy to make, as some
customersprefermoreshortinterruptionsabovea few long ones, while forothersonly
the numberof interruptionsmatters.The first group is mainly the domesticcustomers,
the secondone theindustrialcustomers.A financial assessment will almostalwaysbe in
the favor of the industrials.An assessmenton numbersof customersor on kWh will be
in favor of the domesticcustomers.
TABLE 3.6 Numberof Short and Long Interruptionsper Year on an

OverheadDistribution Feeder, With andWithout Automatic Reclosure
Long InterruptionsOnly All Interruptions
With Without With Without

Reclosure Reclosure Reclosure Reclosure
Main feeder 0.2 1.1 6.6 1.1

Lateral A 0.5 3.1 6.6 3.1
Lateral B 0.3 2.1 6.6 2.1
Lateral C 0.4 2.9 6.6 2.9
Lateral 0 0.3 1.9 6.6 1.9
Voltage Sags-
Characterization
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Voltage sags areshort duration reductionsin rms voltage, caused by short circuits,
overloads, andstartingof largemotors.The interestin voltage sags is mainly due to the
problems they cause on several typesequipment:adjustable-speed
of drives, process-
control equipment,and computersare notoriousfor their sensitivity. Some pieces of
equipmenttrip when the rms voltagedrops below 900/0 for longer than one or two
cycles. In this and the two following chapters,it will become clearthat such a piece of
equipmentwill trip tens of times a year.I f this is theprocess-controlequipmentof a
papermill, one can imaginethat the damagedue to voltage sags can be enormous.Of
course a voltage sag is not damagingto
as industryas a (long orshort)interruption.But
as there are far more voltage sags thaninterruptionsthe total damagedue to sags is still
larger. Short interruptionsand most longinterruptionsoriginatein the localdistribu-
tion network. However, voltage sags at equipmentterminalscan be due toshort-circuit
faults hundredsof kilometers away in thetransmissionsystem. A voltage sag is thus
much more of a"global" problem than an interruption. Reducing the number of
interruptionstypically requiresimprovementson one feeder.Reducingthe numberof
voltage sags requires improvementson several feeders, and often eventransmission
at
lines far away.
An exampleof a voltage sag due to short-circuitfault
a is shown in Fig. 4.1. We
seethat the voltageamplitudedropsto a valueof about20% of the pre-eventvoltage
for abouttwo cycles. After these two cycles the voltage comes back aboutthe
to pre-sag
voltage. Thismagnitudeand duration are the maincharacteristicsof a voltage sag.
Both will be discussed in more detail in the forthcomingsections. We can also conclude
from Fig. 4.1that magnitudeand durationdo not completelycharacterizethe sag. The
during-sagvoltage containsa rather large amount of higher frequencycomponents.
Also the voltage shows a small overshootimmediatelyafter the sag.
Most of the currentinterestin voltage sags isdirectedto voltage sags due to short-
circuit faults. These voltage sags are the ones which cause majority
the of equipment
trips. But also thestartingof inductionmotorsleads to voltage sags. Figure4.2 gives an
139
140 Chapter4 • VoltageSags-Characterization
--~--~-~--~-·- - ·r ·- ·- -· · _ · - · --,
Figure 4.1 A voltage sag due to a

short-
o 2 3 4 5 6 circuit fault-voltagein one phase in time
Time in cycles
domain. (Data obtainedfrom [16].)
Phase A voltage
106
..
: :
.. , ,
.... Min:
'1'.......... Max: 93.897
I-
5 102
t
104 ..
~
---_ .
I- . .. . . ... ........ ... ... . .+...........- . . ... . . ..
............-...................1"....................-..........-...... 101.46 .....
1............... Avg: 95.8598.....

.,
5100 I- . . . ._----------_._-----------------:-----_._-------..--------·---------------1-·--------------···_--··-----------------
;' ..····..··..·..··..··..·········1·........···············..··....··.......j...............................
98 I- ... .
_ _ _ _0 - • • • •
-
e
CI) 96 I- . . .. . .. .. .... .........."":;;';;;;- ... -------- - --- ----~ ._ ._.- -- - -- --_ ._ -- - _. __ ._-_._-.-_.-.-----
~ ...............j.........................................j.........................................
94 I- ..... ~
50 100 150
Time-cycles
Figure 4.2 A voltage sag due toinduction motor starting.(Data obtainedfrom

ElectrotekConcepts[l9J.)
example of such a voltage sag [19]. Comparingthis figure with Fig. 4.1 shows that no
longer theactualvoltage as afunction of time is given but the rms voltage versus time.
The rms voltage is typicallycalculatedevery cycle or half-cycleof the power system
frequency. Voltage sags due induction
to motor startinglast longerthan those due to
short circuits. Typicaldurationsare seconds to tens of seconds. The remainderof this
chapterwill concentrateon voltage sags due to shortcircuits. Voltage sags due to
motor
startingwill be discussed inshort in Section 4.9.
4.2 VOLTAGE SAG MAGNITUDE
4.2.1 Monitoring
The magnitudeof a voltage sag can be determinedin a numberof ways. Most

existing monitors obtain the sagmagnitudefrom the rms voltages . But this situation
might well change in the future. There are several
alternativeways of quantifying the
voltage level. Two obvious examples are the magnitudeof the fundamental(power
frequency)componentof the voltage and the peak voltage over each cycle or half-
cycle. As long as the voltage issinusoidal,it does not matter whether rms voltage,
Section 4.2 • Voltage SagMagnitude 141
fundamentalvoltage, or peak voltage is used to obtain the magnitude

sag . But espe-
cially during a voltage sag this is often not the case
.
4.2.1.1 Rms Voltage. As voltage sags are initially recorded as sampled

points
in time, the rms voltage will have to be calculated from the sampledtime-domain
voltages. This is done by using the following
equation:
1 N
-Lv?
N ;=1 I
(4.1)
where N is the numberof samples per cycle and V; are the sampled voltages in time
domain.
The algorithm described by (4.1) has been applied to the sag shown in . 4.1.
Fig
The results are shown in Fig..34and in Fig. 4.4. In Fig. 4.3 the rms voltage has been
calculated over a window of one cycle, which was 256 samples for the recording used.
Each point in Fig. 4.3 is the rms voltage over the preceeding 256 points (the first 255
rms values have been made equal to the value for sample: 256)
1.2,--~--,---
0.8
5..
.S
~ 0.6
S
~ 0.4
0.2
Figure 4.3 One-cycle rms voltagefor the 2 3 4 5 6

voltage sagshownin Fig. 4.1. Time in cycles
1.2,--~--.,.---
0.8
5..
.S
~ 0.6
~
~
.,. 0.4 '
, .
2 3 4 5
Figure4.4 Half-cycle rms voltagefor the Time in cycles
voltage sagshownin Fig. 4.1.
i=k
Vrmik) = N L
i=k-N+t
1?; (4.2)
with N = 256. We see that the rms voltage does not immediatelydrop to a lower value
but takes one cycle for thetransition.We also seethat the rms value during the sag is
not completelyconstantand that the voltage does not immediately recover after the
fault. A surprisingobservationis that the rms voltage immediately after the fault is only
about90% of the pre-sag voltage. We will come back to this phenomenonin Section
4.9. From Fig. 4.1 one can see that the voltage in time domain shows a small over-
voltage instead. In Fig. 4.4 the rms voltage has been calculated over the preceeding 128
points, N = 128 in (4.2). Thetransition now takes place in one half-cycle. sAhorter
window than one half-cycle is not useful. The window length has to be an integer
multiple of one half-cycle. Anyother window length will produce an oscillation in
the result with a frequency equal to twice the
fundamentalfrequency.For both figures
the rms voltage has been calculated after each sample. In power quality
monitors,this
calculationis typically made once a cycle:
i=kN
VrmikN) = N L
i=<k-l)N+l
v~ (4.3)
It is thus very likely that themonitor will give one value with anintermediatemagni-
tude before its rms voltage value settles down. We will come back to this when discuss-
ing sagduration.
4.2.1.2 Fundamental Voltage Component. Using the fundamentalcomponent

of the voltage has the
advantagethat the phase-angle
j ump can be determined in the
same way. The phase-anglejump will be discussed in detail in Section 4.5. The fun-
damentalvoltagecomponentas a function of time may be calculated as
~lund(t) = -T2 j l v(r)t!Wotdr (4.4)

i-r
whereWo = 2; and T one cycle of thefundamentalfrequency. Notethat this results in a
complex voltage as a function of time. The absolute value of this complex voltage is the
voltagemagnitudeas a functionof time; its argumentcan be used toobtain the phase-
angle jump. In a similar way we can obtain magnitude and phase angle ofharmonic
a
voltagecomponentas a function of time. This so-called "time-frequencyanalysis" is a
well-developed area within digital signal processing with a large
applicationpotentialin
power engineering.
The fundamentalcomponenthas beenobtainedfor the voltage sag shown in Fig.
4.1. The absolute value of the
fundamentalcomponentis shown in Fig. 4.5. Each point
represents themagnitudeof the (complex)fundamentalcomponentof the previous
cycle (256 points). Thefundamentalcomponentof the voltage has been obtained
through a fast-Fourier transform (fft) algorithm [148]. A comparisonwith Fig. 4.3
shows that the behavior of the
fundamentalcomponentis very similar to the behavior
of the rms voltage.
The rms voltage has the advantagethat it can be applied easily to a half-cycle
window. Obtainingthe fundamentalvoltage from a half-cycle window is more compli-
cated. A possible solution is to take a half-cycle window and to calculate the second
half-cycle by using
, , I
Figure4.5 Magnitudeof the fundamental 2 3 4 5 6
Time in cycles
componentof the voltage sag in ig.
F 4.1.
cos(wt + rP + 1l') =- cos(wt + rP) (4.5)
Let Vi, i = 1. . . ~ be the samplesvoltagesover a half-cycle window. Thefundamental

voltage isobtainedby taking the Fourier transformof the following series:
VI ... v~, -VI' .. - v~ (4.6)
This algorithm has beenapplied to the voltage sagshownin Fig. 4.1, resultingin Fig.
4.6. The transition from pre-fault to during-voltageis clearly fasterthan in Fig. 4.5.
Note that this method assumesthat there is no de voltagecomponentpresent.The
presence of a de voltagecomponentwi11lead to anerror in the fundamentalvoltage.
An alternativemethod of obtaining the fundamentalvoltage componentis dis-
cussed in Section 4.5.
4.2.1.3 Peak Voltage.The peakvoltage as afunction of time can beobtained

by using the following expression:
Vpeak = 0 <max
r < T v(t - r) I I (4.7)
6.
.S
I
==l
1lc:
8. 0.8
E
o
<.>
~ 0.6
~
(
Figure 4.6 Magnitudeof the fundamental
.E
....o
]'"
.~
0.4
0.2 J ..._.~ _ _~~I

::E 0'
componentof the voltage sag in Fig. 4.1, 2 345 6
Time in cycles
obtainedby using a half-cycle window.
144 Chapter 4 • Voltage
Sags-Characterization
1.2 I,---~--~-~--~-~~--,
0.8
50
.5
~ 0.6
L
~
~
0.4
0.2
234 5 6
Time in cycles Figure4.7 Half-cycle peak voltage for the
voltage sag shown i n Fig. 4.1.
with v(t) the sampled voltage waveform andT an integer multiple of one half-cycle. In
Fig. 4.7, for each sample the
maximum of the absolutevalue of the voltage over the
preceding half-cycle has been
calculated.We seethat this peak voltage shows sharp
a
drop and asharprise, althoughwe will see laterthat they do not coincide with com-
mencement and clearing of the sag.
Contraryto the rms voltage, the peak voltage shows
an overshootimmediately after the sag, which correspondsto the overvoltage in time
domain. The two methods are comparedin Fig. 4.8. We seethat the peak voltage tends
to be higher most of the time with the exception of the end of the deep
part of the sag.
,,
,
,,
:::l 0.8 ,
0. ,,
.5 ,
~ 0.6 ,,
s ,
,,
~ 0.4
0.2
Figure4.8 Comparisonbetweenhalf-cycle
peak (solid line) andhalf-cycle rms voltage
2 3 4 5 6 (dashed line) for the voltage sag shown in
Time in cycles
Fig. 4.1.
4.2.1.4 A One-Cycle Voltage Sag . Another example of a voltage sag is shown

in Fig. 4.9; contrary to Fig. 4.1, all three phase voltages are shown. The voltage is
low in one phase forabout one cycle and recovers rather fast after that. Theother
two phases show some transientphenomenon,but no clear sag or swell. The latter is
also evident from Fig . 4.10 which gives the half-cycle rms value for the sag shown in
Fig. 4.9. We see in thelatter figure that the voltage in the twonon-faultedphases
shows a small swell . Due to theshort duration of the sag the rms voltage curve does
not have a specific flat part. This makes the determinationof the sagmagnitude
rather arbitrary. If the monitor takes one sample every half-cycle the resulting sag
f-:~
al ~
~ 0 I 2 3 456
al0 ~
c:
.;;
OIl I '
~- I l ' , ~
0123456
~I VVV\IVYJ
';;
OIl
0
19 - )
Figure 4.9 Time-domainplot of a one-cycle ~
sag, plots of the three phase voltages
. (Data 0) 23456
Time in cycles
obtainedfrom [16J.)
io:~:
~ 00 I 2 3
.:I
4 5 6
1:l l ~
~ I
0
-'I
:
o 2 3 4 5 6
ko:I======
~~-~'-~,~~,
o 2 3 4 5 6
Figure 4.10Half-cycle rms voltages for the Time in cycles
voltage sag shown in Fig. 4.9.
magnitudecan be anywhere between 26% and 70% depending onmoment the at

which the sample is taken . In case a one-cycle window is used to calculate the rms
voltage, thesituation becomes worse .
The two alternativemethods forobtaining the sagmagnitudeversus time have
also been applied to phase b of the event in Fig. .9. The
4 half-cycle peak voltage is
shown in Fig. 4.11, the half-cycle fundamentalvoltage componentin Fig. 4.12. The
shape of thelatter is similar to the shape of the half-cycle rms. The half-cycle peak
voltage again shows a much sharpertransition than theother two methods.
4.2.1.5 Obtaining One Sag Magnitude.Until now, we havecalculatedthe sag

magnitudeas a function of time: either as the rms voltage
, as the peak voltage, or as
the fundamentalvoltage componentobtainedover acertain window. There are var-
ious ways of obtaining one value for the sagmagnitudefrom the magnitudeas a
function of time. Most monitors take the lowest value.Thinking about equipment
sensitivity, this correspondsto the assumptionthat the equipment trips instanta-
neously when the voltage drops below a certain value. As most sags have rather
a
constantrms valueduring the deeppart of the sag, using the lowest value appears
an acceptableassumption.
I.2 f
:> 0.8
0..
.5
1iI> 0.6
S
~ 0.4
0.2
2 3 4 5 6 Figure 4.11 Half-cyclepeak voltage for phase

Time in cycles
b of the sag shown in Fig
. 4.9.
a I [_ ~ -- '
.5 !
C
~
8. 0.8
E
o
o
'3 0.6
eE
.jg
~ 0.4
e-
o
]" 0.2
.~
~ 0 L
: . ~~_~ _ _ ~ _ _ ~ _ _ ~_--'
234 5 6
Time in cycles Figure 4.12 Half-cyclefundamentalvoltage
for phase bof the sag shown in ig.
F 4.9.
So far there israther generalagreement,both about using the rms value,a nd

about taking the lowest rms value todeterminethe sagmagnitude.But when the sag
magnitudeneeds to bequantified in a number,the agreementis no longer there. One
common practiceis to characterizethe sagthrough the remainingvoltageduring the
sag.This is then given as ap ercentageof the nominal voltage. Thus, a 70% sag in a 120
volt systemmeansthat the voltagedroppedto 84 V. This methodof characterizingthe
sag isrecommendedin a numberofIEEE standards(493-1998,1159-1995,1346-1998) .
The confusionwith this terminologyis clear. One could be tricked into thinking that a
70% sag refers to a d rop of 70%, thus a remainingvoltageof 30%. The recommenda-
tion is thereforeto use thephrase" a sagdown to 70%" [3]. The lEC has solved this
ambiguity by characterizingthe sagthroughthe actualdrop in the rmsvoltage[4]. This
has somewhatbecomecommon practicein Europe. Characterizinga sag through its
drop in voltagedoes not solve all problemshowever,becausethe nextquestionwill be:
What is the referencevoltage? There are argumentsin favor of using the pre-fault
voltage and there are arguments in favor of using the nominal voltage. The
International Union of Producers and Distributors of Electrical Energy (Union
International des Producteurs et Distributeurs d'Energie Electrique, UNIPEDE)
Section 4.2 • Voltage Sag
Magnitude 147
recommendsto use thenominal voltageas a reference(5]. As severaldefinitions are in

use, it isimportantto clearly define the way in which the sag
magnitudeis defined. In
this book sag magnitudeis defined as theremainingvoltageduring the event.
Using the remainingvoltageas the sagmagnitude,leads to someobviousconfu-
sions. Themain sourceof confusionis thata largersagmagnitudeindicatesa less severe
event. In fact, a sagm agnitudeof 100% correspondsto no sag at all. The use
of terms
like "large sag" and "small sag" would be extremelyconfusing. Insteadwe will talk
abouta "deepsag" and a "shallow sag." A deep sag is a sag with a low magnitude;a
shallow sag has a largemagnitude.When referring to equipmentbehaviorwe will also
use theterms "severesag" and "mild sag." As far as magnitudeis concerned,these
terms correspondto "deepsag" and "shallow sag," respectively.
4.2.2 TheoreticalC alculations
Considerthe power systemshownin Fig. 4.13, where thenumbers(1 through5)

indicate fault positionsand the letters (A through D) loads. A fault in the transmis-
sion network, fault position 1, will causea serioussag for both substationsbordering
the faulted line. This sag isthen transferreddown to all customersfed from these two
substations.As there is normally no generationconnectedat lower voltage levels,
thereis nothing to keep up the voltage. The result thatis a deep sag isexperiencedby
all customersA, B, C, and D. The sagexperiencedby A is likely to be somewhatless
deep, as thegeneratorsconnectedto that substationwill keep up thevoltage. A fault
at position 2 will not causemuch voltagedrop for customerA. The impedanceof the
transformersbetween the transmissionand the sub-transmissionsystem are large
enoughto considerablylimit the voltagedrop at high-voltageside of the transformer.
The sagexperiencedby customerA is further mitigated by the generatorsfeeding in
to its local transmissionsubstation.The fault at position 2 will, however,causea deep
sag at both subtransmissionsubstationsand thus for all customersfed from here (B,
C, and D).
Figure4.13 Distribution network with load

positionsand fault positions.
A fault at position 3 will cause a very deep sag for customer D, followed by a
short or longinterruption when theprotectionclears the fault.CustomerC will only
experience a deep sag. If fast reclosure is used indistribution
the system, customer C
will experience two or more sags shortly after each other forpermanentfault.
a
Customer B will only experience a shallow sag due to the fault at position 3, again
due to thetransformerimpedance.CustomerA will probably not notice anything from
this fault. Finally, fault 4 will cause a deep sag for customer C and a shallow one for
customer D.For fault 5 the result is just the other way around: a deep sag for customer
D and a shallow one for customer C. Customers A and B will not be influenced at all by
faults 4 and 5.
To quantify sag magnitude in radial systems, the voltage divider model, shown in
Fig. 4.14, can be used. This might appeara rather simplified model, especially for
transmission systems. But as we will see in the course of this and further chapters, it
has turned out to be a rather useful model to predict some of the properties of sags. In
Fig. 4.14 we see two impedances: Zs is the source impedance point-of-common
at the
coupling; and ZF is the impedance between the point-of-commoncoupling and the
fault. The point-of-commoncoupling is the point from which both the fault and the
load are fed. In other words: it is the place where the load
currentbranches off from the
fault current. We will often abbreviate"point-of-commoncoupling" as pee, In the
voltage divider model, the load current before as well as during the fault is neglected.
There is thus no voltage drop between the load and the pee. The voltage at the pee, and
thus the voltage at the equipment terminals, can be found from
ZF
(4.8)
v.rag=Z
s+ Z F E
In the remainder of this chapter, we will assume that the pre-event voltage is exactly 1
pu, thus E = 1. This results in the following expression for the sag magnitude
v = ZF (4.9)
sag ZS+ZF
Any fault impedance should be included in the feeder impedanceZF' We see from (4.9)
that the sag becomes deeper for faults electrically closer to the customer ZF (when
Zs becomes larger).
becomes smaller), and for systems with a smaller fault level (when
Note that a single-phase model has been used here, whereas in reality the system is
three-phase. That means that thisequationstrictly speaking only holds for three-phase
faults. How the voltage divider model can be used for single-phase and phase-to-phase
faults is discussed in Section 4.4.
Equation(4.9) can be used to calculate the sag magnitude as a function of the
ZF = Z x E, with z the impedance of
distance to the fault. Therefore we have to write
£ the distance between the fault and the pee, leading to
the feeder per unit length and
E
Fault
Load Figure.4.14Voltage divider model for a

pee voltage sag.
Section 4.2 • Voltage Sag Magnitude 149
v _ z£
(4.10)
sag - Zs + z£
The sagmagnitudeas afunction of the distanceto the fault has been calculatedfor a
typical 11kV overheadline, resulting in Fig. 4.15. For the calculationsa 150mnr'
overheadline was used and fault levels of 750 MVA, 200 MVA, and 75 MVA. The
fault level is used tocalculatethe sourceimpedanceat the pee, the feederimpedanceto
calculatethe impedancebetween the pee and the fault. It was assumed that the source
impedanceis purely reactive, thusZs =jO.161 n for the 750 MVA source. The impe-
dance of the 150mrrr'overheadline is 0.117+ jO.315 Q per km [10].
As expected, the sag magnitudeincreases (i.e., the sag becomes less severe) for
increasingdistanceto the fault and forincreasingfault level. We also see t hat faults at
tensof kilometersdistancemay still cause a severe sag.
0.8 1
:s
e,
75MVA
I
.5
-8 0.6
a
.~
e 0.4
fI)
~
0.2
Figure 4.15 Sag magnitude as a function of

the distance to the fault, for faults on an 10 20 30 40 50
11 kV, 150 mnr' overhead line. Distanceto the fault in kilometers
4.2.2.1 Influence of Cross Section. Overheadlines of different cross section

have different impedance,and lines and cables also have different impedance.It is
thus to be expectedthat the cross sectionof the line or cable influences the sag mag-
nitude as well. To show this influence, Fig. 4.16 plots the magnitudeat
sag the pee
0.8
)9---T~
300
.5
6- 1/
] 0.6
.~
e0.4
f
fI)
0.2
Figure 4.16 Sag magnitude versus distance,

for 11 kV overhead lines with different cross 5 10 15 20 25
sections. Distanceto the fault in kilometers
150 Chapter 4 • VoltageSags-Characterization
50
0.8 150
8-
.5 300
~ 0.6
a
.~
e 0.4
~
en
0.2
Figure4.17 Sagmagnitudeversusdistance,
5 10 15 20 25 for II kV undergroundcableswith different
Distance to the fault in kilometers cross sections.
as a function of the distancebetweenthe fault and the pee, for 11 kVoverheadlines

with threedifferent cross sections:50, 150,and 300 mm''. A sourceimpedanceof 200
MV A has been used. Thesmaller the crosssection, the higher the impedanceof the
feeder and thus the lower thevoltagedrop. For overheadlines, the influence israther
small as thereactancedominatesthe impedance.For undergroundcables, the influ-
ence ismuch bigger asshown in Fig. 4.17, again for cross sectionsof 50, 150,and
300 mrrr'. The inductanceof cablesis significantly smallerthan for overheadlines, so
that the resistancehas more influence on theimpedanceand thus on the sagmagni-
tude. Theimpedancevalues used toobtain Fig. 4.16 and Fig. 4.17 are given inTable
4.1. All impedancesare for an II kV voltage level.
TABLE 4.1 Line and CableImpedancesfor 11 kV FeedersUsed in Figs.

4.16 and 4.17
Impedance
CrossSection OverheadLine Cable

2
50 mm 0.363+ jO.351 Q 0.492 + jO.116Q
150mrrr' 0.117 + jO.315Q 0.159+jO.097Q
300 mm2 0.061+ jO.298Q 0.079 +jO.087 Q
Source: Data obtained from [10].
4.2.2.2 Faults behind Transformers.The impedancebetweenthe fault and the

pee in Fig. 4.14not only consistsof lines or cablesbut also of power transformers.
As transformershave arather large impedance,amongothersto limit the fault level
on the low-voltage side, thepresenceof a transformerbetweenthe fault and the pee
will lead to relatively shallow sags.
To show the influenceof transformerson the sagmagnitude,considerthe situa-
tion shownin Fig. 4.18: a 132/33kV transformeris fed from thesamebus as a132kV
line. A 33 kV line is fed from thelow-voltageside of the transformer.Fault levels are
3000 MV A at the 132 kV bus,a nd 900 MV A at the 33 kV bus. Inimpedanceterms,the
source impedanceat the 132 kV bus is5.81 0, and the transformerimpedanceis
13.550, both referred to the 132kV voltage level. The sensitiveload for which we
Magnitude lSI
pee 132kV
132 kV line
Load
Figure 4.18Powersystem with faults at two
voltage levels. 33 kV line
want to calculatethe sagmagnitudeis fed from the 132kV bus viaanother132/33 kV

transformer.We can again use (4.9), where Zs = 5.810, ZF = 13.550+ z x {" z is the
feederimpedanceper unit length,and {, the distancebetween the fault and the trans-
former's secondaryside terminals. The feeder impedancemust also be referred to the
132kV level: z= k{ )2x 0.3Qjkm when the feederimpedanceis 0.3Qjkm at 33 kV.
(lilk
The resultsof the calculationsare shown in Fig. 4.19 for faults on the 33 kV line
(upper
curve) and for faults on the 132kV line (lower curve). We see that sags due to33kV
faults are less severe
thansags due to 132kV faults. Not only does the 33 kV curves tart
off at a higher level (due to the t ransformerimpedance),it also rises much faster. The
latter is due to the factt hat the feederimpedanceseen from the 132kV level is (132/3
3)2 = 16 times as high asthat seen from the 33 kV level.
Faultsat 33 kV
0.8
Faultsat 132kV
0.2
I.......--_ _L . . - - _ - - J I - - - --J-_ __._! __ ..•.•..._ . . . • ._..
Figure 4.19 Comparisonof sag magnitude 20 40 60 80 100

for 132 kV and 33 kV faults. Distanceto thefault in kilometers
4.2.2.3 Fault Levels. Often the sourceimpedanceat a certain bus isnot imme-
diately available, but insteadthe fault level is. One canof coursetranslatethe fault
level into a sourceimpedanceand use (4.9) tocalculatethe sagmagnitude.But one
may calculatethe sagmagnitudedirectly if the fault levelsboth at the peeand at the
fault position are known. LetSFLT be the fault level at the faultposition and Spec at
the point-of-commoncoupling. For a rated voltage Vn the relationsbetween fault le-
vel and sourceimpedanceare as follows:
(4.11)
SPCC=-
V,; (4.12)
Zs
With (4.9) the voltage at the pee can be
written as
Vsag -- I _ SFLT
(4.13)
Spec
We use(4.13)to calculatethe magnitudeof sags behindtransformers.For this we use

typical fault levels in theU.K. power system[13]:
400 V 20 MVA
11 kV 200 MVA
33 kV 900 MVA
132 kV 3000 MVA
400 kV 17000MVA
Considera fault at a typical11 kV bus, i.e., with a fault levelof 200 MVA. The voltage
sag at thehigh-voltageside of the 33/11kV transformeris from (4.13)
200 MVA 0
v,wg = 1 - 900 MVA = 78Yo
In a similar way the wholeof Table 4.2 has been filled. The zeros in this table
indicatethat the fault is at the same or at a higher voltage level. The voltage
dropsto a
low value in such a case. We can see from Table 4.2 that sags are significantlydamped
when theypropagateupwardsin the power system. In a sagstudy we typically only
have to take faults one voltage level down into account.And even those are seldom of
seriousconcern.An exceptionherecould be sags due to faults at 33kV with a pee at
132kV. They could lead to sags down to 70o~.
TABLE 4.2 Upward Propagationof Sags
Point-of-CommonCoupling
Fault Point II kV 33 kV 132 kV 400 kV

400 V 900~ 98°~ 99% 100%
II kV 0 78% 93% 990/0
33 kV 0 0 70% 950/0
132 kV 0 0 0 82%
4.2.2.4 Critical Distance. Equation (4.10) gives thevoltage magnitude as a

function of the distanceto the fault. From this equationwe can obtain the distance
at which a fault will lead to a sagof a certain magnitude.If we assumeequal X/R
ratio of sourceand feeder, weobtain
(4.14)
We refer to thisdistanceas the criticaldistancefor a voltage V. Supposethat a pieceof

equipmenttrips when thevoltagedropsbelow acertainlevel (the critical voltage). The
M agnitude 153
definition of critical distance is such

that each fault within the criticaldistancewill cause
the equipmentto trip . This concept will be used in Section 6.5 to estimate the expected
numberof equipmenttrips .
If we assumefurther that the numberof faults isproportional to the line length
within the critical distance, we would expect that the numberof sags below a level V is
proportionalto V/( I - V) . Another assumptionis needed to arrive at this conclusion.
Every feeder connected to every pee needs to be infinitely long ithout
w any branching
off. Of course this is not the case in reality . Still this
equation has beencomparedwith a
number of large power quality surveys. The results are shown in Fig. 4.20. Power
quality survey results in the Un ited States [IIJ, [l2J, in the U.K. [l3J and in Norway
[16J are indicated as dots, the theoretical curve is shown as a solid line. The rrespon-
co
dence is good, despite the obviously serious approximationsmade.
Even though (4.14) only holds for rad ial systems, it gives a generally usable
relation between thenumberof voltage sags and the voltage. The expression clearly
showsthat the majority of sags are shallow, a fact confirmed by most measurements .
-._ - ---_._ - --
. USA [II]
• USA [12]
• UK [13]
x Norway [16]
- Theory
Figure 4.20 Numberof sags versus

magnitude :theoretical results (solid line)
o 20 40 60 80 100
Sag magnitude in percent
versus monitoring results (dots) .
4.2.3 Example of Calculation of Sag Magnitude
We will apply the theoreticalconceptsdeveloped in the previous sections to the

supply shown schematically in Fig. 4.21. This same example will be used again in
forthcoming parts of this book. The supply shown in Fig. 4.21 is the existing supply
to an indust rialcustomersomewhere in the No rth of England[15J. The sensitive load
consists of several large ac and de adjustable-speed drives. The de drives are fed via
dedicated transformersat 420 V, the moremodernac drives at 660 V.Most of the data
used for the various calculationsbelow have been obta ined from the local utility. Where
no data was available,d ata have been used which was considered "as typical as pos-
sible." Like often in these kind of studies, the collection of datarequires
the at least as
much effort as theactualcalculations. In the restof this book it will always be assumed
that all the requireddata is readily available.
The first step in a sag analysis is to recognize the possible
pee's, For any fault on
one of the II kV feeders, the faultcurrent will flow through the STU-II bus, but
not further towards the ·load . TheS TU-II bus is thus the pee for all faults within the
II kV network. In the same way, the ROS-33 bus is the pee for faults on of the
any
33 kV feeders. Theother possible pee's are PAD -I32 and PAD-400. To calculatethe
sag magnitudewe need the sou rce impedanceand the feeder impedance. The source
Slines 8 lines
r - - -_ _
P
---.
J\O-400
--ill
EGG-400
3 feeders
Figure 4.21 Example of power supply be

to
used for voltage sag
calculations.
impedanceis given in Table4.3, the feederimpedancein Table4.4. All impedancesare

given for a 100 MVA base.Finally, Table 4.5 gives thetransformerconnectionand
neutral grounding.This information is needed inlater sections,when unbalancedsags
are discussed.
For now weignore the fact that the impedancesare complexand use theabsolute
values for our calculations.We will come back to thecomplex impedancesin Section
4.5 whenphase-anglejumps are discussed.F or faults at II kV we obtain for the impe-
dances:z = 27.75% per km and Zs = 66.08%.The critical distancecan becalculated
from Lcril = 2.381 x I~V'
Calculationsfor the critical distancesat 33 kV and 132kV proceedin exactly the
same way as for the11 kV system.The resultsof thesecalculationsare shownin Table
4.6. We seethat thereare twocolumnsfor the 400 kV system inTable4.3 and in Table
4.6. This has to do with the fact that thereare twopossiblesourcesfor the short-circuit
power. If the fault issomewherebetweenPAD-400 and PEN-400the fault currentwill
be delivered from thedirectionof EGG-400.Thus,for such a fault, theimpedanceZs is
the sourceimpedanceas seen in thedirectionof EGG-400.The critical distancesresult-
ing from this sourceimpedanceare shownin Table4.6 in thecolumn labeled "toward
PEN-400." Note that for this the sourceimpedancein the direction of EGG-400has
been used.F or faults in thedirection of EGG-400,the sourceimpedancein the direc..
tion of PEN-400has been used. Thoseresults areshownin the columnlabeled"toward
EGG-400."
WheninterpretingTable4.6 oneshouldrealizethat these values hold for raadial
system with infinitely long lineswithout any sidebranches.In reality all feeders have a
finite length. In this system themaximum distancefrom the pee for afault at 11 kV is
5 km. The distanceto the fault can thus not be more than 5 km and the magnitudeof
the most shallow sag due to afault at 11 kV is
ZF 5 x 0.2727 °
V:vag = Zs + ZF = 5 x 0.2727+ 0.6608= 67 Yo (4.15)
Figure4.22plots sagmagnitudeversusdistancefor faults at all thevoltagelevels in Fig.

4.21. Thehorizontalscale isdeterminedby the maximumlength of the feeders att hat
TABLE 4.3 Source Impedance for the Supply Shown in Fig. 4.21, at a 100
MVA Base
Positive and Negative

Zero Sequence Sequence
II kV 787 + j2200/0 4.94 + j65.90/0
33 kV 2510/0 1.23 + jI8.3°At
132 kV 0.047 + .i2.75% 0.09 + j2.86%
400 kV
From EGG 0.329 + j2.273% 0.084 + jl.061 %
From PEN 0.653 + j5.124% 0.132 + j1.94%
TABLE 4.4 Feeder Data for the Supply Shown in Fig. 4.21
Positive and Negative Sequence Zero Sequence Max Length

II kV 9.7 + j26 %/km 18.4 + jII2°At/km 5 km
33 kV 1.435 + j3.102°At/km 2.795 + jI5.256%/km 10 km
132 kV 0.101 + jO.257°At/km 0.23 + ]U.650/0/km 2 km
400 kV 0.001 + jO.018%/km 0.007 + ]U.0500/0/km > 1000km
TABLE 4.5 Transformer Connections and Neutral Grounding for the

Supply Shown in Fig.4.21
Voltage Level Transformer Winding Connection Neutral Grounding at LV Side

400 kV solidly grounded
400/132 kV YY autotransformer solidly grounded
132/33kV Star - Delta resistance grounded through zig-
zag transformer
33/11 kV Delta - Star resistance grounded
II kV/660 V and Delta - Star solidly grounded
11 kV/420 V
TABLE 4.6 Critical Distance Calculation for the Network Shown in Fig.
4.21, According to (4.14)
400 kV Toward 400 kV Toward

II kV 33 kV 132 kV PEN-400 EGG-400
z 27.27% 3.418°At 0.276% 0.018% 0.018%
Zs 66.08% 18.34% 2.8610/0 1.064% 1.9440/0
V= 10°At 0.3 km 0.6 km 1.2 km 6.6 km 12.0 km
V = 30% 1.0 km 2.3 km 4.4 km 25.3 km 46.3 km
V = 500/0 2.4 km 5.4 km 10.4 km 59.1 km J08 km
V = 70% 5.6 km 12.5 km 24.2 km 138 km 252 km
V = 90% 21.4 km 48.3 km 93.3 km 532 km 972 km
)
11 kV faults
,.-----...---,
33 kV faults
132kV faults I 400 kV faults
I:
0.5
o . --.JI Figure 4.22 Magnitude versus distance for

00 1 2 o 100 200 faults at various voltage levelsin the supply in
Distanceinkilometers Distanceinkilometers Fig. 4.21.
voltage level.For 400 kV a lengthof 200 km has been taken. The

short length of the
132kV feeders makesthat sags due to faults at 132kV are always very deep.
4.2.4 Sag Magnitude In Non-Radial Systems
In Section4.2.2 we discussed sag

magnitudeversusdistancein radial systems.
Radial systems arecommonin low-voltage and medium-voltagenetworks.At higher
voltage levelsother supply arrangementsare common.Some typical cases will be dis-
cussed below. We will alsopresenta general way ofcalculating sag magnitudesin
meshed systems.
4.2.4.1 Local Generators. The connectionof a local generatorto a distribution

network, as shown in Fig.4.23, mitigates voltage sagsof the indicated load in two
different ways. Thegeneratorincreases the fault level at the
distribution bus, which
mitigates voltage sags due to faults on the
distribution feeders. This especially holds
for a weak system.For a strong system, the fault levelcannot be increased much
without the risk of exceeding themaximum-allowableshort-circuit current of the
switchgear.The installation of local generationrequires a largerimpedanceof the
feeding transformer.
Rest of the system
I'\v Local
generation
Load
Figure 4.23 Connection of a local generator
to a distribution bus.
A local generatoralsomitigatessags due to faults in the restof the system.D uring

such a fault thegeneratorkeeps up thevoltageat its local bus by feedinginto the fault.
An equivalentcircuit to quantify this effect has beendrawn in Fig. 4.24: Z4 is the
impedanceof the local generatorduring the fault (typically thetransientimpedance);
ZI the sourceimpedanceat the pee;Z2 the impedancebetween the faultand the pce;
and Z3 the impedancebetween thegeneratorbus and the pee. Note that the conceptof
point-of-commoncoupling strictly speakingno longer holds. Thisconcept,which was
introducedfor radial networks,assumes one single flow o f fault current. By addinga
generatorclose to the load asecondflow of fault current is introduced.The pee as
indicatedin Fig. 4.24 is thepoint-of-commoncoupling before theintroduction of the
local generator.Without the local generatorthe voltage at theequipmentterminals
would beequalto the voltageatthepee,Whena local generatoris present,the voltage
at theequipmentterminalsduring the sagequalsthe voltageon thegeneratorbus. This
voltage is related to thevoltageat the peeaccordingto the following equation:
2
(1 - Vvag) = Z 3+4Z 4 (1 - Vpcc) (4.16)
The voltagedrop at the generatorbus isz ~z times thevoltagedrop at the pee,

The voltagedrop becomes smaller forlarger imped~nce to the pee(weakerconnection)
and for smallergenerationimpedance(larger generator).The fault contributionof the
rest of the system at theg eneratorbus isoften mainly determinedby the impedanceof
the feedingtransformer.In that case thereductionin voltage drop is approximately
equal to thegeneratorcontributionto the fault level at thegeneratorbus. Thus, if the
generatordelivers50% of the fault current,a sagdown to 40% at the pee(60% voltage
drop) will be reducedto a sagdown to 700/0 (30% voltage drop) at the equipment
terminals. From (4.16) we can alsoconcludethat there is anon-zerominimum sag
magnitude.Even a fault at the pee will nolongercause a sag d own to zerovoltagebut a
sagof magnitude
Vmin =2 3Z3
+2
4
(4.17)
For the above-mentioned system, where the local generatoris responsiblefor 50%
of the fault level at thegeneratorbus, the lowest sagm agnitudedue to a fault at a
higher voltagelevel is 50% • During a fault not only local generatorscontributeto the
fault but also induction motors. Using the abovereasoningwe can concludethat the
minimum voltage at the plant bus equalsthe relative fault levelc ontribution of the
induction motors. We will discussinduction motorsin more detail in Section 4.8.
pee--'---.---'--
Load
Figure 4.24 Equivalent circuit for system

with local generation. Fault
158 Chapter4 • Voltage Sags-Characterization
EXAMPLE An exampleof a system withon-site generationis given in Fig. 4.25: the

industrial system is fed from a 66 kV, 1700 MVAsubstationvia two 66/11 kV transformersin
paraJIel. The fault level at the 11 kV bus is 720 MVA, which includes contribution
the of two
20 MVA on-site generatorswith a transientreactanceof 170/0. The actual industrial load is fed
from the 11 kV bus, for which we willcalculatethe sagmagnitudedue to faults at 66 kV. The
feeder impedanceat 66 kV is 0.3Q/km.
Public supply
66 kV, 1700MVA
Faulted
---a._..........._....--a_.L--1_1_k_V,_720 MVA feeder
Figure 4.25 Industrial distribution system

Industrial load with on-site generation.
With referenceto (4.16) and Fig. 4.24, we get the

following impedancevalues for this
system(referred to 66kV):
Z. == 2.56Q
2 2 = 0.3 O/km x £,
2 3 = 6.42Q
2 4 = 18.SQ
The calculationresults areshownin Fig. 4.26.The bottomcurvegives the sagmagnitudeat
the 11 kV bus for faults at a 66 kV feeder, when the 11generatoris
kV not in operation.In that
case the sagm agnitudeat 11 kV equalsthe sagmagnitudeat 66 kV becauseall load currentshave
been neglected. The t op curve gives the sagmagnitudeat the 11kV bus withon-site generator
connected.Due to thegeneratorkeepingup thevoltageat the 11 kV bus, the sag magnitudenever
drops below 260/0. Thereare two methodsto further improve the supply. One canincreasethe
numberor sizeof the generators,which correspondsto decreasing2 4 in (4.16).Alternatively one
can increase2 3, which leads to a lower fault level at the 11 kV bus.
0.: ~::-er-a--'t~-rs-----r----.----
i
.~a 0.6 I
Without generators
"'0'
'1 ~
~
0.4
V}
0.2
oO~--w- 20 30 4'0
--.J
50 Figure 4.26 Sagmagnitudeversus distance,
Distanceto the faultin kilometers with and without on-site generator.
Section 4.2 • Voltage Sag Magnitude IS9
EXAMPLE Another exampleof the useof (4.16) is given bymeansof Fig. 4.27. This
figure representshalf of the transmissionsystem part of the examplein Fig. 4.21, containing
the substationsPAD-400 and EGG·400,plus 30 km of overhead400kV line in betweenthem.
The impedanceshave thefollowing values (in % at a 100 MVA base), withE the distancebe-
tween EGG-400and the fault:
Zt = 1.4%
Z2 = 0.OI8% / k m x £
2 3 = 0.54%
Z4 == 1.940/0
The impedance2 4 representsthe sourcecontributionfrom PEN-400at PAD-400; 2 3 represents
the impedanceof 30 km line (0.018%/km); 2 2 the impedancebetweenEGG-400and the fault,
and Zt the contribution through the non-faultedlines at EGG-400(excluding the contribution
from PAD-400) during the fault. The latter impedanceis likely to be different for faults on
different lines. In this study we assumedit to be simply equal to the contribution of all lines at
EGG-400minusthe line toPAD-400.As thereare atotal of nine linesconnectedto EGG-400the
error madewill not be very big.
Fault
Figure 4.27 Circuit diagramrepresentation
of two transmissionsubstations.The sensitive
load is fed from thesubstationon the left. Load
For faults to the right of EGG-400we can use (4.16) tocalculatethe voltageat PAD-400,
knowing the voltageat EGG-400.The latter can be obtainedfrom the voltagedivider equation
with the sourceimpedanceformed by the parallel connectionof 2, and 2 3 + Z4' Note that we
still neglect all loadcurrents,so that both sourcevoltagesare equal in magnitudeand in phase
and can bereplacedby one source. For faults betweenPAD-400 and EGG-400'the voltage
divider model will give the required voltage directly. The sourceimpedanceis now formed by
2 4; the feederimpedanceis O.018% / k m x C. with E the distancebetweenPAD-400and the fault.
The resultingsag magnitudeas afunction of the distanceto the fault isshown in Fig. 4.28. For
0.8
5.
.S
] 0.6
'ts 0.4
~
r.n
0.2
I
I
Figure 4.28 Sagmagnitudeas afunction of , I ----1.-------':
the distanceto the fault, for transmission 20 40 60 80 100
systems. Distance to the fault in kilometers
distances up to 30 km the sagmagnitudechanges with distance like in a radial system; for larger
distances themagnitudeincreases faster. Thus, the sag is less severe than for a fault at the same
distance in a radial system.
4.2.4.2 SubtransmissionLoops. At subtransmissionlevel, the networks often

consist of severalloops-atypical example is shown in Fig. 4.29. The transmission
system isconnectedto the subtransmissionsystem through two or three transfor-
mers. From the busses at the low-voltage side of thesetransformersa numberof sub-
stationsare fed via a loop. Such n aetwork configurationis also found inindustrial
power systems. Often the loop only consists of two branchesin parallel. The mathe-
matical expressionsthat will be derived below can also be used calculatevoltage
to
sags due to faults on parallel feeders.
Subtransmission
Figure 4.29 Example of subtransmission

loop.
To calculate the sagmagnitudewe need to identify the load bus, the faulted
branch, and the non-faulted branch. Knowing these theequivalent scheme in Fig.
4.30 isobtained,where Zo is the sourceimpedanceat the bus from which the loop is
fed; Zl is the impedanceof the faulted branchof the loop; Z2 is the impedanceof the
non-faulted branch; and p is the position of the fault on the faultedbranch (p = 0
correspondsto a fault at the bus from which the load is fed, p = 1 correspondsto a
fault at the load bus).
From Fig. 4.30 the voltage at the load bus can calculated,resulting
be in the
following expression:
v _ p(l-p)Zr
(4.18)
sag - ZO(ZI + Z2) + pZ t Z 2 + p(l - p)Z?
Fault
pZl 1 (I - p)ZJ
Load
Figure 4.30 Equivalent circuit for
subtransmission loop.
Section 4.2 • Voltage Sag Magn
itude 161
The voltage is zero forp = 0 (fault at the mainsubtransmissionbus) and forp = 1

(fault at the load bus) and has a maximum somewhere in between
.
EXAMPLE Consider the system shown in Fig . 4.31: a 125-km 132kV loop connect-
ing a number ofsubstations.Only the substationfeeding the load of interest is shown in the
figure. This substationis located at 25 km from the main substation. The fault level at the
point-of-supply is 5000 MVA and the feeder impedance 0.3 Qjkm. Faults occur both in the
25 km part and in the 100 km part of the loop , so that both may form the faulted branch . For
a fault on the 25 km branch we substitutein (4.18): Z\ = 25zand Z2 = 100z, with z the feeder
impedance per km. For a fault on the 100 km branch , we get Z\ 100z andZ2 25z. = =
............. ........ ...... ..............
132 kV
5000MVA . .....100km
......... .....:
J--- - ---,
Figure 4.31Loop systemoperatingat 132kV. Load
Figure 4.32gives the magnitudes of sags due to faults in the 132subtransmission

kV loop.
The dashed (top) curve gives the sagmagnitudefor faults on the 100 km branch, the solid
(bottom) curve holds for the 25 km branch. Note that the horizontal scale correspondsto
25 km for thebottomcurve and to 100 km for the top curve. Figure.33gives
4 the sag magnitudes
for the 100 km and 25 km feeder as a function of the actual distance between the fault and the
main 132 kV bus.For comparison, the magnitudeis also given for sags due to faults at a radial
feeder from the same main 132kV bus (dottedcurve).
0.8
So
=
~ 0.6
~ 0.4
e
~
en ,,
r
0.2 r
,,
,
' ~--
00 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Figure 4.32 Sagmagnitudesfor faults on a
Fault position
132kV loop.
We see from Fig. 4.32 and Fig. 4.33that each fault on the loop will cause the
voltage todrop below 50%of the nominal voltage. A sag due to a fault on a loop is
always lower than due to a fault on a radial feeder.
Faultsclose to thepoint-of-supply
will lead to a deep sag
. Faultsclose to the load too
. Somewhere in between there is a
5-
I':
:g 0.6
2
'10.41 ::: .:
ell
C':.'I
. •
: ,
en .,. ,
02 b~ \1 Figure 4.33 Sagmagnitudeversusdistance,

o0 --2·0 '"----4,.,.0--·-6
~0:---~8 0---..,-
1 00
for faults on loops (solid anddashedlines)
Fault position in kilometers
and on a radial feeder(dotted line).
maximum magnitudeof the voltage sag due to a fault. The longer the line the higher the
maximum . We see from the figure that this maximumis not necessarily in the middle of
the branch. The maximum voltage has beencalculatedas a function of the system
parameters . The results are shown in Fig. 4.34 and in Fig. 4.35.obtainTo thesegraphs
(4.18) has been rewritten as a function of ZI = and Z2 = ¥ ¥;
Zt is the relative impe-
dance of the faulted branch and Z2 of the non-faulted bran~h. Figure 4.34 gives the
maximum voltage as afunction of Z2 for variousvalues of Zl and Fig. 4.35 theother
way around. From both figures it follows that the sags become less severe (higher
maximum) when the faultedbranch becomes longer (higherimpedance)and when
the non-faulted branch becomesshorter. This can be explained as follows. A longer
faulted branchmeansthat the fault can befurther away from both busses. Ashorter
non-faultedbranchgivesstrongervoltage supportat the load bus. These relations can
easily beunderstoodby consideringa fault in the middleof the faulted branch.
The rangeof values used forboth ZI and Z2 is between I and 10.For smaller
z,
valuesof the sagmagnitudebecomes very small. Larger values do not give realistic
systems. One has to realize i
that is proportional to the fault level at thepoint-of-
supply. Thus,Z\ and Z2 indicate the variation in fault level for different points in the
system. A valueof 10 impliesthat there is at least faactor of six between the highest and
the lowest fault level.(Note that the twobranchesareoperatedin parallel.)Such a large
Figure 4.34 Mostshallow sag for a fault in a

loop , as afunction of the impedanceof the
2.5 5 7.5 10 non-faulted branchfor various values of the
Relative impedance of non-faulted branch
impedanceof the faulted branch.
Magnitude 163
Figure 4.35 Most shallow sag for a fault in a

loop, as a function of the impedance of the
faulted branch, for various values of the 2.5 5 ~5 10
impedance of thenon-faultedbranch. Relative impedance of faulted branch
range in fault level isratherunlikely in subtransmissionsystems, as it will lead to large

variationsin voltage due to loadvariations.
The generalconclusionfrom Figs. 4.34 and 4.35 is t hat faults on a loop lead to
sags with amagnitudewell below 50%,irrespectiveof the voltage levels. Asmentioned
ZI = Z2. For these we can
before a parallel feeder is a special case of a loop: one in which
concludethat the most shallow sag has magnitudebetween
a 20% and 30% for most
systems.
4.2.4.3 Branches from Loops.W hen a load is fed from a loop, like the ones
discussed above, a fault on branch
a away from that loop will also cause a sag. In
that case it is often possible to model the system as shown in Fig. 4.36. The feeder to
the fault does not necessarily have to be a single feeder, but could,represent
e.g., the
effective impedanceof another loop. The equivalentcircuit for the system in Fig.
4.36 is shown in Fig. 4.37: 21 is the sourceimpedanceat the mainsubtransmission
bus; 22 is the impedancebetweenthat bus and the bus from which the load is fed;
2 3 is the impedance between the bus from which the load is fed and the bus from
which the fault is fed; 24 and 25 are the impedancesbetween thelatter bus and the
main subtransmissionbus and the fault, respectively. The voltage at the load bus is
found from
~~+~~+~~+~~
Vsag -- (4.19)
2 122 + 2,23 + 2\24 + 2 522 + 2 523 + 2 524 + 2 422 + 2 423
Subtransmission
Figure 4.36 System with b

aranchaway from
a loop.
164 Chapter4 • Voltage Sags-Characterization
Figure4.37 Equivalentcircuit for system

with a branchaway from aloop, as in Fig.
4.36.
Normally closed Normally open
Fault
Figure4.38 Industrial system withbreakerat
intermediatevoltagelevel closed (left) and
Load Load open(right).
The sameexpressioncan be used to assess an industrialsystem in which bussplitting is

used at anintermediatevoltagelevel. An exampleof the supplyconfigurationin a large
industrial network is shown in Fig. 4.38. In the leftexample,two transformersare
operatedin parallel. Typically both"transformersfeed into a different part of the sub-
station bus, separatedthrougha circuit breaker.This enablesan uninterruptedsupply
after a bus fault. In thenetwork on the right the substationconsistsof two separate
busses,typically with a normally open breakerin between. In case the b reakerat an
intermediatevoltage level is closed, the sag due to a fault at this
voltage level will be
experiencedfully by the load. In case thebreakeris open the sag will bemitigated
according to (4.19). On the onehand, the source impedancewill be 'Iess when the
breakeris open, leading to a deepersag at theintermediatevoltage level. But on the
other hand, the sag at theload bus will be less deepthan at the faulted intermediate
voltage level.
EXAMPLE Considerthe systemshown in Fig. 4.38 with thefollowing voltagesand

fault levels: 2500MVA at 66 kV, 500MVA at 11 kV (with the breakerclosed),and 50 MVA
at 660 V. When the breakerconnectingthe two 11 kV busses iso pen, the circuit diagram in
Fig. 4.37 can be used tocalculatethe sagmagnitudeat the 660 V bus for a fault at an 11kV
feeder. From the fault levels given, the values
o f various impedancescan be calculated(all
referred to I] kV):
ZI =0.048(2
Z2=4.75Q
Z3 = 4.36Q
2 4 = 0.388(2
Z5 = 0.3 Q/km x £,
Section4.2 • Voltage Sag Magnitude 165
Normally open
Normally closed
Figure 4.39 Sag magnitude versus distance to

the fault, for an industrial system with and I 2 3 4 5
II kV bus.
without bus-splittingapplied to the Distanceto the faultinkilometers
with £, the distancebetweenthe 11 kV busand the fault, and a feederimpedanceof 0.3 Q/km.
When the 11 kV breakeris closed,the systemcan be treatedlike a radial systemwith a source
impedanceequal to Z. +!
Z4 and a feederimpedanceequalto Z5' A comparisonbetweenthese
two ways of systemoperationis given in Fig. 4.39.Bus-splitting(operatingthe systemwith the
11 kV breaker normally open) clearly limits the influence of 11 kV faults on the load. The
improvementis especiallylarge for nearby faults. For faults further away from the 11 kV sub-
stationthe effectbecomessmaller.But industrialmedium-voltagesystemsare seldomlargerthan
a few kilometers.We will come back to this and other ways of mitigating sagsthrough system
design and operationin Chapter7.
4.2.4.4 Parallel Operation across Voltage Levels. In many countries the sub-
transmissionsystem is not fed from thetransmissionsystem at onepoint but at a
number of points, resulting in a systemstructuresimilar to the one shown in Fig.
4.40. Thenumberof supply points for the subtransmissionsystem varies from coun-
try to country. The 275kV systems in the U.K. are fed like this; also the 130kV sys-
tem in Sweden and the 150kV system in Belgium [23].
This typeof configurationcan betreatedlike a loop thatextends over two voltage
levels.For a fault within the loop we can apply (4.18), for a fault on a feeder away from
the loop (4.19) can be used. The equationsremain the same independentof the voltage
level at which the fault takes place. The only thing that changes are theimpedance
values.
Transmission
Subtransmission
Figure 4.40 Parallel operation of
transmission and subtransmissionsystems.
4.2.5 Voltage Calculations In Meshed Systems
When the system becomes more complicatedthan the examples discussed pre-
viously, closed expressions for the voltage during the sag get complicatedand
very
unfeasible to handle.F or meshed systems, matrix calculations have proven to be
very efficient for computer-basedanalysis. Thecalculation of the voltagesduring a
fault is based on two principles from circuit theory:
Thevenin'ssuperpositiontheorem;
and the nodeimpedancematrix. Both are discussed in detail in many books on power
systems. Here we will only give a brief description.
• According to Thevenin'ssuperpositiontheorem voltages and currentsin the

systemduring a sag are the sum of two contributions:currentsand voltages
before the event, and currentsand voltages due to the change in voltage at the
fault position. Currentsand voltages before the fault are due to generators
all
across the system. Currentsand voltages due to the fault originateat a voltage
source at the fault position. Allother voltage sources are considered short-
circuited during the calculationof the latter contribution.
• The node impedance matrix Z relates node voltages and node currents:
V=ZI (4.20)
with V the vector of (complex) node voltages and I the vectorof (complex)
node currents.The node voltage is the voltage between a node and the refer-
ence node (typicallyground). The nodecurrent is equal to the sumof all
currents flowing toward a node. For most nodes the node c urrent is zero
according to Kirchhoff's current law. The only exception aregenerator
nodes, where the node current is the currentflowing from the generatorinto
the system.
Considera system withN nodes plus a reference node. The voltages before the
fault are denoted as viO). A short-circuit fault occurs at nodef. According to
Thevenin'ssuperpositiontheorem we can write the voltageduring the fault at any
node k as
(4.21)
where t:. Vk is the change in voltage at node

k due to the fault. Thislatterterm is due to
a voltage source -vjO) at the fault position. To calculate VAk all othervoltage sources
in the system areshort-circuited,so that nodef is the only node with anon-zeronode
current.After using theinformation, (4.20) becomes
l:1 Vk = Zkflf (4.22)
At the fault position (k =f) we know that l:1 Vf = - vjO) so that

V(O)
If=_L (4.23)
Zff
and
(4.24)
M agnitude 167
The pre-fault voltagesare normally close to unity, so that (4.24) can be approximated
by
(4.25)
The moment the node impedancematrix is known, calculatingsag magnitudes

becomesvery easy.The drawbackwith this methodis that the nodeimpedancematrix
needs to becalculated.This can be done through a recursive procedurewhere the
matrix is updatedfor each new branch added. Alternatively one can first calculate
the nodeadmittancematrix from the branchimpedances.T he nodeimpedancematrix
is the inverseof the nodeadmittancematrix.
EXAMPLE Considerthe circuit diagram shown in Fig. 4.41. Thiscircuit represents

a 275/400 kV system, with nodes 1 and representing400
2 kV substations;nodes 3, 4, and 5
representing275 kV substations;the branchesbetween 1 and 3 and betweenand 2 4 represent-
ing transformers(the latter two transformersin parallel). The impedancevalues indicated in
the figure are inpercentat a 100 MVA base.
Figure 4.41 Circuitdiagramrepresentationof

part of a 400/275kV system.
The node admittancematrix can be built easily from thebranch admittancesor impe-
dances. Anoff-diagonalelement Yk1 of the nodeadmittancematrix is equalto minus the admit-
tanceof the branchbetween nodesk and I. The elementis zero ifthereis no branchbetween these
two nodes. Thediagonalelement Ykk equalsthe sumof all admittancesof branchesto node k
including any branchbetweennode k and the reference node. For the circuit in Fig. 4.41 this
calculationleads to the nodeadmittancematrix
2.5719 -0.9091 -0.6211 0 0

-0.9091 4.5981 0 -1.25 0
y= -0.6211 0 2.0497 0 -1.4286 (4.26)
0 -1.25 0 2.7206 -1.4706
0 0 -1.4286 -1.4706 2.8992
The nodeimpedancematrix is obtainedby inverting the nodeadmittancematrix
0.5453 0.1771 0.3889 0.2548 0.3209

0.1771 0.3344 0.2439 0.3012 0.2730
z= y- I = 0.3889 0.2439 1.2534 0.6144 0.9292 (4.27)
0.2548 0.3012 0.6144 0.9225 0.7707
0.3209 0.2730 0.9292 0.7707 1.1937
The voltage at node 5 due to a fault at node 2 is
=
Vs = 1 - Z52 = 1 _ 0.2730 0.1836 (4.28)
Z22 0.3344
TABLE 4.7 Voltage Sagsin the System Shownin Fig. 4.41
Fault at Node
Voltage at Node 2 3 4 5
I 0 0.4704 0.6897 0.7238 0.7312

2 0.6753 0 0.8054 0.6735 0.7713
3 0.2869 0.2706 0 0.3340 0.2216
4 0.5327 0.0993 0.5098 0 0.3544
5 0.4116 0.1837 0.2586 0.1646 0
Table 4.7 gives the voltage at any node due to a fault atothernode.
any We see, e.g.,
that for node
5 a fault at node 2 is more severe than a fault at node 1. This
understandable
is as the source at
node 2 isstrongerthan the source at node l.
4.3 VOLTAQE SAG DURATION
4.3.1 Fault-Clearing Time
We have seen inSection4.2 that the drop in voltageduring a sag is due to a s hort
circuit being presentin the system. Themomentthe short-circuitfault is clearedby the
protection,the voltagecan return to its original value. Thedurationof a sag ismainly
determinedby the fault-clearingtime, but it may belongerthan the fault-clearingtime.
We will come back to thisfurther on in this section.
Generallyspeakingfaults in transmissionsystems arecleared fasterthanfaults in
distribution systems. Intransmissionsystems thecritical fault-clearing time is rather
small. Thus, fast protectionand fast circuit breakersare essential.Also transmission
and subtransmissionsystems arenormally operatedas a grid,requiring distancepro-
tection or differential protection,both of which are ratherfast. The principal form of
protectionin distribution systems isovercurrentprotection.This requiresoften some
time-gradingwhich increasesthe fault-clearingtime. An exceptionare systems in which
current-limiting fuses are used.Thesehave theability to clear afault within one half-
cycle [6], [7].
An overview of the fault-clearing time of various protectivedevices is given in
reference [8].
• current-limiting fuses: lessthan one cycle

• expulsionfuses: 10-1000 ms
• distancerelay with fast breaker:50-100ms
• distancerelay in zone 1:100-200ms
• distancerelay in zone 2:200-500ms
• differential relay: 100-300ms
• overcurrentrelay: 200-2000ms
Some typicalfault-clearingtimes atvariousvoltagelevels for a U.S. utility are given in.

reference [9].
Section4.3 I Voltage Sag Duration 169
Voltage Level Best Case Typical Worse Case

525 kV 33 ms 50 ms 83 ms
345 kV 50 ms 67 ms 100 ms
230 kV 50 ms 83 ms 133 ms
115 kV 83 ms 83 ms 167 ms
69 kV 50 ms 83 ms 167 ms
34.5 kV 100 ms 2 sec 3 sec
12.47 kV 100 ms 2 sec 3 sec
From this list it becomesclear that the sag duration will be longer when a sag originates
at a lower voltage level. Many utilities operatetheir distribution feedersin such a way
that most faults are clearedwithin a few cycles. Such a way of operation was discussed
in detail in Chapter 3. But even for those feeders,a certain percentageof faults will lead
to long sags. The difference between the two ways of operation is discussedin more
detail in Section 7.1.3.
4.3.2 Magnitude-Duration Plots
Knowing the magnitude and duration of a voltage sag, it can be presentedby a

point in a magnitude-durationplane. This way of sag characterizationhas been shown
to be extremely useful for various types of studies. We will use it in forthcoming
chaptersto describeboth equipmentand systemperformance.Various types of magni-
tude-durationplots will be discussedin Section 6.2. The magnitude-durationplot will
also be usedin Chapter 6 to presentthe results of power quality surveys.An exampleof
a magnitude-durationplot is shown in Fig. 4.42. The numbersin Fig. 4.42 refer to the
following sag origins:
1. Transmissionsystem faults
2. Remote distribution system faults
3. Local distribution system faults
4. Starting of large motors
5. Short interruptions
6. Fuses
Consider the general system configuration shown in Fig. 4.43. A short-circuit

fault in the local distribution network will typically lead to a rather deep sag. This is
lOO%
80%
0% ,,7---
Figure 4.42 Sags of different origin in a 0.1s Is
magnitude-duration
plot. Duration
Transmission network
Local distribution Remote distribution

network network
Figure 4.43 Generalstructureof power
system, withdistribution and transmission
Load networks.
due to the limitedlength of distribution feeders. When the fault occurs in remotea
distribution network, the sag will be much moreshallowdue to thetransformerimpe-
dancebetween the fault and the pee. For a fault in anydistribution network, the sag
durationmay be up to a few seconds.
Transmissionsystem faults are typically cleared within 50 to 100rns, thus leading
to short-durationsags.Current-limitingfuses lead to· sag d urationsof one cycle or less,
and rather deep sags if the fault is in the local distribution or low-voltage network.
Faultsin remotenetworks,clearedby current-limitingfuses, lead toshortand shallow
sags,not indicatedin the figure. Finally the figurecontainsvoltage sags due to m otor
starting,shallowand long duration(see Section 4.9)and shortinterruptions,deep and
long duration(seeChapter3).
4.3.3 Measurement of Sag Duration
Measurementof sag duration is much less trivialthan it might appearfrom the

previoussection. For a sag like in Fig. 4.1 it isobvious that the duration is about 2!
cycles.However, to come up with anautomaticway for a power quality monitor to
obtain the sagduration is no longer straightforward,A commonly useddefinition of
sag duration is the numberof cycles during which the rms voltage is below a given
threshold.This thresholdwill be somewhatdifferent for eachmonitor but typical values
are around 900/0. A power quality monitor will typically calculatethe rms value once
overestimationof the sagdurationasshownin Fig. 4.44. The
every cycle. This gives an
t t f
Calculated X X
rmsvalues
Calculation
interval
~ Figure 4.44 Estimationof sag duration by
,,,
I I I power quality monitor for a two-cycle sag:
overestimationby one cycle(uppergraph);
Calculation instants correctestimation(lower graph).
D uration 171
normal situation is shown in theupper figure. The rmscalculation is performedat

regular instants in time and the voltage sag starts somewhere in between two of
thoseinstants.As there is nocorrelationbetween thecalculationinstantsand the sag
commencement,this is the most likelysituation.We seethat the rms value is low for
three samples in a row. The sag durationaccordingto the monitor will be three cycles.
Here it is assumedthat the sag is deepenoughfor the intermediaterms value to be
below the threshold. For shallow sagsboth intermediatevalues might beabove the
thresholdand themonitor will record a one-cycle sag. The bottom curve of Fig. 4.44
shows the raresituationwhere the sagcommencement almostcoincides with one of the
instantson which the rms voltage iscalculated.In that case themonitor gives the
correctsagduration.
Calculating the rms voltage once a· cycle, it is obvious that the resulting sag
durationwill be an integernumberof cycles.For a 2!-cycle sag thecomputedduration
will be either two or three cycles. But even when a sliding window is used calculate
to
the rms voltage as faunction of time, anerroneoussagdurationmight result. To show
this possibleerror for a measuredsag, we haveplottedin Fig. 4.45 the half-cycle rms of
the sag shown in Fig. 4.1,togetherwith the absolutevalueof the measuredvoltage. The
"actual sag duration" obtainedfrom the suddendrop and rise in the voltage is 2.4
cycles.For largethresholdsthe recorded sag d urationwill be an overestimation.A 90%
thresholdgives a 2.8 cycle sag d uration,and 80% thresholda 2.5 cyclesduration. For
lower thresholdsthe recorded sagduration is an underestimation:a 60% threshold
gives a 2.1 cycledurationand a400/0 thresholda 2.0 cycleduration.In reality, thresh-
olds this low willnot be used, but the same effect will be
obtainedwhen thedepthof the
sag is varied and the thresholdis kept constant.The durationof deep sags will be over-
estimated,and thedurationof shallow onesunderestimated.
As the shortest-durationwindow for calculatingthe sagmagnitudeis one half-
cycle, an error up to one half-cycle must be accepted. Several methodshave been
suggested tomeasuresaginitiation and voltage recovery more accurately.These meth-
ods also give a moreaccuratevalue of sag duration [134], [201], [202]. Using the
fundamentalvoltage componentresults in a similartransition betweenpre-sagand
during-sagvoltage, thus similarerrorsin sagduration. Using the half-cycle peak vol-
tage will give a muchsharpertransition,as long as sag initiation and voltage recovery
are close to voltagemaximum.Saginitiation and voltage recoverya roundthe voltage
zero-crossingwill give a smoothertransitionand a largeruncertainlyin sagduration.
1.2r - - - - r - - - - , - - - - - - - , - - - - - - - r - - - r - - - - - ,
I
'~I ",'\
;'~
I ,\
" I' " ,",

, I ,'~ : : "
"
/. '.
" " I'
=' 0.8 :: I I, ' I
't
I
," , ,1
I I
Q.. ' I , I II , I
s:: ' I , II I I I '
.....
~ 0.6' :: :::
I , I " ::
,, '
I I I
I
,
\,
: :: : ,I I
S r I I I I I I I I " ,I '
~ :'::: , I' I I I I I
I • I I I I
It' ,
04 1 I I I t
,,'
.1
,, " ,I •
I
• ;:' I
" r, ",I , "I,

I
" "
"
" ,, I
,f """
" : ,\'l\:II,:
i
0.2 L .: :I~: "
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
I
I
~, " " " " I
oU
~ II : "~
, ~
'~.
" "
"
"
"
Figure 4.45 Half-cycle rms voltage together I
I
_---a....'_'-L..---L.~--...L--___L_:..____:._...:.J._l.___U.__---L-__:.J
with absolutevalue of the voltage(dashed o 1 234 5 6
line) of the sag shown inFig. 4.1. Timein cycles
The above-mentionederror in sagduration is only significant forshort-duration

sags.For longer sags it does not really matter. But for longer sags the so-called post-
fault sag will give a seriousuncertaintyin sagduration. When the fault is cleared the
voltage does not recover immediately. Some of this effect can be seen in Fig. 4.3 and
Fig. 4.4. The rms voltage after the sag is slightly lower than before the sag. The effect
can be especially severe for sags due to three-phase faults.explanationfor
The this
effect is as follows[17], [18]. Due to thedrop in voltage during the sag,induction
motors will slow down. The torqueproducedby an induction motor is proportional
to the squareof the voltage, so even rathersmall
a drop in voltage can already produce
a large drop intorque and thus in speed. The moment the fault is cleared and the
voltage comes back, the induction motorsstart to draw a largecurrent:up to 10 times
their nominalcurrent.Immediately after the sag, the air-gap field will have to be built
up again . Inother words, theinduction motor behaves like ashort-circuitedtransfor-
mer. After the flux has come back into the air gap, motorthe can start re-accelerating
which also requires aratherlargecurrent. It is this post-faultinrush currentof induc-
tion motorswhich leads to an extended sag. The post-fault sag can last several seconds,
much longer than the actual sag.
Such apost-faultsag will causeuncertaintyin the sagdurationas obtainedby a
power quality monitor: different monitors can give different results. This is shown
schematically in Fig. 4.46. Assume that monitor I has a setting as indicated, and
monitor 2 a slightly higher setting. Bothmonitors will record a sagduration much
longer than the fault-clearing time. The fault-clearing time canestimated
be from the
duration of the deeppart of the sag. We see t hat monitor 2 will record a significantly
longer duration than monitor 1.
A measured sag with a long post-faultcomponentis shown in Fig. 4.47. The three
phases are shown in the same figurebetterindicate
to thepost-faultvoltage sag. Note
that the sag isunbalancedduring the fault, but balanced after the fault.
The rms voltage versus time for the sag shown in Fig. 4.47 plottedin
is Fig. 4.48.
We see a largedrop in voltage in two phases and a small one in third the phase. The
fault-clearing time isabout four cycles; the fault leading to this sag took place at
132kV, the voltages were measured at II kV. The sag duration has been determined
as the timeduring which the rms voltage is belowcertainthreshold
a . Figure 4.49 plots
this durationas a function of thethreshold,for the three phases. One of the phases only
drops to 88% sothat any thresholdsetting below 88% will give zero sag durationfor
that phase . The sagdurationobtainedfor the other two phases isa boutfour cycles for
thresholds below 90% , increasing fast for higher threshold settings.
Duration monitor 1
Time Figure 4.46 Error in sag
durationdue to
Duratio n monitor 2 post-fault sag.
Section 4.3 • Voltage SagDu ration 173
0.5
-0.5
- IL ~----:'=-----;';=---'
Figure4.47 Measuredsagwith a clear post- 5 15
fault component(Data obtainedfrom
o 10
Timein cycles
ScottishPower.)
0.8
6-
.S
ll>
;> 0.6
~
en
~ 0.4
0.2
5 10 15
Figure 4.48 The rms voltagesversustime for Timein cycles
the sagshownin Fig. 4.47.
12
10
c:
0
'p
8
~eo
oS
6
'"
-e
~
.~
e 4
\l.l
Figure 4.49 Sagdurationversusthreshold 0

0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95
settingfor the threephasesof the sagshown Thresholdin pu
in Figs. 4.47 and 4.48.
4.4 THREE-PHASE UNBALANCE
The analysisof sag magnitudepresentedin the previous sectionsconsidersonly one

phase.For example, the voltage divider model in Fig. 4.14 was introducedfor three-
phase faults: theimpedancesused inthat figure are thepositive-sequence values. But
most shortcircuits in powersystems are single phase or two phase.that In case we need
to take all three phases intoaccountor use thesymmetricalcomponenttheory. A good
and detaileddescriptionof the useof symmetricalcomponentstheory for the analysis
of non-symmetricalfaults is given in reference [24] and in several
otherbooks on power
system analysis and not is repeatedhere. We will only use the results of the theory to
calculatethe voltages in the three phases due to non-symmetrical
a s hort circuit.
For non-symmetricalfaults the voltage divider in Fig. 4.14 can still be used but it
has to be split into its threecomponents:a positive-sequencenetwork, a negative-
sequencenetwork, and azero-sequencenetwork. The threecomponentnetworksare
shown in Fig. 4.50, whereVI, V2, and Vo representpositive-, negative-, and zero-
sequence voltage, respectively, at the pee;ZSb ZS2' and Zso are the source impedance
values andZFt, ZF2, and ZFO the feederimpedancevalues in the threecomponents.The
three componentsof the fault current are denotedby I., 12 , and 10 , The positive-
sequence source denotedby
is E. Thereis no source in the negative and zero-sequence
networks. The threecomponentnetworks have to beconnectedinto one equivalent
circuit at the faultposition.The connectionof the componentnetworksdependson the
fault type. For a three-phasefault all threenetworksare shortedat the fault position.
This leads to thestandardvoltage divider model for the positive sequence, and zero
voltage andcurrentfor the negative and zero sequences.
4.4.1 Single-Phase Faults
For a single-phasefault, the threenetworksshown in Fig. 4.50should be con-

nected in series at the fault
position. The resulting circuit for a single-phase fault in
Figure 4.50 Positive- (top), negative- (center),

and zero-(bottom)sequence networks for the
voltage divider shown in Fig. 4.14.
Section 4.4 • Three-Phase
Unbalance 175
F~gure 4.51 Equivalent circuit for a single-

phase fault.
phasea, isshownin Fig. 4.51.Ifwe againmakeE = 1, like in the single-phasemodelin

Fig. 4.14, thefollowing expressionsare obtainedfor the componentvoltagesat the pee:
VI = ZFI + ZS2 + ZF2 + Zso+ ZFO (4.29)

(2F I + ZF2 + 2 FO) + (2s1 + ZS2 + 2 so)
(4.30)
(4.31)
The voltagesin the threephasesat the peeduring the fault are obtainedby transform-
ing back from sequencedomain to phasedomain:
Va = VI + V2 + Vo
2
Vb = a VI + aV2 + Vo (4.32)
Vc = aVI + a2 V2 + Vo
For the faulted phasevoltage Va we get
Va = ZFI + Zn + ZFO (4.33)

(2F t + ZF2 + ZFO) + (ZSI + ZS2 + ZSO)
We can obtain the original voltagedivider equation(4.9) by defining 2 F = 2 F l +
ZF2 + ZFO and Zs = ZSl + ZS2 + Zso.Thus,the voltagedivider modelof Fig. 4.14and
(4.9) still holds for single-phasefaults. The condition thereby is that the resulting
voltage is the voltage in the faulted phase,and that the impedancevalues used are
the sumof the positive-,negative-,andzero-sequence i mpedances.F rom(4.29) through
(4.32) wecan calculatethe voltagesin the non-faultedphases,which resultsinto the
following expressionsfor the three voltages:
Va = 1 _ ZSI +ZS2 +ZSO

(2 F1 + 2 F2 + 2 FO) + (2S 1+ ZS2 + ZSO)
2
Vb = a2 _ a ZSI + aZS2 + Zso (4.34)
(ZFl + ZF2 + 2 FO) + (ZSI + ZS2 + ZSO)
2ZS2
V
c
=a _ aZSI + a + Zso
(2 F1 + ZF2 + ZFO) + (2 S 1+ ZS2 + 2 so)
Note that the expressionfor Va has been slightlyrewritten to explicitly obtain the
voltagedrop as aseparateterm.
Thesevoltagesare shownas aphasordiagramin Fig. 4.52. The voltagedrop in
the non-faultedphasesconsistsof three terms:
• a voltagedrop proportionalto the positive-sequence s ourceimpedance,a long

the direction of the pre-fault voltage.
• a voltagedrop proportionalto the negative-sequence sourceimpedance,a long
the direction of the pre-fault voltagein the other non-faultedphase.
• a voltagedrop proportionalto the zero-sequence s ourceimpedance,a long the
direction of the pre-fault voltagein the faulted phase.
- a2ZS2 -aZsl
-zso \..\
\\Vc
Figure 4.52 Phase- to-groundvoltagesduring

a single-phasefault.
The voltage between the twonon-faultedphasesis
(4.35)
We seethat the changein this voltage is only due to thedifferencebetweenpositive-

sequenceand negative-sequence sourceimpedances.As these two arenormally about
equal, the voltage betweenthe non-faultedphasesis normally not influenced by the
fault. Below we will simplify the expressions(4.34) and (4.35) for two cases:
• Positive-, negative-,and zero-sequences ourceimpedancesare equal.

• Positive- and negative-sequence sourceand feeder impedancesare equal.
Unbalance 177
4.4.1.1Solidly-GroundedSystems. In a solidly-grounded system, the source im-

pedances in the three sequencecomponentsare oftenaboutequal. The three voltage
drops in thenon-faultedphases now cancel, resulting in the following voltages during
the fault:
_ _ ZSl
Va - 1
3(ZFl + ZF2 + ZFO) + ZSI
2
Vb = a (4.36)
Vc =a
The voltage in the faulted phase is the same as during a three-phase fault, the voltages
in the non-faultedphase are not affected.
4.4.1.2 Impedance-GroundedSystems. In a resistance or high-impedance

groundedsystem, the zero-sequence source impedance differs significantly from the
positive and negative-sequence source impedances. We can, however, assumethat the
latter two are equal. Also in systems where the source impedance consists for a large
part of line or cable impedances (e.g., in transmission systems) positive- and zero-se-
quence impedances can be significantly different. The resulting expressions for the
ZSI = ZS2 and ZFl = ZF2:
voltages at the pee during a single-phase fault are, when
Va = 1 _ Zso+ 2Zs1
(2Z F1 + 2 FO) + (2ZS1 + ZSO)
Vb = a2 _ ZSO - 22s 1
(2ZFJ + ZFQ) + (2Zs1 + Zso) (4.37)
V
c
=a _ Zso - 2Zs1
(22F1 + ZFO) + (22s 1 + ZSO)
The voltagedrop in .the non-faultedphases onlycontainsa zero-sequence component
(it is the same inboth phases). We will see later
that the zero-sequence componentof
the voltage is rarely ofimportancefor the voltage sag as experienced equipment
at
terminals. Sags at the same voltage level asequipment
the terminals are rare.During the
transfer of the sag down to lower voltage levels, thetransformersnormally block the
zero-sequence componentof the voltage. Even if the fault occurs at the same voltage
level as the equipment terminals, the
equipmentis normally connected in delta so it will
not notice the zero-sequencecomponentof the voltage. Thus the voltage drop in the
non-faultedphases is not ofimportancefrom an equipmentpoint of view. We can
therefore add a zero-sequence voltage to (4.37) suchthat the voltagedrop in the non-
faulted phases disappears. The resulting expressions are
va, -- Va+ Zso - ZSl _ 1_

-
3ZS1
(22F 1 + ZFO) + (2Z S1 + 2 so) (2Z F l + 2 FO) + (22s 1 + ZSO)
n= Vb + (2Z ZSO - ZSl
F 1 + 2 FO) + (22s 1 + 2 so)
= a2 (4 38)
·
, V
vc= ZSO -ZSI
c+ (2Z + ZFO) + (2Z + Zso) =a
Ft S1
The expression for the voltage in the faulted phase is somewhat rewritten, to enable a
comparisonwith (4.36):
(4.39)
Neutral
point Figure 4.53Three-phasevoltage divider
model.
The denominatorcontainsan additional term !(Zso - 2 S1) comparedto (4.36). This

can beinterpretedas anadditionalimpedancebetween the pee a nd the fault. When this
impedanceis positive, thus when Zso > ZSI, the sag becomes more shallow. In resis-
tance and reactance-groundedsystems, Zso» ZSl' so that even a terminal fault,
ZFI + ZF2 + ZFO = 0, will lead to ashallow sag.
Note that in solidly-groundedsystems, thezero-sequence sourceimpedancemay
be lessthan the positive-sequence one, Zso < ZSl' so that the additionalimpedanceis
negative.For nearbyfaults, we will thus obtain a negativevoltage V;.
All this might look like a mathematicaltrick to get rid of the voltagedrop in the
non-faultedphases.T hereis, however, some physical significance to this. To show this,
the three-phasevoltage divider is drawn in a commonly used way [24] in Fig. 4.53.
From this model we cancalculatethe phase-to-neutralvoltages at the pee; with E= 1
the calculationresultsinto
V-I _ 3ZS 1
an - (2Z F 1 + ZFO) + (2ZS 1 + 2 so)
2 (4.40)
Vbn = a
Vcn =a
The correspondence between (4.40)a nd (4.38) isobvious. The voltages in (4.38)
thus correspondto thephase-to-neutralvoltages.Note that the "neutral" in Fig. 4.53 is
not a physicalneutralbut a kind of mathematicalneutral.In resistance-or high-impe-
dancegroundedsystems the physical neutral(Le., thestarpoint of the transformer)is a
good approximationof this "mathematicaln eutral."The expressionsderived not only
hold for resistance-grounded systems, but for each system in which we can assume
positive- andnegative-sequence impedancesequal.
EXAMPLE Consider again the system shown in Fig. 4.21, and assume that a single-
phase fault occurs on one of the 132 kV feeders. The 132 kV system is solidly grounded, there-
fore the positive- and zero-sequence source impedances are similar. For the feeders, the zero-
sequence impedance is about twice the positive- and negative- sequence impedance. Positive-
and negative-sequence impedance are assumed equal.
ZSI = ZS2 = 0.09+j2.86%
Zso = 0.047+ j2.75°A>

ZFt = ZF2 = 0.101 + jO.257°A>/km
ZFO = 0.23+ jO.65°A>/km
Section 4.4 • Three-Phase Unbalance 179
0.8 Single-phasefault
Three-phasefault
Figure 4.54 Voltage in the faulted phase for

single-phase and three-phase faults on a 132 10 20 30 40 50
kV feeder in Fig. 4.21. Distanceto the fault inkilometers
By using the above-given equations, the voltages in the three phases have been calculated for
single-phase as well as for three-phase faults. The results for the faulted phase are shown in Fig.
4.54. The difference is mainly due to the difference in feeder impedance. Note that it is assumed
here that the feeders are at least 50km long, where they are in reality only 2 km long. The zero-
sequence feeder impedance increases faster than the positive-sequenceimpedance, with increasing
distance to the fault. Therefore single-phase faults lead to slightly smaller voltage drops than
As we saw from the equations above, it is the average of the three sequence
three-phase faults.
impedances which determines the voltage drop due to single-phase faults. The voltages in the non-
faulted phases showed only a very small change due to the single-phase fault.
EXAMPLE The voltages due to single-phase faults have been calculated for the II
kV system in Fig.4.21. As this system is resistance grounded, the zero-sequence source impe-
dance is considerably larger than the positive-sequence impedance.
ZSI = ZS2 = 4.94+ j65.9 %
Zso= 787+ j220%

ZFI = ZF2 = 9.7 +j26%/km
ZFO = 18.4+ jI12 % / k m
Note the large zero-sequence source impedance, especially its resistive part. The voltage in the
faulted phase for three-phase and single-phase faults is shown in Fig. 4.55 as a function of the
distance to the fault. The larger source impedance for single-phase faults more than compensates
the larger feeder impedance, which makes that single-phase faults cause deeper sags than three-
phase faults.
In a solidly-groundedsystem the voltage in anon-faultedphase staysabout the

sameduring a single-phasefault. In a resistance-grounded system the voltage in the
and 4.57. Figure 4.56
non-faultedphases increases. This effect is shown in Figs. 4.56
shows the voltagemagnitudeversusdistanceto the fault and Fig. 4.57 the p ath of the
voltages in the complex plane. The circles and arrowsindicatethe
the complex voltages
during normaloperation.The curvesindicate the path of the complex voltages with
varyingdistanceto the fault. Where thefaulted phase shows darop in voltage, the non-
faulted phases show a large increase in voltage, for one phaseincreasing170%
even of
the nominal voltage. From Fig. 4.57 we seethat all three voltages are shifted over a
180 Chapter 4 • VoltageS ags-Characterization
0.8 Three-phasefault
[
.S Single-phasefault
.s 0.6
·1
~ 0.4
f
tI)
0.2
Figure 4.55 Voltage in the faulted phase for

5 10 15 20 single-phaseand three-phase faults on11an
Distanceto the fault inkilometers kV feeder in Fig. 4.21.
1.8,..-----r------.,..-------r------,
1.6
~ 1.4
.S 1.2
t
Non-faultedphases
E 0.8
«)
I 0.6 Faultedphase
'0
:> 0.4
0.2 Figure 4.56 Voltage in the faulted and non-
faulted phases for a single-phase fault on an
0 20 11 kV feeder in Fig. 4.21, as a function of the
0 5 10 15
Distanceto the fault in
kilometers distance to the fault.
1.5...---....---........-----.----r----r----r-------.
,
~
«)
~,. 1\ ,
\
\
<a 0.5
\
\
,
i \
\~
~ 0 I .>
·st , I
I
E
....-0.5 /
I
-1 '---___'___ _- ' - - _ - . . I_ _---'-_ _- ' - - ' _ - - - ' _ - - - - J

-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 Figure 4.57 Complex voltages due to a fault
Realpart of voltage on an 11 kV feeder in Fig. 4.21.
Section 4.4 • Three-PhaseUnbalance 181
similar distance in the complex plane. The effect of this

commonshift (a zero-sequence
component)is that the phase-to-phase voltages do not change much.
The phase-to-phase voltages have been calculated from the complex phase vol-
tagesby using the following expressions:
v _ Va - Vb
ab - .J3
Vb - Vc
VIn· = .J3 (4.41)
_ V - Va
Vca - c.J3
The factor .J3 is needed to ensure

that the pre-fault phase-to-phase voltages are 1 pu.
The resulting voltagemagnitudesare shown in Fig. 4.58: note the difference in vertical
scalecomparedto the previous figures. We see that the phase-to-phasevoltages are not
much influencedby single-phase faults. The lowest voltage magnitudeis 89°/0, the
highest 101°/0.
Figure 4.59comparesphase-to-ground voltage, according to (4.37), and
phase-to-
neutralvoltage,accordingto (4.40). We see t hat the drop in phase-to-neutralvoltage is
1.05r - - - - - , - - - - - - r - - - - - - . - - - - - - - ,
a
.8
QJ
~
.~ 0.95
e
j
~ 0.9
Figure 4.58Phase-to-phase voltages due to a 0.85

single-phase fault on an II kV feeder in Fig. 0 5 10 15 20
4.21, as a function of the distance to the fault. Distanceto the fault inkilometers
1'-- -
0.8
a
.8
~ 0.6
.~
t 0.4
e I
/
/
f I
,,
I
(/)
0.2 ,,
,
,
,
I
Figure 4.59Phase-to-ground(dashed) and
phase-to-neutral
(solid) voltages due to single- 5 10 15 20
phase faults on an II kV feeder in Fig. 4.21. Distanceto the fault inkilometers
very small. As explained before, this is due to the large zero-sequence source impe-
dance. Also notethat the lowestphase-to-neutral
voltage occurs for anon-zerodistance
to the fault.
4.4.2 Phase-to-Phas. Faults
For a phase-to-phase fault the positive- and negative-sequence

networksare con-
nected in parallel, as shown in Fig. 4.60. The zero-sequence voltagescurrentsare
and
zero for aphase-to-phase fault.
Figure 4.60 Equivalent circuit for a phase-to-

phase fault.
The sequence voltages at the pee are
VI =E-E ZSI
(ZSl + 2 S2) + (2£1 + 2£2)
V - ZS2 (4.42)
2- (ZSI + ZS2)+ (Z£I + Z£2)
Vo =0
The phase voltages can be found from (4.42) by using (4.32). This results in the follow-
E = 1:
ing expressions, again with
Va = 1 _ ZSI - ZS2
(ZSl + ZS2)+ (2 F1 + 2£2)
2ZS1
V 2 a - aZS2
(4.43)
b =a - (2s1 + ZS2)+ (2F1 + 2 F2)
2ZS2
V =a _ aZSI - a
(ZSI + ZS2) + (2 F t
C
+ 2£2)
In thecalculationof the componentvoltages andcurrents,it has been assumed
that the
fault is between the phases
bandc. Thus a is thenon-faultedphase, andbandc are the
Unbalance 183
faulted phases.F rom (4.43) we seethat the voltagedrop in the non-faulted phase
depends onthe difference between the positive and negative-sequence source impe-
dances. As these arenormally equal, the voltage in the
non-faultedphase will not be
influenced by the phase-to-phasefault. Under the assumption, ZSI = ZS2 (4.43)
becomes
Va = 1
2
Vb = a2 _ (a - a)Zsl
22s 1 + 2ZF1 (4.44)
(a2 - a)Zsl
Vc=a+-----
2Zs 1 +2ZF 1
We seethat the voltagedrop in the faulted phases is equal magnitude
in 2Z z;~z but
drop iss~loJg the
opposite in direction. The direction in which the two phase voltages
pre-fault phase-to-phase Vb - VC •
voltage between the faulted phases,
From (4.43) we can derive the following expression for the voltage between the
faulted phases
Vb - Vc = ZFI + ZF2 (a2 - a) (4.45)

(ZSI + ZS2) + (ZFI + ZF2)
When we realizethat (a2 - a) is the pre-fault voltage between the two faulted phases,
the resemblance with the single-phase voltage divider of Fig. 4.14 and (4.9) becomes
immediately clear.t he same expressions as for the three-phasefault can be used, but
for the voltages between the faulted phases; the impedances in the expression are the
sum of positive and negative sequence values.
EXAMPLE Considerphase-to-phase faults on one of the 33 kV feeders in the system

shown in Fig. 4.21. The impedance values needed to calculate the voltages
during a phase-to-
phase fault are as follows:
ZSI = ZS2 = 1.23+j18.3%

ZFl = ZF2 = 1.435+ j3.l02 %/km
The resulting complex voltages are shown in Fig. 4.61. The circles and the arrows indicate the pre-
fault voltages; the cross indicates the voltages in the faulted phases for a fault at the 33 kV bus.
, ,,
I',' .
u ,
, 0.5 ,,
,,
~
~
,,
o ,
i 0 \------------~~_:.o
, ..
,,
.i
~-0.5 I
I
I
I
I
I
I
• I
I,
1///
-1 "--------'---_ _--'---_ _ ....L-- -..J
Figure 4.61Complex voltages due to a phase- -1 -0.5 0 0.5

to-phase fault (solid line). Realpart of voltage
We see how the voltages in the two faulted phases movetowardeach other. Thedeviationof their
path from astraight line is due to the difference in
X /R ratio between source and feeder impe-
dance. This is a subject to be discussedfurther
in detail in Section 4.5.
4.4.3 Two-Phase-to-Ground Faults
Single-phaseand phase-to-phase faults have beendiscussedin the two previous

sections.The only asymmetricalf ault type remainingis the two-phase-to-groundfault.
For a two-phase-to-ground f ault the threesequencenetworksare connectedin parallel,
as shown in Fig. 4.62. It isagain possibleto calculatecomponentvoltagesand from
thesecalculatevoltagesin the threephasesin the sameway asdonefor the single-phase
and phase-to-phase faults.
The sequencevoltagesat the pee for afault betweenphasesbandc and ground
are given by thefollowing expressions:
VI = 1 _ ZSI (Zso + ZFO + ZS2+ ZF2)
D
V = ZS2(ZSO+ ZFO) (4.46)
2
D·
V
o
=
ZSO(ZS2+ ZF2)
D
with
(4.47)
From (4.46) it is possibleto calculatethe phase-to-groundvoltagesin the threephases
V-I (2 S2 - 2 S1)(2so + 2 FO) (2so - 2 SI)(2s 2 + 2 F2)
a- + D + D
2ZSI)Z2
V - 2
a
(aZS2- ~ZSI)ZO (ZSO - a (4.48)
h- + D + D
2ZS2
V _ (a - aZsl)Zo (Zso - aZSI)Z2
l' -a+ D + D
Figure 4.62 Equivalent circuit for a two-

phase-to-groundfault.
Section 4.4 • Three-PhaseUnbalance 18S
There are two effects which causechangein

a voltage in thenon-faultedphase(Va): the
difference between the positive- and the negative-sequence sourceimpedance;and the
difference between the positive- and the zero-sequence source impedance . For both
effects the non-faulted phase voltagedrops when the positive-sequenceimpedance
increases. Negative- and positive-sequenceimpedanceare normally rather close, so
that the second term in (4.48) may be neglected. The third term, which dependson
the difference between zero- and positive-sequencesource impedance,could cause a
seriouschangein voltage. As thezero-sequence sourceimpedanceis often largerthan
the positive-sequenceone, we expect a rise in voltage in the non-faultedphase. Like
with single-phasefaults we caneliminate this term by consideringphase-to-neutral
voltagesinsteadof phase-to-groundvoltages .
Looking at the voltages in thefaulted phases and realizing that ZSI is close toZS2
we seethat the second term is a voltage drop in the directionof the otherfaulted phase;
2
(a - a ) is the pre-fault voltage between the faulted phases For. Zso = ZSI the third
term in (4.48) is a voltagedrop towards the non-faultedphase pre-fault voltage, for
Zso « ZSI the third term is adrop along the positive real axis, as shown in Fig. 4.63.
The voltagedrop accordingto A in Fig. 4.63 is the same d rop as for aphase-to-phase
fault. The ground-connectioncauses anadditional drop in the voltage in the two
faulted phases,somewherein betweendirectionsBand C. It is assumed here t hat all
impedanceshave the sameX/R ratio.
A~
. · \· · B ~
~ -.
-. B·· .
Figure 4.63 Voltage drops in the faulted

phase during atwo-phase-to-groundfault. A:
second term in (4.48); B: third term for
ZSI = Zso;C: third term for ZSI « Zso.
As said before, positive- andnegative-sequence impedancesare normally very

close. In that case we can simplify the expressions substituting
by ZSI = ZS2 and
=
ZFt ZF2' But when we are onlyinterestedin phase-to-neutralvoltages it is easier
to use thethree-phasevoltage divider modelintroducedin Fig. 4.53 for single-phase
faults . For two-phase-to-groundfaults theequivalentcircuit is redrawnin Fig. 4.64.
Without any further calculation we can see from Fig. 4.64 t hat the phase-to-
neutralvoltage in thenon-faultedphase is not influenced by the two-phase-to-ground
fault. The phase-to-neutralvoltage at the faultpoint, VFN, is found from applying
Kirchhoff's current law to the fault point:
2
a - V FIV a - VFN FN V
------~ +
ZSI+ZFt
. =J
ZSJ-ZFI 3(Zso-Zsd+
I (4.49)
3(ZFO-ZFI)
Solving (4.49) leads to the following expression for the voltage at the fault
point:
V
FN
= _ (Zso + ZFO) - (ZSI + ZFt)
(4.50)
2(Zso + ZFO) + (ZSI + ZFI)
4----------- VF
-:
Figure 4.64 Three-phasevoltagedivider
model for a two-phase-to-groundfault.
If zero-sequenceand positive-sequenceimpedances are equal, Zso = ZSI and

2 FO = 2 F J, we find that
(4.51)
If the zero-sequencei mpedancebecomeslarge, like in aresistance-grounded
system,the
fault-point voltageis
r
VF~ =--
1 (4.52)
2
The latter expressioncorrespondsto the expressionobtainedfor phase-to-phase faults.
This isratherobviousif we realizethat a largezero-sequence i mpedanceimplies that the
fault currentthrough the earthreturn is very small.Thus, the presenceof a connection
with earthduring the fault does not influence thevoltages.
Pathof Vcn
Pathof Vbn
Figure 4.6~ Phase-to-neutralvoltagesin the

faulted phasesfor a two-phase-to-ground
fault.
The intermediatecase, whereZSI < Zso < 00, gives a voltage at the faultpoint
somewhere in between these two extremes:
1
- - < VFN < 0 (4.53)
2
This voltage and theresultingvoltages at the pee can be obtainedfrom Fig. 4.65. The
voltage at the faultp oint is locatedbetween the origin and thepoint -!:
the former for
equal positive- negative-, and zero-sequence impedances,the latter for very large zero-
sequenceimpedance.The voltage at the pee for a faulted phasesomewhere is between
the voltage at the faultp oint and thepre-fault voltage in that phase. This knowledge
o f three-phaseunbalancedsags.For calculating
will later be used for the classification
sagmagnitudesthis constructionis not of practicaluse, as thefault-to-neutralvoltage
VFN dependson the fault position.
4.4.4 Seven Types of Three-Phase Unbalanced Sags
The voltage sags due to the various types of faults have been discussed in the
previous sections:three-phasefaults in Section 4.2, single-phase faults in Section 4.4.1,
phase-to-phase faults in Section 4.4.2, and finally
two-phase-to-ground faults in Section
4.4.3.For each typeof fault, expressionshave been derived for the voltages at the pee.
But as alreadymentioned,this voltage is not equal to the voltage at the equipment
terminals. Equipmentis normally connectedat a lower voltage levelthan the level at
which the fault occurs. The voltages at the equipmentterminals, therefore,not only
dependon the voltages at the pee but also on the windingconnectionof the transfor-
mers between the pee and the equipmentterminals. The voltages at theequipment
terminalsfurther dependon the loadconnection.Three-phaseload is normally con-
nected in delta butstar-connectionis also used.Single-phaseload isnormallyconnected
in star (i.e., between onephaseand neutral) but sometimes indelta (between two
phases).Note that we considerhere the voltage sag as experienced at terminals the
of end-userequipment,not the voltage asmeasuredby monitoring equipment.The
latter is typically locatedat distribution or even attransmissionlevel.
In this section we will derive a classification forthree-phaseunbalancedvoltage
sags, based on the following assumptions:
• Positive- andnegative-sequence impedancesare identical.

• The zero-sequencec omponentof the voltage does notpropagatedown to the
equipmentterminals,so that we can considerphase-to-neutralvoltages.
• Load currents,before, during, and after the fault, can be neglected.
4.4.4.1 Single-Phase Faults.The phase-to-neutralvoltages due to a single-

phase-to-groundfault are, underthe assumptionsmentioned,
Va = V
1 I
Vb = ----j~ (4.54)
2 2
1 I
V = --+-J'~
c 2 2
>------. Va
Figure 4.66Phase-to-neutralvoltages before

(dashed line) and during (solid line) a phase-
to-groundfault.
The resultingphasordiagramis shown in Fig. 4.66. If the load is connected in star,

these are the voltages at the
equipmentterminals. If the load is connected in delta, the
equipmentterminal voltages are the phase-to-phasevoltages. These can be obtained
from (4.54) by the followingtransformation:
(4.55)
This transformationwill be an important part of the classification. The factor.J3 is

aimed at changing the base of the pu values, sothat the normal operatingvoltage
remains at 1000/0. The 90° rotation by using a factorj aims at keeping the axis of
symmetry of the sag along the real axis. We will normally omit the primes from
(4.55). Applying transformation(4.55) results in the following expression for the
three-phaseunbalancedvoltage sag experienced bydelta-connected
a load, due to a
single-phase fault:
(4.56)
The phasordiagramfor the equipmentterminal voltages is shown in Fig. 4.67: two

voltages show adrop in magnitudeand change in phase angle; the third voltage is not
influenced at all.Delta-connectedequipmentexperiences a sag in two phases due to a
single-phase fault.
\ \.
\
\ ...\ ..
\
Figure 4.67 Phase-to -phase voltages before

to-ground fault.
4.4.4.2 Phase-to-Phase Faults.For a phase-to-phasefault the voltages in the

two faulted phases movetoward each other. The expressions for the
phase-to-neutral
voltagesduring a phase-to-phase
fault read as follows:
Va = I
Vb = _!_! VjJ3 (4.57)
2 2
V
c
= _!+!
2 2
V)'J3
Like before, (4.55) can be used to calculate the voltages experienced by a phase-to-
phase connected load, resulting in
Va = V
Vb = _!2 V - !2jJ3 (4.58)
1 1
Vc = --
2 V +-j"J3
2
The correspondingphasordiagramsare shown in Figs. 4.68 and 4.69. Due to a phase-
to-phasefault a star-connectedload experiences adrop in two phases, a delta-
)-- - - - - - . va
i/
//
Figure 4.68Phase-to-neutralvoltages before
to-phase fault.
,.<
"-\ Vc
..•.\\-,
} - - - - . . .............................•Va
Figure 4.69Phase-to-phase voltages before

(dashed line) andduring (solid line) a phase-
'/ Vb to-phase fault.
connectedload experiences ad rop in three phases.F or the star-connectedload the

maximum drop is 50%, for V = O. But for thedelta-connectedload one phase could
drop all the way down to zero. Theconclusion that load could therefore best be
connected.in star is wrong, however .M ost sags do notoriginateat the same voltage
level as theequipment terminals. We will see later that the sag at theequipment
terminals could beeither of the two types shown in Figs. 4.68 and 4.69, depending
on the transformerwinding connections.
4.4.4.3 Transformer Winding Connections. Transformerscome with manydif-

ferent winding connections, but a classification into only three types is sufficient to
explain the transfer of three-phaseunbalancedsags from one voltage level to an-
other.
I. Transformersthat do notchangeanything to the voltages F . or this typeof

transformerthe secondary-sidevoltages (in pu) are equal to the primary-side
voltages (in pu). The only type of transformerfor which this holds is thestar-
star connectedone with both star points grounded.
2. Transformersthat remove the zero-sequence voltage. The voltages on the
secondaryside are equal to the voltages on the primary side minus the
zero-sequencecomponent.Examplesof this transformertype are the star-
star connectedtransformerwith one or both star points not grounded,and
the delta-deltaconnectedtransformer. The delta-zigzag (Dz)transformeralso
fits into this category.
3. Transformersthat swap line and phase voltages. For thesetransformerseach
secondary-sidevoltage equals the difference between two primary-sidevol-
tages. Examples are the delta-star(Dy) and thestar-delta(Yd) transformeras
well as thestar-zigzag(Yz) transformer.
Within each of these threecategoriesthere will be transformerswith different clock

number(e.g., Yd I and YdII) leading to a different phase shift betweenprimary- and
secondary-sidevoltages. This difference is not of any
importancefor the voltage sags as
experienced by theequipment.All that mattersis the change between the pre-fault
voltages and theduring-fault voltages, inmagnitudeand in phase-angle . The whole
phasordiagram, with pre-fault and during-fault phasors, can berotatedwithout any
influence on theequipment.Such arotation can be seen as a shift in the zeropoint on
the time axis which of course has no influence on equipment behavior. The three
transformertypes can be defined mathematicallyby meansof the following transfor-
mation matrices:
[1 0
T1 = 0 1
o 0 ;] (4.59)
T2 = ~ [-~
-1
2 -1 -1] (4.60)
-1 -1 2
T
3
= ~[-: 0
-1
1
-i] (4.61)
Equation(4.59) isstraightforward:matrix T 1 is the unity matrix. Equation(4.60)

removesthe zero-sequence c omponento f the voltage.The matrix T2 can be understood
easily by realizing that the zero-sequence v oltageequals!(Va + Vb + Vc) ' Matrix T3 in
(4.61) describesexactly the sametransformationas expression(4.55). The additional
advantageof the 90°rotation is that twice applying matrix T3 gives thesameresultsas
once applying matrix T2• Thus, Tf = T2 ; in engineeringterms: two Dy transformersin
cascadehavethe sameeffect on the voltagesag asone Dd transformer.
4.4.3.4 Transfero f Voltage Sags across Transformers.

The three types of trans-
formers can be applied to the sags due tosingle-phaseand phase-to-phase faults. To
get an overview of the resulting sags, thedifferent combinationswill be systemati-
cally treatedbelow.
• Single-phasefault, star-connectedload, no transformer.

This casehas been discussedbefore,resultingin (4.54) and Fig. 4.66. We will
refer to this sag as sag X Transformertype
1. 1 gives thesameresultsof course.
• Single-phasefault, delta-connectedload, no transformer.
The voltagesag for this case is given in (4.56)
and shownin Fig. 4.67.This sag
will be referredto as sag X2.
• Single-phasefault, star-connectedload, transformertype 2.
Transformertype 2 removesthe zero-sequence c omponentof the voltage.The
zero-sequence c omponentof the phasevoltagesdue to a single-phasefault is
found from (4.54) to beequalto !(V - 1). This gives thefollowing expressions
for the voltages:
1 2
Va = 3+3 V
Vb = - -61 - -31V - -]v'3
2
1.
(4.62)
1 1 1.
Vc = ----V+-jv'3
6 3 2
This looks like a new typeof sag, but we will seelater that it is identical to the
one experiencedby a delta-connectedload during a phase-to-phase fault. But
for now it will be referredto as sag X3.
• Single-phasefault, delta-connected load, transformer type 2.

The phase-to-phasevoltages experienced by delta-connected
a load do not
contain any zero-sequencecomponent.Thus transformer type 2 does not
have any influence on the sag voltages. The sag is thus still of type X2.
• Single-phasefault, star-connectedload, transformer type 3.
Transformertype 3 changes phase voltages into line voltages. Thus star-con-
nected load onsecondaryside experiences the same sagdelta-connected
as load
on primary side. In this casethat is sag X2.
• Single-phasefault, delta-connected load, transformer type 3.
There are now twotransformations:from star- todelta-connectedload, and
from primary to secondarysideof the transformer.Eachof thesetransforma-
tions can be describedthrough matrix T3 defined in (4.61). Two of those
transformationsin cascade have the same effecttransformation
as T2 • Thus,
the sag experienced by this delta-connectedload is the same as by the star-
connectedload behind atransformerof type 2; thus, sag type X3~
• Phase-to-phase fault, star-connectedload, no transformer.
This case wastreatedbefore resulting in (4.57) and Fig. 4.68. This will be sag
type X4.
• Phase-to-phase fault, delta-connected load, no transformer.
The expression for the sag voltages reads as (4.58) and is shown in Fig. 4.69.
This type will be referred to as X5.
• Phase-to-phase fault, star-connectedload, transformer type 2.
As phase-to-phase faults do not result in any zero-sequence voltage,transfor-
mer type 2 (which removes the zero-sequence voltage) does not have any effect.
The sag thus remains of type X4.
• Phase-to-phase fault, delta-connected load, transformer type 2.
Like before, the sag is still of type X5.
• Phase-to-phase fault, star-connectedload, transformer type 3.
Star-connectedload on secondaryside of transformertype 2 experiences the
same sag as delta-connectedload on primary side. This results in type X5.
• Phase-to-phase fault, delta-connected load, transformer type 3.
This gives again two identicaltransformationsT3 in cascade, resulting in one
transformationT2 • But that one only removes the zero-sequence component
and has thus no influence on sags duephase-to-phase
to faults. The result is,
thus, again X4.
The effectof a secondtransformeron sags Xl throughX5 is shown in Table 4.8. These

results can beobtainedby following the samereasoningas above. It becomes clear
that
TABLE 4.8 FurtherPropagationof Sags
TransformerType
Sag Type 2 3
Xl Xl X3 X2
X2 X2 X2 X3
X3 X3 X3 X2
X4 X4 X4 X5
X5 X5 X5 X4
the numberof combinationsis limited: at mostfive different sag types arepossibledue

to single-phaseand phase-to-phasefaults.
4.4.4.5 The Basic Types

ofSags. We sawthat single-phasefaults lead to three
types of sags,designatedsag Xl , sag X2, and sag X3. Phase-to-phase faults lead to
sag X4and sag X5. We sawalreadyfrom the phasordiagramsin Figs. 4.67and 4.68
that single-phaseand phase-to-phase faults lead tosimilar sags.The sag voltagesfor
sag type X2 are
Va = 1
Vb = -~-
2
(!+!
6 3
V)1J3 (4.63)
2 (~+~
Vc = .i, 6 3 V)'iJ3 J
For sag type X4 thevoltagesare

Va = 1
1 1
Vb = ----
2 2
VjJ3
0
(4.64)
V
c
= _!+!
2 2
V)·J3
Comparingthese two setso f equationsshowsthat (4.63) can beobtainedby replacing
V in (4.64)by! + j V. Ifwe define themagnitudeof sag X4 asV, then sag X2 is a sag
of
type X4 with magnitude!+ j V.
In the same way we can c omparesag X3:
I 2
Va =3+3 V
Vb = -~ -~ V -~jJ3 (4.65)
6 3 2
V
c
= -~-~
6 3
V+~joJ3
2
and sag X5:
Va = V
I 1.
Vb = - - V - - j J 3 (4.66)
2 2
V
c
=--21 V +_joJ3
1
2
t
Again we obtain (4.65) by replacing V in (4.66) by + ~ V. The result isthat only
three types remain:X l , X4, and X5. A fourth type of sag is the sag due to three-
phasefaults, with all three voltagesdown the sameamount. The resulting classifica-
tion is shownin Table 4.9 in equationform and in Fig. 4.70 in phasorform. All sags
in Fig. 4.70 have amagnitudeof 500/0. From the discussionabout sags due to single-
phaseand phase-to-phasefaults, togetherwith the definition of the four types, the
origin and the propagationof the sags becomess traightforward. The results are
summarizedin Table 4.10 for theorigin of sagsand in Table 4.11 for their propaga-
tion to lower voltagelevels. Thesuperscript(") behindthe sag type inTables4.10 and
TABLE 4.9 Four Types of Sagsin EquationForm
Type A Type 8
Va = V Va = V
Vb = -!
V - !jV J3 Vb = -!-!jJ)
Vc = -t V +!jvJ3 Vc = -! +!jJ3
Type C Type 0
Va = 1 Va =V
Vb = -! -!jV~ Vb =- V -!jJ3
Vc = -!+!jvJ3 Vc = - V +!jJ)
TypeB
...............
~ T~C
TypeD
...............
~./ Figure 4.70 Four types of sag inphasor-

diagramform.
TABLE 4.10 Fault Type, Sag Type, andLoad Connection
Fault Type Star-connectedLoad Delta-connectedLoad
Three-phase sag A sag A

Phase-to-phase sag C sagD
Single-phase sag B sag C*
TABLE 4.11 Transformationof Sag Type to Lower Voltage Levels
Transformer
Connection Sag Type A Sag Type B Sag Type C Sag Type D
YNyn type A type B type C type D

Yy, Dd, Dz type A type D* type C type D
Yd, Dy, Yz type A type C* type D type C
4.11 indicatesthat the sagmagnitudeis not equal to V but equal to + ~ V, with V t

the voltage in the faulted phase or between the faulted phases in Table 4.10 and the
magnitudeof the sag onprimary side in Table 4.11.N ote that in effect these two
definitions of V are the same.
4.4.4.6 Two-Phase-to-Ground Faults.T wo-phase-to-groundfaults can be trea-

ted in the same way as single-phaseand phase-to-phase faults. We will assumethat
the voltage in the non-faultedphaseis not influenced by the fault. As we have seen
in Section 4.4.3 this correspondsto the situation in which positive-, negative-, and
zero-sequenceimpedancesare equal. This can be seen as anextremecase. A zero-
sequenceimpedancelarger than the positive-sequence impedancewill shift the result-
ing voltagestoward thosefor a phase-to-phase fault.
The phase-to-groundvoltagesat the pee due to tawo-phase-to-groundfault are
Va = 1
Vb = _! V _! Vj-IJ (4.67)
2 2
Vc = -~ V +~ Vj../3
After a Dy transformeror any other transformerof type 3, thevoltagesare
Va = V
1 1V 1
Vb = --j../3
3
- - - - Vj-IJ
2 6 (4.68)
I. 1 1.
V
c
= + -J../3-
3
- V +- V)../3
2 6
After two transformersof type 3 or after one transformerof type 2, we get
2 1
Va =3+3 V
Vb = - -31 - -61 V - 1
- Vj../3
2
(4.69)
V
c
= _!_~
362
V +! Vj'-IJ
Thesethree sags aredifferent from the four types found earlier. It is not possibleto
translateone into the other. Two-phase-to-groundfaults lead tothree more types of
sags,resulting in a total of seven. Thethree new types areshown in phasor-diagram
form in Fig. 4.71and in equationform in Table4.12. Sags due totwo-phase-to-ground
faults andsags due tophase-to-phase faults are comparedin Fig. 4.72.For a type C sag
the voltageschangealong the imaginaryaxis only, for type 0 along the real axis only.
TypeF
..............
Figure 4.71Three-phaseunbalancedsags due

to two-phase-to-groundfaults.
TABLE 4.12 Sags Due toTwo-Phase-to-GroundFaults
Type E Type F
Va = I Va = V
Vh = -! V - ! VjJ3 Vh = -ijJ3 - V- Vjv"j
Vi' = -! V +! Vjv'3 Vc = +ijv1 - V + Vjv1
Type G
Va = j+i V
Vh = - ~V-i- ! Vjv'3
v(' = - i - ~ V +! VjJ3
D
~
c
"·""N
...-.-
............
G
.. DF
.....~ Figure 4.72Comparisonof three-phase
c . . unbalancedsags due totwo-phase-to-ground
faults (F and G) withthree-phaseunbalanced
i"V sags due tophase-to-phase a nd single-phase-

to-groundfaults (C and D). The arrows
Z-J
D
indicate the direction of changein the three
complexvoltagesfor the different sag types.
For types F and G the voltages drop along both axis. The resulting voltages at the
equipmentterminalsare lowerduring a two-phase-to-groundfault. An additionaldif-
ference isthat all three voltagesdrop in magnitudefor a type G sag.N otealsothat for a
type D and type F sag the drop in the worst-affectedphase is the same, whereas for a
type C and a type G sag the drop in voltage between the two worst-affectedphases is
the same. Thispropertywill be used when defining themagnitudeof measuredthree-
phaseunbalancedsags.
Sag types F and G have been derived by assuming that positive-, negative-, and
zero-sequenceimpedancesare the same. If the zero-sequence impedanceis larger than
the positive-sequence impedance,the resulting sag will be somewhere in between type C
and type G, or in between type D and type F.
4.4.4.7 Seven Typesof Three-Phase Unbalanced Sags.Origin of sags and trans-

of three-phaseunbalancedsags
formation to lower voltage levels for all seven types
are summarizedin Tables 4.13 and 4.14. An example of the sagtransformationto
TABLE 4.13 Origin of Three-PhaseUnbalancedSags
Fault Type Star-connectedLoad Delta-connectedLoad
Three-phase Type A Type A

Two-phase-to- Type E Type F
ground
Phase-to-phase Type C Type D
Single-phase Type B Type C·
Note: Asterisk defined as inTables4.10 and 4.11.

TABLE 4.14 Transformationof Sag Type to Lower Voltage Levels
Sag on Primary Side

Transformer
Connection Type A Type B Type C Type D Type E Type F TypeG
YNyn A B C D E F G
Yy, Dd, Dz A D* C D G F G
Yd, Dy, Yz A C* D C F G F
lower voltage levels isshown in Fig. 4.73. A fault at 33 kV causes thevoltage at the
peeto drop to 50% of the nominal voltage. For a three-phasefault the situation is
easy: at any leveland for any load connectionthe sag isof type A and with a magni-
tude of 50%. For a phase-to-phasefault the voltage betweenthe faulted phasesat
the peedrops to 50%. For star-connectedload the resulting sags are typeC, 50% at
33 kV; type D, 50% at 11 kV; and again type C, 500/0 at 660 V. In case thefault is a
single-phaseone, thevoltage in the faulted phasedrops to 50% at the pee,This cor-
respondsto a sagof type B and magnitude50% at 33 kV. After the first Dy trans-
former the zero-sequencecomponent of the voltages has been removed. Star-
connectedload at 11 kV will experiencea sagof type C with a magnitudeof 67%.
Delta-connectedload will experiencea sagof type D with a magnitudeof 670/0. For
load fed at 660 V thesituation is just the other way around: star-connectedload ex-
periencesa sagof type D; delta-connectedload one of type C.
4.4.4.8Overview. In the beginningof this sectionwe assumedthat the zero-se-

quencecomponentof the voltagesdid not propagatedown to the equipmentterm-
inals. We used thisassumptionto obtain an expressionfor the voltages during a
single-phase-to-groundfault. Under this sameassumptionwe find that three-phase
unbalancedsagsof type B or type E cannotoccur at the equipmentterminals.At the
equipmentterminalswe only find the following five typesof three-phaseunbalanced
sags:
• type A due tothree-phasefaults.

• type C and type D due tosingle-phaseand phase-to-phase
faults.
• type F and type G due totwo-phase-to-groundfaults.
Iph...gnd 2ph 2ph-gnd 3ph
B, 50% C, 50% E, 50% A, 50%
n 50% F, 50% At 50%
Figure 4.73 Example of sag

transformation,
for star-connectedload. n 67% C, 50% o, 50% At 50%
The latter two types can beconsideredas distortedversions of type C and D. Sags of
type C and D are also distorted by the presenceof inductionmotor load. The presence
of inductionmotor load makesthat positive- and negative-sequence source impedances
are no longer equal. One of the effectsof this is that the voltage in the"non-faulted
phase"for a type C sag is no longer equal to 100%. This has been the basis for a
classification andcharacterizationof three-phaseunbalancedsags into three types,
correspondingto our types A, C, and D[203], [204].
4.5 PHASE-ANGLE JUMPS
A shortcircuit in a power system not only causes adropin voltagemagnitudebut also a

change in the phase angle of the voltage. In a 50 Hz or 60 Hz system, voltage is a
complex quantity (a phasor)which hasmagnitudeand phase angle. A change in the
system, like ashortcircuit, causes a change in voltage. This changeis not limited to the
magnitudeof the phasorbut includes a change in phase angle as well. We will refer to
the latter as thephase-anglejump associatedwith the voltage sag. Thephase-angle
jump manifests itself as a shift in zero crossing of the instantaneousvoltage. Phase-
anglejumps are not of concernfor most equipment.But power electronicsconverters
using phase-angleinformation for their firing instantsmay be affected. We will come
back to the effecto f phase-anglejumps on equipmentin Chapter5.
Figure4.74 shows a voltage sag withphase-angle
a j ump of +45°: theduring-fault
voltage leads thepre-faultvoltage. A sag with aphase-anglejump of -45° is shown in
Fig. 4.75: theduring-fault voltage lags thepre-fault voltage. Both sags have a magni-
tude of 70%. In both figures, thepre-fault voltages have been continuedas a dashed
curve. Notethat these aresyntheticsags, notmeasurementresults.
The origin of phase-anglejumpswill be explained for athree-phasefault, asthat
enables us to use the single-phase model. Phase-angle j umps during three-phasefaults
are due to the difference in X /R ratio between the source and the feeder. A second
causeof phase-anglejumps is the transformationof sags to lower voltage levels. This
phenomenonhas already been mentionedwhen unbalancedsags were discussed in
Section 4.4.
0.5
-0.5
2 3 4 5 Figure 4.74 Synthetic sag with a magnitude

Time in cycles of.70°tlo and a phase-angle jump of +45°,
Section 4.5 • Phase-Angle
Jumps 199
0.5
-0.5
-I L - . . - _ - - - J ' - - _ - . . . . L_ _- - - L ._ _-...L.._ _--'
Figure4.75Syntheticsag with amagnitude o 2 3 4 5

0
of 700/0 and aphase-anglejump of -45 •
Time in cycles
4.5.1 Monitoring
To obtainthe phase-anglejump of a measuredsag, thephase-angleof the voltage

during the sagmust be comparedwith the phase-angleof the voltage before the sag.
The phase-angleof the voltagecan be obtainedfrom the voltagezero-crossingor from
the phaseof the fundamentalcomponentof the voltage. The complex fundamental
voltagecan be obtainedby doing a Fourier transformon the signal. This enablesthe
use of Fast-FourierTransform(FFT) algorithms.
To explain an alternativemethod,considerthe following voltage signal:
v(t) = X cos(wot)'- Y sin(wot) = Re{(X + jY)eia>ot} (4.70)
with Wo the fundamental(angular)frequency.Two new signalsare obtainedfrom this

signal, as follows:
Vd(t) = 2v(t) x cos(Wot) (4.71)

vq(t) = 2v(t) x sin(wot) (4.72)
which we can write as
Vd(t) = X + X cos(2wot) + Y sin(2wot) (4.73)

vq(t) = - y + Y cos(2wot) + X sin(2wot) (4.74)
Averaging the two resulting signalsover one half-cycle of the fundamentalfrequency

gives therequiredfundamentalvoltage.
(4.75)
Knowing the valuesof X and Y, the sagmagnitudecanbe calculatedas X 2 + y2 and J

the phase-anglejump as arctan t.
This algorithm has beenappliedto the recordedsag in Fig. 4.1.The resultingsag
magnitudeis shown in Fig. 4.76 and the phase-anglejump in Fig. 4.77. The effect of
averagingVd(t) and vq(t) over one full cycleof the fundamentalfrequencyis shown in
Fig. 4.78 for the sagmagnitudeandin Fig. 4.79 for thephase-anglejump. The effect of
a largerwindow is that the transitionis slower,but the overshootin phase-angleis less.
Which window length needs to bechosendependson the application.
0.8
a
.5
~ 0.6·
2
.~
~ 0.4
0.2
Figure 4.76 Amplitude of the fundamental
voltage versus time for the voltage sag shown
234 5 6 in Fig. 4.I-a half-cycle window has been
Timein cycles used.
20,-----,.------,-----r----,-----r-----,
10
fI)
~
~ 0....-----'
-8
.S -10
Q..
§ -20
'--'
.!!
, -30
~
] -40'
A.4
-50 Figure 4.77 Argument of the fundamental
voltage.versustime for the voltage sag shown
234 5 6 in Fig. 4.I-a half-cycle window has been
Timein cycles used.
0.8
a
.5
-8 0.6
-I
~ 0.4
Figure 4..78 Amplitude of the fundamental

, , , . - L _.. __ . _ .. _ voltage versus time for the voltage sag shown
234 5 6 in Fig. 4.I-a one-cyclewindow has been
Timein cycles used.
Section 4.5 • Phase-Angle
J umps 201
20..---~--~--,.---.,.-------r-
10
l
f'J
Ol-----..J
-8
.5 -10
Q.
§ -20
."""\
u
l-30
u
=-40
Figure 4.79 Argument of the fundamental if -sof
, , .
voltage versus time for the voltage sag shown -60O'-------'------"----L------"--~ I
in Fig. 4.I-a one..cyc1ewindow has been 2 3 4 5 6

used. Timein cycles
4.5.2 Theoretical Calculations
4.5.2.1 Origin of Phase-AngleJumps. To understandthe origin of phase-angle

jumps associated with voltage sags, the single-phase voltage divider model of Fig.
that Zs and ZF are complexquantities
4.14 can be used again, with the difference
which we will denote asZs and ZF. Like before, we neglect all loadcurrentsand
assumeE = 1. This gives for the voltage at the
point-of-commoncoupling (pee):
-V ----
ZF (4.76)
sag r: ZS+ZF
Let Zs = R s + jXs and ZF = R F + jXF . The argumentof V.mg , thus the phase-angle
jump in the voltage, is given by the following expression:
11t/J = arg(Vsag)=arctan(~:) - arctan(~:: ~:) (4.77)
If ~ = ¥, expression (4.77) is zero and there is no phase-angle jump. The phase-angle

jump will thus be present if theX/R ratios of the source and the feeder are different.
4.5.2.2 Influenceof Source Strength. Consideragain the power system used to

obtain Fig. 4.15. Insteadof the sagmagnitudewe calculatedthe phase-anglejump,
resulting in Fig. 4.80. We again see that a strongersource makes the sag less severe:
lessdrop in magnitudeas well as a smaller phase-angle jump. The only exception is
for terminal faults. The phase-angle jump for zero distance to the fault is indepen-
dent of the source strength. Note that this is only of theoreticalvalue as the phase-
anglejump for zero distance to the fault, and thus for zero voltage magnitude,has
no physical meaning.
4.5.2.3 Influenceof Cross Section. Figure 4.81 plots phase-angle

jump versus
distance for 11 kV overhead lines of different cross sections. The resistance
of the
source has been neglected in these calculations: Rs = O. The correspondingsag
magnitudeswere shown in Fig. 4.16.From the overhead line impedance data shown
in Table 4.1 we can calculate the X/R ratio of the feeder impedances: 1.0 for the
202 Chapter 4 • VoltageS ags-Characterization
Or----..----~----:==:::!::::=:==:::c:=====~
-5
g -10
~ -15
"'t' 75MVA
.5
~ -20
.; -25
bb
~ -30
Go)
~
f -35
-40 Figure 4.80Phase-anglejump versus
2
distance, for faults on a 150 mm 11kV
-45 50 overheadfeeder, withdifferent source
0 10 20 30 40
Distance to the fault in kilometers strength.
_______
- - -.-: ..... -:.-:.-:.-:~:-.:-.-:-.:-.7.
g-10
tc:: -20 '
.-
.[
~ -30':'
=
~
. .
G) .
,
.
~ -40:
-soL , , '
o 5 10 15 20
Distance to the fault in kilometers
25
Figure 4.81Phase-anglejump versus
distance,for overheadlines with cross section
300mm2 (solid line), 150mm2 (dashedline),
and 50mm2 (dottedline).
50 mrrr' line, 2.7 for the 150 mm", and 4.9 for the 300 mm-; the phase-anglejump
decreases for larger X/R ratio of the feeder.
The results forundergroundcables are shown in Fig. 4.82. Cables with a smaller
cross section have a larger phase-anglejump for small distances to the fault, but the
phase-anglejump also decays faster for increasing distance. This is due to the (in
absolutevalue) larger impedance per unit length. The correspondingsag magnitudes
were shown in Fig. 4.17.
Sagmagnitudeand phase-anglejump, i.e., magnitudeand argumentof the com-
plex during-faultvoltage, can beplottedin onediagram.Figure 4.83 shows the voltage
pathsin the complex plane, where the pre-sag voltage is in the direction of the positive
real axis. Thefurther the complex voltage is from + 1 jO, the larger the change in
complex voltage due to the fault. The difference between the pre-sag voltage and the
actual voltage is referred to as the missing voltage. We will come back to the concept of
missing voltage in Section 4.7.2.
Insteadof splitting the disturbanceinto real andimaginary parts one may plot
magnitudeagainst phase-anglejump as done in Fig. 4.84.F rom the figure we can
conclude that the phase-anglejump increases (inabsolutevalue) when thedrop in
voltage increases (thus, when the sag magnitude decreases). Both an increase in
Section 4.5 • Phase-AngleJumps 203
Or------y---~---.__--__r_--__,
-10
1-20
-8
.6 -30 ,/
Q. ' ,
§ -40
.~ .,
.•
I-50 1::1
~
..c:
-60 'f
'
Q.. :
-70
Figure 4.82Phase-anglejump versus
-80 distance, forundergroundcables with cross
0 5 10 15 20 25 section 300mm 2
(solid line), 150mm2 (dashed
Distance to the faultin kilometers line), and 50mm2 (dottedline).
O-----,..---~----r-----r---___,
,\
I
'\
'\
" ,
,,
/:'
.s
:s
-0.1 '. ,,
"
,
',
/
, I
I'
:
.
,,
, \
t
] -0.2
\
\
I
,
c.e..
o
i- 0.3
~
.s
e
t)I)
..... -0.4 Figure 4.83Pathof the voltage in the

complex plane when the distance to the fault
changes, forundergroundcables with cross
-0.50 0.2 "'--OA- 0.6 0.8 section 300mm 2
(solid line), 150mm2 (dashed
Realpartof voltagein pu line), and 50mm2 (dottedline).
-70
Figure 4.84Magnitudeversus phase-angle
-80 I.-----'--------'----~-------------' jump, for undergroundcables with cross
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 section 300mm2 (solid line), 150mm2 (dashed
Sagmagnitudein pu line), and 50mnr' (dotted line).
phase-angle j ump and a decreasein magnitudecan bedescribedas amoresevere event.

Knowing that both voltage drop and phase.. angle jump increasewhen thedistanceto
the fault increases,we can conclude that a fault leads to amore severe event the
closer it is to thepoint-of-commoncoupling. We will later seethat this only holds for
three-phasefaults. For single-phaseand phase-to-phase faults this is not always the
case.
4.5.2.4 Magnitude and Phase-Angle Jump Versus Distance. To obtain expres-

sions for magnitudeand phase-anglejump as a function of the distanceto the fault
we substituteZF = z£ in (4.76) with z the complex feederimpedanceper unit length,
resultingin
- z.c
V ---- (4.78)
.mg - Zs+z.c
The phase-anglejump is found from
arg(V.mg ) = arg(z.c) - arg(Zs + z£) (4.79)
The phase-anglejump is thus equal to the angle in thecomplexplanebetweenz£ and

2 s + u: This is shownin Fig. 4.85, where</J is the phase-anglejump anda is the angle
betweensourceimpedanceZs and feeder impedancez.
ex = arctan(~;) - arctan(~;) (4.80)
We will refer to a as the"impedanceangle;" it is positive when theX/R-ratio of the

feeder islargerthan that of the source.Note that this is araresituation:the impedance
angle is inmost casesnegative.Using the cosinerule twice in the lowertriangle in Fig.
4.85 gives the twoexpressions
IZs + z.c12 = tz.c,2 + IZsl2 - 2lz.cIlZ l cos(180°+ a)
s (4.81)
12s1
2
= IZs + zL:1 2 + IzL:1 2 - 212s + zL:llz£1 cos(-t/J) (4.82)
Substituting(4.81) into (4.82) and some rewriting gives an expressionfor the phase-
angle jump as afunction of distance
Ar.) A + cosa
cos('P = --;::::====== (4.83)
Jl + A2 + 2Acosa
where A = z£/Zs is a measureof the "electrical" distance to the fault and a the
impedanceangle. Note that it is not so much the differencein X/R ratio which deter-
Figure 4.85Phasordiagram for calculation

of magnitude and phase-angle jump.
Section 4.5 • Phase-Angle Jumps 205
mines the sizeof the phase-anglejump but the actualangle betweensourceand feeder
impedance.For example, a source with X s/ Rs = 40 and a feeder withXF / RF 2 gives =
an impedanceangle of
a = arctan(2)- arctan(40)= 63.4° - 88.6° = -25.2° (4.84)
=
where a source withX s /Rs 3 and a feeder withXF / RF = 1 gives animpedanceangle
of a = -26.6°. The latter will result in more severephase-anglejumps.
The maximum angulardifference occurs forundergroundcables indistribution
systems.F or a sourceX/R of 10 and a cableX/R of 0.5 weobtainan impedanceangle
of about-60°. In the forthcomingsections the value of-60° is used as theworstcase.
Although this is aratherrare case, it assists in showing the
variousrelationships.Small
positive phase-anglejumps may occur in transmissionsystems whereX/R ratio of
source and feeder impedanceare similar. Impedanceangles exceeding+ 10° are very
unlikely. For mostof the forthcomingstudies we will assumethat the impedanceangle
varies between0 and -60°.
From (4.83) we can concludethat the maximum phase-anglejump occurs for
[, = 0, A = 0 and that it is equalto the impedanceangle a.
The magnitudeof the sag isobtainedfrom (4.79)as
v _ Iz£1 (4.85)
sag- Iz.c + Zsl
With (4.81)the following expressionfor the sagmagnitudeas afunction of the distance

to the fault isobtained:
V _ _A_
sag -(1 + A) -;:===== (4.86)
1 _ 2A(l-COS a)
(t+A)2
Note that the first factor in the right-handsideof (4.86) gives the sag
magnitudewhen
the difference inX/R ratio is neglected(a = 0). This is the sameexpressionas (4.9) in
Section4.2. The error in makingthis approximationis estimatedby approximatingthe
secondfactor in (4.86) for small valuesof a:
1 A A 2
~ A(1-cosa)~l+ 2(1-Cosa)~1+(1+')2a (4.87)
1- 2A(l-cosa) 1- (1+,)2 - (1 + A) I\,
(l+A)2 A
The error is proportionalto a2• Thus, for moderatevaluesof a the simpleexpression

without consideringphase-anglejumpscan be used tocalculatethe sagmagnitude.
4.5.2.5RangeofMagnitudeandPhase-AngleJump. The relation between mag-

nitude and phase-anglejump is plotted for four values of the impedanceangle in
Fig. 4.86.Magnitudeand phase-anglejump have beencalculatedby using (4.83)and
(4.86). During a three-phasefault all three phases will experience the same
changein
magnitudeand phase-angle.The relation shown in Fig. 4.86 thus alsoholds for sin-
gle-phaseequipment.When testingequipmentfor sags due tothree-phasefaults one
should considerthat magnitudeand phase-anglejump can reach the whole range of
combinationsin Fig. 4.86.
rJ
~ -10
o
-.---- ---., --7l
10, . . - - - - : : : : - - - - - - r - - -
-~ ~
.... ' .' ... _---~--~.~.~;>;
-8
.8 -20
Q.,
§ -30
'",,"",
-- I
l-40
Cl)
Cl)
~ -50
f
-60
Figure 4.86 Relation between magnitude and
phase-angle jump for three-phase faults:
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 impedance angles: -60 (solid curve);-35
0 0
Sagmagnitudein pu (dashed);- I 0 (dotted);+ I0° (dash-dot).

0
EXAMPLE Magnitude and phase-anglejump have beencalculatedfor sags due to

three-phasefaults at the various voltage levels in the example supply shown in Fig. 4.21. Using
the data in Tables 4.3 and 4.4 we cancalculatethe complex voltage at the pee for any fault in
the system. Theabsolutevalue andargumentof this complex voltage are shown in Fig. 4.87.
The complex voltage has been calculatedfor distances to the fault less than the maximum fee-
der lengthindicatedin the lastcolumn of Table 4.4. As the maximum feeder length at 132kV
is only 2 km, the sagmagnitudedue to 132kV faults does not exceed 20%. We that see distri-
bution system faults givephase-anglejumps up to 200 , with the largest ones due to 33 kV
faults. Transmissionsystemfaults only cause very mild phase-angle jumps. Thesemagnitudes
and phase-anglejumps hold for single-phase as well as three-phaseequipment,connected to
any voltage level and irrespective
of the load beingconnectedin star or in delta.
o --------
-'- - - - - =:: = = =---":'"--------- -:. ~.= ... _-....----- -0
rJ
j..., -5
.5
Q.,
~ -10
'",,"",
u
bo
~ -15
Cl)
~
~ -20
Figure 4.87 Magnitude and phase-anglejump
for three-phase sags in the example supply in
Fig. 4.21-solidline: II kV; dashed line:
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 33kV; dotted line: 132kV; dash-dot line:
Sagmagnitudein pu 400kV.
4.8 MAGNITUDE AND PHASE-ANGLE JUMPS FOR THREE-PHASE

UNBALANCED SAGS
4.8.1 Definition of Magnitude and Phase-Angle Jump
4.6.1.1 Three Different Magnitudes and Phase-Angle Jumps. The magnitudeof

a voltage sag wasdefined in Section 4.2 as the rmsvalue of the voltage during the
fault. As long as thevoltage in only one phaseis consideredthis is an implementable
Section 4.6 • Magnitudeand Phase-Angle Jumps for
Three-PhaseUnbalancedSags 207
definition, despite theproblems with actually obtaining the rms value.For three-
phase unbalancedsags theproblem becomes morecomplicated as there are now
three rms values to choose from. The most commonly used definition is: The magni-
tude of a three-phase unbalanced sag is the rms valueof the lowestof the three vol·
tages.Alternativessuggested earlier are to use the average
of the three rms values, or
the lowest valuebut one [205]. Here we willproposea magnitudedefinition based on
the analysisof three-phaseunbalanced.sags.
First we need todistinguish between three different kindso f magnitudeand
phase-anglejump. In all casesmagnitudeand phase-anglejump are absolutevalue
and argument,respectively, of a complex voltage.
• The initial complexvoltage is the voltage at thepoint-of-commoncoupling at

the faulted voltage level.For a single-phase-to-ground fault the initial complex
voltage is the voltage between the faulted phase groundat
and the pee,For a
phase-to-phase fault the initial complex voltage is the voltage between the two
faulted phases.F or a two-phase-to-ground or a three-phasefault it can be
either the voltage in oneof the faulted phases or between two faulted phases
(as long as pu values are used). The initial magnitudeis
sag the absolutevalue
of the complex initial voltage; the initialphase-anglejump is the argumentof
the complex initial voltage.
• The characteristiccomplexvoltageof a three-phaseunbalancedsag is defined as
the valueof V in Tables4.9 and 4.12. We will give an easy interpretationof the
characteristiccomplex voltage later on. The characteristicsagmagnitudeis the
absolutevalue of the characteristiccomplex voltage. Thecharacteristicphase-
anglejump is the argumentof the characteristiccomplex voltage. These can be
viewed as generalizeddefinitions of magnitudeand phase-anglejumps for
three-phaseunbalancedsags.
• The complexvoltages at theequipmentterminals are the valuesof Va' Vb, and
Vc in Tables 4.9 and 4.12 and in several of the equationsaroundthese tables.
The sagmagnitudeand phase-anglejump at the equipment terminals are
absolutevalue and argument, respectively,of the complex voltages at the
equipmentterminals.For single-phaseequipmenttheseare simply sag magni-
tude and phase-anglejump as previouslydefined forsingle-phasevoltage sags.
4.6.1.2 Obtaining theCharacteristic Magnitude. In Section 4.4 we haveintro-

duced seven types o f sagstogetherwith their characteristiccomplex voltage V. For
type D and type F themagnitudeis the rms valueof the lowestof the three voltages.
For type C and type G it is the rms value of the difference between the two lowest
voltages (in pu).From this we obtain the following method of determiningthe char-
acteristic magnitudeof a three-phasesag from the voltagesmeasuredat the equip-
ment terminals:
• Determinethe rms valuesof the three voltages.

• Determinethe rms values of the three voltage differences.
• The magnitudeof the three-phasesag is the lowesto f these six values.
It is easy to see from theexpressionsgiven earlier,that this will give the valueof IVI as
used for the definitionof the three-phaseunbalancedsags. Anexceptionare sagsof type
B and type E.For sagsconformingto (4.54) and (4.67) the m ethodwould still give the
exact value for themagnitude.But the difference between zero-sequence and positive-
sequence source that
impedancemakesthat the actualsags can deviate significantly. In
case themethodis likely to give acompletelywrong picture.Anotherproblemis that
for these sags the
magnitudechanges when they propagateto a lower voltage level. This
makes measurementsat a medium voltage level not suitable forpredicting the sag
magnitudeat the equipmentterminals.This problem can be solvedby removing the
zero-sequencec omponentfrom the voltage andapplying the methodto the remaining
voltages. The completeprocedureproceeds as follows:
• obtain the three voltages as function

a of time: Va(t), Vb(t),and Vc(t).
• determinethe zero-sequence voltage:
(4.88)
• determinethe remainingvoltages aftersubtractingthe zero-sequence voltage:
V~(t) = Va(t)- Vo(t)

Vb(t) = Vb(t)- Vo(t) (4.89)
V;( t) = Vc( t) - Vo(t)
• determinethe rms valuesof the voltagesV~, Vb, and V;.

• determinethe three voltage differences:
(4.90)
• determinethe rms valuesof the voltagesVab, Vbc' and Vcao

• the magnitudeof the three-phasesag is the lowest of the six rms values.
In case alsophase-anglejump and sag type are needed, it better

is to use a more
mathematicallycorrect method. A method based onsymmetrical componentshas
recently beenproposedby Zhang[203], [204].
EXAMPLE This procedure has been applied to the voltage sag shown in Fig. 4.1. At
first the rms values have been determined for the three measured
phase-to-groundvoltages, re-
sulting in Fig. 4.88. The rms value has been determined each half-cycle over the preceeding
128 samples (one half-cycle). We see the behavior typical for a single-phase fault on an over-
head feeder: a drop in voltage in one phase and a rise in voltage in the two remaining phases.
After subtractionof the zero-sequence component,all three voltages show a drop in
magnitude (see Fig. 4.89). The phase-to-groundvoltages minus the zero-sequence are indicated
through solid lines, thephase-to-phase voltagesthrough dashed lines. The lowest rms value is
reached for aphase-to-groundvoltage, which indicates a sag of type D. This is not surprising as
the original sag was of type B (albeit with a larger than normal zero-sequence component). After
removal of the zero-sequence voltage a sag of type D remains.characteristic
The magnitudeof
this three-phase unbalanced sag630/0.
is
Section 4.6 • Magnitudeand Phase-Angle Jumps for Three-Phase
UnbalancedSags 209
0.4
0.2
Figure 4.88The nns values of the phase-to- 234 5 6

groundvoltages for the sag shown in Fig. 4.1. Time in cycles
0.8
a
,
.S 0.6
o
~ 0.4
Figure 4.89The rms valuesof phase-to-phase 0.2

(dashed lines) andphase-to-groundvoltages
after removal of the zero-sequence
component(solid lines) for the sag shown in 234 5 6
Fig. 4.1. Time in cycles
4.8.2 Ph••e-to-Ph.s.F .ults
The impact ofphase-to-phase faults depends on thetransformerwinding connec-

tions between the fault and the equipment. As shown in Section 4.4, the result is a sag
either of typeCor of type D. It was shown in Section 4.4.2
that the voltage between the
faulted phases can be obtainedby using the same voltage divider model as for the three-
phase sag. The latter has been.used to
obtain expressions (4.83) and (4.86) for phase-
anglejump and magnitudeversus distance. These expressions can thus also be used to
calculate initialmagnitudeand initial phase-angle jump: absolute value and argument
of the voltage between the faulted phases atpee,
theThe three-phase unbalancedsags in
Section 4.4 were all derived under the assumptionthat the initial voltage drops in
magnitudewithout change in phase angle. In case of a phase-angle jump in the initial
voltage, thecharacteristicvoltage of the three-phaseunbalancedsag at the pee also
becomes complex. The expressions in Tables 4.9 and 4.12 still hold with the exception
that the characteristicvoltage V has become a complex number. The characteristic
voltage for sag types Cand D does not changewhen they aretransformeddown to
lower voltage levels, sothat the characteristiccomplex voltage remainsequal to the
initial complex voltage.
4.6.2.1 Sagsof Type C. The phasordiagram for a sag of type C is shown in

Fig. 4.90, where <p is the characteristicphase-anglejump and V the characteristic
magnitude.Dependingon the phaseto which it is connected,single-phaseequipment
will experiencea sag withmagnitude Vb and phase-anglejump ~h, a sag withmagni-
tude Vc and phase-anglejump ~c, or no sag at all.Due to the initial phase-angle
jump <P the voltage magnitudesin the two faulted phasesare no longer equal. Note
that in Fig. 4.90 <P < 0, ~h < 0, and <Pc > O.
From Fig. 4.90expressionscan bederivedfor magnitudeandphase-angle j ump at
the equipmentterminals.As a first step the sine ruleand the cosinerule are applied to
the two trianglesindicatedin Fig. 4.90 resultingin
vi = !4 + ~4 V2 - 2· !2·!2 V..[j cos(90° -l/J) (4.91)

sin(60° + <Ph) sin(90° - ~)
-----=---- (4.92)
! V v'3 Vb
V~c =!4 +~4 V2 - 2.!.!

2 2
V..[jcos(90° + l/J) (4.93)
sin(60° - ~c) sin(90° + ~)
-----=---- (4.94)
! Vv'3 Vc
from which the following desiredexpressionsare obtained:
Va = 1
Vh Jt
= 4- + -43 V 2 - -1 V Vrx3 sln(f/J)
2
: (4.95)
1/2
Figure 4.90Phasordiagram for a sag of type

C with characteristicmagnitudeV and
characteristicphase-anglejump 4>.
Section 4.6 • Magnitudeand Phase-Angle Jumps for Three-Phase Unbalanced Sags 211
2 3 4 5
Distancetothe fault
f
....., rJ
50
~~ 0 -------------------- Figure 4.91Magnitude(top) and phase-angle

~ I _--~--------------
-8 jump (bottom) for sags of type C due to
~.s -50~~_.__
phase-to-phasefaults. Dashedline: zero
- - - I ._ _- - . . . I_ _----.J impedance angle (no characteristicphase-
o I 2 3 4 5 angle jump). Solid line:- 600 impedance angle
Distanceto thefault (largecharacteristicphase-angle jump).
tPa =0
tPh = -60 + arCSinGJ3~ COS(tP»)
0
(4.96)
tPc = 60 0
- arCSinGJ3~ COS(tP»)
Combining(4.95) and (4.96) with (4.83) and (4.86) gives themagnitudeand phase-
anglejump in the three phases asfunction
a of the distance to the fault. This is done in
Fig. 4.91 forimpedanceangles equal to 0 and - 60°. The horizontalscalecorrespondsto
A = ~£ as in (4.83). We seet hat the severity of sags decreases with increasing distance
whenSthereis no characteristicphase-anglejump. The introductionof a characteristic
phase-anglejump creates asymmetry between the faulted phases. We see, that
e.g.,
the
voltage in oneof the phases initially decreases with increasing distance to the For fault.
one of the phases the phase-angle jump drops to zero ratherquickly, whereas for the
other phase thephase-anglejump remains high much longer.
Figure4.92 plotsmagnitudeversus phase-angle jump for four values of the impe-
dance angle. We can see that the characteristicphase-anglejump significantly disturbs
the symmetry between the two faulted phases. Also the voltagedrop can well below
50% , which is not possiblewithout characteristicphase-anglejump.
60 I:'
8 40 ," :''. \ ,
:
.s
e,
20
~
\
\
\
\
§
...... 0
u
"EO
; -20
I
M , I
f -40
-60 Figure 4.92Magnitudeversus phase-angle

jump for sag type C due tophase-to-phase
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 - 600 (solid line),
faults for impedance angle
Sagmagnitudein pu -40 (dashed), -20 (dotted), 0 (dash-dot).
0 0
4.6.2.2 Sagsof Type D. The phasordiagramfor a type D sag is shown in Fig.

4.93, wherel/J is again thecharacteristicphase-anglejump. One phasewill go down
significantly with a phase-anglejump equal to the characteristicvalue. Equipment
connectedto one of the two other phases will see a smalldrop in voltage and a
phase-anglejump of up to 30°. Severecharacteristicphase-anglejumps can even lead
to voltageswells. The twophaseswith the small voltagedrop can experience positive
as well asnegativephase-anglejumps. The phase with the large voltage drop always
experiences anegativephase-anglejump.
From Fig. 4.93 magnitudeand phase-anglejump in the three phases can be
calculatedfor a sagof type D. Applying the sine rule and the cosine rule to the two
trianglesindicatedin Fig. 4.93 gives the following expressions:
vI = !4 V2 + ~4 - 2 ·! V.!,J3 cos(90°+ lj)

2 2
(4.97)
sin(30° - l/Jb) sin(90°+ f/J)
-~---=---- (4.98)
!V Vb
V 2 =! V 2 +~ - 2.! V· !,J3cos(90°- lj) (4.99)

c 4 4 2 2
sin(30°+ tPc) sin(90° -l/J)
----=----
!V Vc
(4.100)
Rewriting theseexpressionsresults in
Va =V
Vb = ~+~ V2 +~ V,J3sin(lj) (4.101)
Vc = ~ + ~ V2 - ~ VJ3sin(lj)
Figure 4.93Phasordiagram for a sag of type

D, with characteristicmagnitude V and
phase-angle jumpt/J.
-------------------------------
2 3 4 5
Distanceto thefault
Figure 4.94Magnitude(top) and phase-angle

jump (bottom) for sagsof type D due to
phase-to-phasefaults. Dashedline: zero
impedanceangle. Solid line:impedanceangle o 234 5
of -60°. Distanceto the fault
cPa = cP
f!Jb = 30 arCSin(2~b COS(f!J»)

0
-
(4.102)
f!Jc = -30 + arCSin(2~c COS(f!J»)

0
Again we can plotmagnitudeand phase-angle j ump versus distance and magnitude

versus phase-angle jump. Figure 4.94 givesmagnitudeand phase-anglejump as a
0
function of distance for impedance angles equal to zero and-60 Here we seethat •
the voltagedrop in the non-faultedphases israthersmall; the voltagedropsto about

75%. Thecharacteristicphase-anglejump causes anadditionaldrop in voltage at the
equipmentterminals. Magnitudeversus phase-angle jump is plotted in Fig. 4.95 for
four values of the impedance angle.
4.6.2.3 Rangeof Magnitude andPhase-AngleJump. As mentioned before,

phase-to-phase
faults lead to sags of type C or of type D.
Combining the range of
magnitudeand phase-angle j ump due to type C sags (Fig. 4.92) with the range due
60
" "
I
':', \
\ '. \
...........' ,
" .... .:...:'.
- - - - - - - - - - - _. - - - - - - - - ~ ..-. ,-~. ~ . .:'. .:.:~:.-.: I
/ .' ,
I
.:
.'
,I
I~'~'" '"
Figure 4.95Magnitudeversusphase-angle -60

jump for sag type D due tophase-to-phase
faults: impedanceangle -60° (solid line), o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
-400 (dashed),-20° (dotted), 0 (dash-dot). Sagmagnitudein pu
60
lj 40
~
~
.9 20
~
.~
0 .-------~
u
-;0
; -20
~
f -40
-60
Figure 4.96 Rangeof sags due tophase-to-
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 phase faults, as experienced
by single-phase
Sag magnitude in pu equipment.
to type D sags (Fig. 4.95) gives the whole range of sags experienced by single-phase
equipmentduring phase-to-phase faults. The merger of the twomentionedfigures is
shown in Fig. 4.96, where only the outercontourof the area isindicated.
Sags due tothree-phasefaults areautomaticallyincluded in Fig. 4.96. A three-
phase fault gives a sag with the initial
magnitudeand the initialphase-anglej ump, in all
the three phases. Such a sag alsoappearsin one of the phases for a type D sag due to a
phase-to-phase fault. This is the largetriangulararea in Fig. 4.96. Sags due to single-
phase andtwo-phase-to-ground faults havenot yet been included. These will be
treated
below.
EXAMPLE: PHASE-TO-PHASEFAULTS, THREE-PHASELOAD The mag-

nitude and phase-angle
jump due to phase-to-phasefaults have beencalculatedfor faults in the
example supply in Fig. 4.21. The
calculationshave beenperformedfor two different types of
load:
• three-phaseload connectedin delta at 660 V.

• single-phase loadconnectedin star (phase-to-neutral)at 420 V.
For a three-phaseload, we can use the classification introducedin Section 4.4 tocharacterizethe
sag. Themagnitudeand phase-angle j ump of thesethree-phaseunbalancedsags are the same as
those of sags due to three-phasefaults. The only difference is the type of sag.phase-to-phase
A
fault at 11 kV will, for delta-connectedload at 11kV, lead to a sag of type D. The Dy transformer
between the fault (at11 kV) and the load (at 660 V) will change this into a type C sag. Thus, the
delta-connectedload at 660 V will, due to aphase-to-phase fault at 11kV, experience a sag of type
C. Thecharacteristicmagnitudeand phase-angle j ump of this three-phaseunbalancedsag will be
equal to themagnitudeand phase-angle j ump of the voltage (in any phase) due tothree-phase
a
fault at the same position as the phase-to-phase fault. Using the same reasoning we find that
phase-to-phase faults at 33kV lead to type0 sags and faults at132kVand400kV to sags of type
C. The results of thecalculationsare shown in Fig. 4.97:characteristicmagnitudeand phase-
anglejump of three-phaseunbalancedsags due tophase-to-phase faults. Note the similarity with
Fig. 4.87. The curves are at exactly the same position; the only difference thatis
the ones due to
33 kV faults are of type D and the others are of typeThree-phase
C. faults at any voltage level will
lead to a sag of type A.
5r-----r-----r-----r------r-----~__.
~ 0
~
-8 -5
.5
Q..
.[ -10
.£
bO
~Go) -15
]
~ -20
Figure 4.97 Characteristicmagnitudeand
phase-anglejump for sags due tophase-to-
phase faults in theexamplesupply in Fig.
4.21-solidline: type C sags,d ashedline: type 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
D sags. Sagmagnitudein pu
EXAMPLE: PHASE-TO-PHASEFAULTS, SINGLE-PHASELOAD Magni-

tude and phase-angle jump at the equipmentterminals due tophase-to-phase faults have been
calculated for a single-phase load connected phase-to-neutralat 420 V. The classification of
three-phase sags no longer fully describes the voltage atequipmentterminals.
the The addi-
tional information needed is the phases between which the fault takes place. One can calculate
the voltage sag in one phase for three different faults; but it is easier to calculate the voltages
in the three phases for one fault. These three voltages are the voltages in one phase for the
three different faults. We saw before that we do not need to calculate the whole transferof the
sag from the faulted voltage level to the load terminals. All we need to do is determine whether
the equipmentterminal voltagecorrespondsto phase-to-phaseor phase-to-neutralvoltage at
the faulted voltage level. In this example, the equipment terminal voltagecorrespondsto
phase-to-phasevoltages at II kV, 132kV, and 400 kV and tophase-to-neutralvoltages at
33kV.
The resultingmagnitudeand phase-angle j ump are plotted in Fig. 4.98.Faultsat 11kV,
132kV, and 400 kV cause a three-phase unbalancedsag of type D forstar-connectedequipment.
For a type D sag one voltage drops to a low value, and the two remaining voltages show a small
drop with a phase-anglejump up to 30°. Note the symmetry in the sags originating at 400kV,
which is not present in the sagsoriginating at 11kV and 132kV. This is due to the large initial
60 I
,
f
I 40 \
12:
i-20~
= •••••••• _ ._~_:~ ~~ ~~~
,//
Figure 4.98 Magnitudeandphase-angle j ump b
~
V
at the equipmentterminalsdue to phase-to- f -40
"
"
phasefaults in thesupply in Fig. 4.21, I "
experiencedby single-phaseload connected -60 , I
phase-to-groundat 420V-solid line: 11 kV,

dashedline: 33 kV, dotted line: 132 kV, dash- o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
dot line: 400 kV. Sag magnitude in pu
phase-angle jump for the

latter two. Faults at 33 kV cause a sag of type C, with two voltages
down to about 50% and phase-angle jumps up to ±60°.
4.8.3 Single-Phase Faults
For single-phase faults the situation becomes slightly more complicated.

Expressions(4.83) and (4.86) can still be used to calculate magnitude and phase-
angle jump of the voltage in the faulted phaseat the pee (Le., theinitial magnitude
and phase-anglejump). Star-connectede quipmentat the samevoltagelevel 'as thefault
would experiencea sag of type B. But as we have seen before, this is a rather rare
situation.In almostall cases a sag
d ueto a single-phasefault is of type Cor type D. The
characteristicmagnitudeof thesethree-phaseunbalancedsags is nolongerequalto the
initial magnitude.The sameholds for the phase-anglejump.
4.6.3.1 Initial and Characteristic Magnitude.To obtain an expressionfor the

characteristicmagnitudeand phase-anglejump, we need to goback to the type B
sag. Thevoltagesfor a type B sag are
Va = V cos </J + jV sin </J

Vb = _! - !j.Jj (4.103)
2 2
I 1
V
c
= --+-J'../3
2 2
with V the initial magnitudeand </J the initial phase-anglejump. When this three-phase
unbalancedsag propagatesto lower voltage levels, the zero-sequencevoltage is lost.
The zero-sequence c omponentfor (4.103) is
(4.104)
Subtractingthe zero-sequence v oltagefrom (4.103) gives athree-phaseunbalancedsag

of type D. Characteristicmagnitudeandphase-angle j ump for a sagof type D areequal
to the absolutevalue and the argumentof the complex voltage in the worst-effected
phase, Va in this case.
(4.105)
Note that this expressioncan also beobtainedby substitutingV = V cos</J + jV sin </J in
(4.62). For three-phaseunbalancedsags due to single-phasefaults the characteristic
magnitudebecomes
2 / 2 1
Vchar= IVai = 3'1 V +.Vcos</J+4 (4.106)
with V and t/J the initial magnitudeand phase-anglejump, and Va accordingto (4.105).
The characteristicphase-anglejump is
2Vsin<fJ )
tPchar = arg(Va) = arctan( 1 + 2V costP (4.107)
Section 4.6 • Magnitudeand Phase-Angle Jumps for Three-Phase Unbalanced Sags 217
For small values ofl/J these expressions can approximatedby

be using
sinl/J~
l/J
cosl/J~ 1
arctantxe)~ xl/J, x < 1
resulting in
,12
Vchar = 3+3 V (4.108)
, 2V~
l/Jchar = 1 + 2V (4.109)
Figures 4.99 and 4.100 show the error made by using theapproximatedexpressions
(4.108)and (4.109). Theerror has been defined as-~.1 The calculationshave been
performed forimpedanceangles equal to-60°, -40°,ci'itd -20°. Even for a system
with large phase-anglejumps, an impedance angle of -60°, the errors are not very
big. Only for calculatingthe characteristicphase-anglejump with deep sags mightit
be needed to use the exact expression. One should realize, however, that the
0.08....----.,.-----r---...,.-
u 0.07
]
.1 0.06
~
.~
0.05
.j 0.04
(J
j 0.03
'" - - .... ,
(J
.~ 0.02
~ I
Figure 4.99Transformationof sags due to <;
~ 0.01 "
single-phasefaults--errorin approximate I •••• •••••••••• .. •••
expressions for characteristic magnitude. o 1_'_ _- - L . L . -_ _ ........... -- =---....

..&..-_~~...............
Impedance angle: -600 (solid line); -400 o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
(dashed);- 20 (dotted).
0 Initial magnitudein pu
0.2r----~----r------.,.-----r-----,
~
.~
1 0.15
4)
t(J
'i
0.1
J(J
.s
0.05 \ \
...
Figure 4.100Transformationof sags due to ~

single-phase
f aults-errorin approximate .......:-..-:-.:-.~"':'".:-:."""._-~.:::s.:.=::~....-.-_----1
J3 0
expressions for characteristic phase-angle
jump. Impedance angle: _60 0
(solid line); o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
-40 (dashed);- 20 (dotted).
0 0 Initial magnitudein pu
or - - - - - - - r - - - r - - r - - - - - - r - - - -.------r-----.
\
\
\
-10
(/)
8
~ -20·
~
= -30
.~
§
:£-40
~
~ -50
f
-60
Figure 4.101 Relation betweenphase-angle
jump and magnitudeof sags due to single-
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 phase faults:characteristicvalues(dashed
Sag magnitude in pu curve) and initial values (solid curve).
characteristicphase-anglejump is close to zero for single-phase faults with a small

initial magnitude,as can be seen from (4.107). The absoluteerror is even for an
0 0
impedanceangle of -60 lessthan 1 •
Figure 4.101comparesinitial magnitudeand phase-angle j ump with the charac-

teristic values. Animpedanceangle of -60 has been used. The 0
bottom (solid) curve
also gives therelation betweencharacteristicmagnitudeand phase-anglejump due to
phase-to-phase and three-phasefaults. Sags due to single-phase faults are clearly less
severe: inmagnitudeas well as inphase-anglejump.
4.6.3.2 Sagsof Type C and Type D. Knowing characteristicmagnitudeand

phase-anglejump for the typeC or type D sag it is again possible calculatemagni-
to
tude and phase-anglejump at the equipmentterminals.This results insimilar curves
as for sags due tophase-to-phasefaults. The main difference is
t hat voltage sags due
to single-phase faults are less severe
than due to phase-to-phase faults. Figure 4.102
plots magnitudeversusphase-anglejump for sag typeC, for four valuesof the impe-
dance angle. The lowest sagmagnitudeat theequipmentterminals isabout 58°~, the
0
largestphase-anglejump is 30 •
60
rJ 40
~
"'0
.5 20
.[ 0
u
bb
fa -20
~
f -40
Figure 4.102 Rangeof sagsexperiencedby
-60 single-phaseequipmentfor sag type C and
single-phasefault, impedanceangle: _60°
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 (solid line), _40° (dashed),-20 (dotted),
0
Sag magnitude in pu o(dash-dot).

Section 4.6 • Magnitude and Phase-Angle Jumps for Three-Phase
UnbalancedSags 219
60 ~
I 40
~ 20
~
\ :.\. ,
~---
.[ 0 ..:-.- - -- '-'~'
. -~.~.~.~.~ - -~.:
- --~'~'~'~'~'- ----,.~:j. ~..:~>'.
..-:.;.
..2
eo /.;. ...
~ -20
~
f -40
Figure 4.103 Range of sags experienced by
single-phaseequipment for sag type D and -60
-600
single-phasefault, impedance angle:
0 0
(solid line), -40 (dashed),- 20 (dotted), o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Sagmagnitudein pu
o(dash-dot).
60 ... '1
,
, ,I
\
! 40 ,
I
I
I \
,,
.... .,
~ I \
.S 20
\
,
\
~
.--. 0
u ,
\
,
bb
; -20
f
~ -40
.... -
....
I
-,
I
z
I
,I
-60 . . t,..'"
Figure 4.104 Range of sags due to single-

phase faults (solid curve) and due to phase-to- o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
phase faults (dashed curve). Sagmagnitudein pu
Figure 4.103 repeats this for type D sags duesingle-phase

to faults. The lowest sag
magnitudeis 330/0 with a maximumphase-anglejump of 19°. Sags due to type C and
type D are merged into one p lot in Fig. 4.104 which gives the whole range of sags
experiencedby single-phaseequipmentdue to single-phase faults. This rangeis smaller
than the range due tophase-to..phasefaults, indicated by a dashedline in Fig. 4.104.
EXAMPLE: SINGLE-PHASEFAULTS, THREE-PHASELOAD The calcula-

tions for phase..to..phase faults shown in the previous section have been repeated for single-
4.21, the sag magni-
phase faults.For single-phase faults at the various voltage levels in Fig.
tude, phase-angle jump, and type have been calculated for delta..connected (three-phase) load
at 660 V.Equations(4.108) and (4.109) have been derived for a system with equal positive, ne-
gative and zero-sequence impedance. This is a goodapproximationfor the (solidly grounded)
132kV system but not for the(resistance-grounded) 11 kV and 33kV systems. At 400 kV the
source impedance is mainly determined by overhead lines, that
sothe zero-sequence source im-
pedance is larger than the positive-sequence value. To calculatecharacteristic
the magnitudeof
three-phase unbalanced sags due to single-phase faults, we can first calculatephase-to-neu-
the
tral voltage in the faulted phase according to (4.40).
Characteristicvalues areobtainedfrom
this by applying (4.108) and (4.109). Alternatively we can calculate the complex phase-to-
5..-----.------r----...----.----..-
o _------------- _ . ---6
l
~ -5
.S
Qc
g-10
.""""
~
; -15
j Figure 4.105 Characteristic magnitude and
phase-angle j umpfor sags due to single-phase
~-20~ faults in the example supply in Fig. 4.21,
experienced by three-phase load-connected
-25 . _,
0.2 _---'-_ -..L.. --L-_ _.....L---'
phase-to-phase at660V-solid line: II kV,
0 0.4 0.6 0.8
dashed line: 33kV, dotted line: 132kV, dash-
Sagmagnitudein pu
dot line: 400kV.
ground voltages at the pee, and apply a type 2 transformerto these.A type 2 transformerre-
moves the zero-sequence voltage and results in a three-phase unbalancedsagof type D. Mag-
nitude and phase-angle jump of the worst-affected phase are equal to characteristic
the values.
In other words, thecharacteristiccomplex voltage can be obtained by subtractingthe zero-
sequence voltage from the voltage in the faulted phase atpee. the
The results are shown in Fig. 4.105. We seethat single-phase faults at11 kV and 33kV
cause only a smalldrop in voltage, but amoderatephase-angle jump. This is due to the resistance
groundingapplied at these voltage levels, Sagsoriginating in the 132kV and 400 kV networks
show a much largerd rop in voltage magnitudebut a smaller phase-angle jump. Note that the
curves for sags due to 400 Vkfaults do notstartat 33°A. voltage as expected for solidly-grounded
systems. The reason that
is the source impedance in PAD-400 mainly consists of overhead lines.
Therefore the zero-sequence impedance is larger thanthe positive-sequence impedance. For faults
in the direction of PEN, the source impedances ZSI are = 0.084+ jl.061, Zso =0.319+ j2.273,
which gives for the initialphase-to-neutralvoltage duringa terminal fault:
3ZS1 •
Van = 1 - 22 Z = 0.2185+JO.0243 (4.110)
Sl + so
The characteristicmagnitudeat a lower voltage level is found from
v.: = H·+~ VanI= 0.519 (4.111)
For single-phase faults in thedirection of EGG we find: Van = 0.3535 - jO.0026 and
Vchar = 0.571. This is amoderateversion of the effect which leads to very shallow sags in
resistance-grounded systems. Notethat we still assume the system to be radial, which gives an
erroneousresult for single-phase faults at 400 kV. This explains the difference in resulting voltage
sags for a terminal fault in the two directions. The actual value is somewhere between 0.519 and
0.571. The difference is small enough to be neglected here.
Figure 4.105 does not plot the sag type: faults atkV33lead to a type C sag; faults at 11kV,
132kV, and 400 kV cause a sag of type D at theequipmentterminals for delta-connected load. At
the equipmentterminals it is not possible to distinguish between a sag due to a single-phase fault
and a sag due to phase-to-phase
a fault: they bothcause sags o f type C or type D. Therefore, we
have merged Figs. 4.97 and 4.105 into one figure. The result is displayed in Fig. 4.106, showing
characteristicmagnitudeand phase-angle j ump of all three-phaseunbalancedsags due to single-
phase andphase-to-phase faults, as experienced bydelta-connected
a three-phase load at 660 V.
We seethat the equipmentexperiences the whole range of magnitudes and phase-angle jumps.
These have to be considered when specifyingvoltage-tolerance
the requirements of equipment. To
Section 4.6 • Magnitudeand Phase-AngleJumpsfor Three-PhaseUnbalancedSags 221
~ 0 \\ _--------- == 0
~
tt -5
.9
c.
§ -10
.~
i
; -15
Figure4.106Characteristicmagnitudeand
J ~ -20
phase-angle jump for three-phaseunbalanced
sags in Fig. 4.21, experienced by three-phase - 25O'------.L---L-----'. J __ - . - -
delta-connectedload-solidline: type C, 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

dashed line: type D. Sagmagnitudein pu
be able to fully interpret these results, twomore dimensionsare needed. At first, one has to
realize that not all sags areof equalduration. Typically sags due to11 kV and 33 kV faults are
of longer duration than those due to 132kV and 400kV faults. What is also different for
different sags is itslikelihood. Roughly speakingone can say that deepersags are less likely
than shallower sags. We will come back to probabilities in detail in Chapter 6. To include
magnitude,phase-anglejump, duration,and probability in one, two-dimensional,figure is very
difficult if not impossible.
EXAMPLE: SINGLE-PHASE FAULTS, SINGLE-PHASE LOAD The mag-

nitude and phase-anglejump have been calculatedfor voltage sagsdue to single-phasefaults,
experiencedby single-phasestar-connectedload. For this we havecalculatedeither the phase-
to-phase voltage, or the phase-to-groundvoltage minus the zero-sequencevoltage, at the
faulted voltage level. For a single-phasefault at 11 kV, star-connectedload at 420 V experi-
ences a sagof type C. The complex voltages at the equipment terminals are equal to the
phase-to-phase voltagesat the pee,The samecalculationmethodcan be used forsingle-phase
faults at 132 kVand at 400 kV. Single-phasefaults at 33 kV lead to sagsof type D. The com-
plex voltagesat the equipmentterminalscan be calculatedas the phase-to-groundvoltagesat
the pee minus the zero-sequencecomponent.The results of these calculationsare shown in
Fig. 4.107. We seethat the voltage never drops below 500/0, and that the phase-anglejumps
are between-30° and +30°. Faults at 11 kV and 33 kV again only causeshallow sags due to
the system beingresistance-grounded. Due to a 33 kV fault, the load can even experiencea
small voltage swell. Faults at 400kV are also somewhatdampedbecausethe zero-sequence
source impedanceis about twice the positive-sequencevalue. Therefore, sags due to single-
phasefaults are milder than expectedfor a solidly-groundedsystem. In the 132 kV system, the
zero-sequencesource impedanceis even a bit smaller than the positive sequencevalue, thus
leadingto deep sags. But at 420 V they appearas a typeC in which the drop in phasevoltages
is not below 500/0. For this specificsystem,single-phasefaults do not causevery deep sags for
star-connectedload. Note that this is not a generalconclusion.Had the 11 kV/420 V transfor-
mer beenof type Dd, the equipmentwould have experiencedvoltagedropsdown to 300/0 (see
Fig. 4.105).
To get acompletepictureof all sagsexperiencedby the single-phaseload, we havemerged
Fig. 4.87 (three-phasefaults), Fig. 4.98 (phase-to-phasefaults), and Fig. 4.107 (single-phase
faults), resulting in Fig. 4.108. Here we see the wholerange of values both in magnitudeand
in phase-anglejump.
60
~
Go)
40
~
~
.S 20
~ 0
'~
Go)
~
S -20
I
~ Figure 4.107 Magnitudeand phase-angle

f -40 jump for sags due tosingle-phasefaults in the
examplesupply in Fig. 4.21, experiencedby
-60 single-phaseload-connectedphase-to-ground
at 420V-solid line: II kV, dashedline:
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 33 kV, dotted line: 132kV, dash-dotline:
Sag magnitude in pu 400kV.
60 , I
~ 40 ,
I
j
\
.S 20 \"" (\
' ...... : .......... \'"
~~ 0 --- .~_---- ~~'_-_--~~~ ~ ~------=-,-~~~'~~-~J~--
Ii - 20 ---- ,, , / /
M
I
/~ ~ ~
~ V Figure 4.108 Magnitudeand phase-angle
f -40 / jump for all sags in theexamplesupplyin Fig.
I
I 4.2), experiencedby single-phaseload-
-60 I
connectedphase-to-groundat 420 V-solid
line: I) kV, dashedline: 33 kV, dotted line:
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 132kV, dash-dotline: 400kV.
4.8.4 Two-Phase-to-Oround Faults
The analysisof two-phase-to-groundfaults does not differ from the treatmentof

phase-to-phase faults. We saw inSection4.4.4 that two-phase-to-groundfaults lead to
three-phaseunbalancedsagsof type E, type F,or type G. Type E is a rare type which
we will not discusshere. Like type B for the single-phase-to-ground f ault, the type E
containsa zero-sequencec omponentwhich is normally not transferredto the utility
voltage,and neverseen bydelta-connectedequipment.
For type F and type G we can againplot characteristicmagnitudeagainstphase-
anglejump. The relation betweenthe characteristicmagnitudeandphase-angle j ump of
the unbalancedthree-phasesag isidentical to the relation betweenthe initial magnitude
and phase-anglejump, i.e, magnitudeand phase-anglejump of the voltage in the
faulted phasesat the pee.This relation is describedby (4.83) and (4.86) and is shown
in Fig. 4.86.
4.6.4.1 Sagsof Type F. A detailedphasordiagramof a sagof type F is shown

in Fig. 4.109. Like with a type D sag, one phasedrops significantly in magnitude,
and the other two phasesless.The differencewith the type D sag is in thelatter two
Figure 4.109Phasordiagramfor three-phase

unbalancedsag of type F with characteristic
magnitudeV and characteristicphase-angle
jump t/J.
phases.With a type D sag theydrop from -!

± !jJ3 to ± !jJ3, but with a type F
sag theydrop significantly more: to ±!jJ3. The lowest magnitudefor a type D sag
is 86.60/0, whereasit is 57.7% for a type F sag.
In the upper triangle indicatedin Fig. 4.109 wecan again apply the cosineand
sine rule toobtain magnitudeand phase-anglejump at the equipmentterminals.Note
that in Fig. 4.109, rP < 0, rPb > 0, and rPc < O. The cosinerule gives
(4.112)
which resultsin an expressionfor the voltagemagnitude Vc:
(4.113)
The sine rule in thesametriangle gives
sin(30° + rPc) sin(120° - rP)

=----- (4.114)
! vJ3 Vc
The phase-anglejump rPc follows as
f/Jc = -30
0
+ arcsin{V~Sin(120° - f/J)} (4.115)
The same rules can be applied to the lower triangle, which leads to the following
expressionsfor magnitude Vb and phase-anglejump rPb:
(4.116)
60
l 40
~
.S 20
~
...., 0 ---------'::
u
tih
fa -20 .
~
~
f -40
Figure 4.110Magnitudeand phase-angle
-60 jump at theequipmentterminals for a type F
sag, due to atwo-phase-to-groundfault. The
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 curves are given for an impedance angle of 0
Sag magnitude in pu (dashed line) and_600 (solid line).
(4.117)
From theseequationswe can againcalculatemagnitudeand phase-anglejump at

theequipmentterminals,e.g., as afunction of thedistanceto the fault.Figure4.110 plots
magnitudeversusphase-angle j ump for a type F sag due to two-phase-to-ground
a fault.
We seethat one phase behaves again like the sag due three-phase
to a fault. The other
two phase aresomewhatlike the two phases with a shallow sag in the type D sag shown
in Fig. 4.95. The difference is
thatfor a type F sag the voltages show a significantly larger
drop. Themaximumphase-anglejump for these two phases is again 30°.
4.6.4.2 Sagsof Type G. A detailedphasordiagramfor a type G sag is shown

in Fig. 4.111. The complex voltage in phasedrops
a to a valueof ~ (no drop for a
bandc drop to a valueof
sag of type C); the complex voltages in phase for -! (-!
type C). .
Figure 4.111 Detailedphasordiagram for

three-phaseunbalancedsag of type G with
characteristicmagnitudeV and characteristic
phase-anglejump l/J.
UnbalancedSags 225
The cosine ruleand the sine ruleapplied to the triangle on the right give the
following expressions:
2 4 12 2 V
V = -
a 9
+ -9 V - 2 x - x - cos( 180 + cP)
3 3
0
(4.118)
sin(180°+ 4» = sin(-4>0) (4.119)

Va !V
This leadsagainto expressionsfor magnitudeand phase-anglejump at the equipment
terminals.
(4.120)
4>0 = arcsin(3~0 sin4>) (4.121)
Repeatingthe calculationsfor the other trianglesgives expressionsfor magnitudeand

phase-anglejump in the other two phases.Note the angle 1010 and the factor!../7.
These originate from the triangle formed by the complex numbers 0, and -!,
-!±!jv'3.
(4.122)
(4.123)
Vc = ~J 1 + 7V2 - 2V.J7cos(lOI° + 4» (4.124)
4>c = 60° - arcsinG.J7~ sin(lOlo + 4») (4.125)
The resultsfor type G sags areshownin Fig. 4.112. We seethat the type G sag is
somewhatsimilar to the type C sag, as
s hown in Fig. 4.92. Unlike the phase-to-phase
60 \
\
\
\
\
\
,
/
/
I
I
Figure4.112Magnitudeand phase-angle I
I
jump at theequipmentterminals for a type G

,
sag, due to atwo-phase-to-groundfault. The
curves are given for an impedance angle of 0 0.2
(dashed line) and-600 (solid line).
fault, two-phase-to-groundfaults cause two voltages to drop to 33% instead of50%.

For faults somedistanceaway from the pee the voltage magnitudecan even become a
bit less than 33% due to the initial phase-anglejump. Another difference with the
phase-to-phasefault is that all three phasesdrop in magnitude.The third phase,
which is not influenced at all by aphase-to-phase fault, may drop to 67% during a
two-phase-to-groundfault.
4.6.4.3 Rangeof Magnitude and Phase-Angle Jump. Merging Fig. 4.110 and
Fig. 4.112 gives the whole rangeof magnitudesand phase-anglejumps experienced
by a single-phaseload due totwo-phase-to-groundfaults. In Fig. 4.113 the area due
to two-phase-to-groundfaults (solid curve) iscomparedwith the area due to phase-
to-phasefaults (dashedcurve). We seethat there arecertaincombinationsof magni-
tude andphase-anglejump which can occur due tophase-to-phase faults but not due
to two-phase-to-groundfaults, but also theother way around. These curves have
beenobtainedunder the assumptionthat zero-sequence and positive-sequence impe-
dances are equal.For a zero-sequenceimpedancelarger than the" positive-sequence
sourceimpedance,the resulting sags due totwo-phase-to-groundfaults are closer to-
ward sags due tophase-to-phasefaults. The results arethat even a larger rangeof
magnitudeand phase-anglejumps can be expected. An increasing zero-sequence im-
pedance will meanthat the area enclosed by the solid curve in Fig. 4.113 will shift
toward the area enclosed by the dashedcurve. Thelatter is reached for an infinite
zero-sequence impedancevalue.
60 / ,
... 1
\
\
~ 40 \
~ ,
\
008
- ....
\
.5 20 \
\
,
~ Ot----~----·,
'''''''''\
«>
bo
; -20
o
]a.- -40 I
I
-60 Figure 4.113Range ofmagnitudeand phase-

anglejump at theequipmentterminals due to
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 phase-to-phase(dashed curve) and two-
Sag magnitude in pu phase-to-groundfaults (solid curve).
EXAMPLE: TWO-PHASE-TO-GROUNDFAULTS,SINGLE-PHASELOAD
For the same example system as used before (Fig. 4.21) the complex voltages at the equipment
terminals due totwo-phase-to-groundfaults have been calculated. Characteristicmagnitude
and phase-angle j ump due to atwo-phase-to-groundfault are the same as due to a phase-to-
phase fault.For three-phasedelta-connectedequipmentwe can directly use the results obtained
for phase-to-phase faults in Fig. 4.97.For two-phase-to-groundfaults, the solid lines refer to
sags of type G, the dashed lines to sags of type F. two-phase-to-ground
A fault at 1I kV leads
to a sagof type F for delta-connectedload, according to Table 4.13. The Dy IlkV/660 V
transformerchanges this into a sag of type G, according to Table 4.14.Two-phase-to-ground
faults at 33 kV lead to sags of type F, and faults at 132kV and 400kV to type G.
UnbalancedSags 227
60
Figure 4.114 Magnitude and phase-angle

I
jump at the equipment terminals due to two-
I
I
phase-to-ground faults in Fig. 4.21,
I
-60 I experiencedby single-phase load-connected
t 1 kV,
phase-to-ground at 420 V - solid line:
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 dashed line: 33 kV, dotted line: 132 kV, dash-
Sagmagnitudein pu dot line: 400 kV.
For star-connectedsingle-phase load, thesituation is completely different. The zero-

sequence source and feeder impedances influence the voltages during a two-phase-to-ground
fault, but notduring a phase-to-phase fault. The voltage sags experienced by single-phase equip-
ment are shown in Fig. 4.114.Faultsat 11kV, 132kV, and 400kV cause sags of type G, in which
one phase shows a deep sag and the otherphases
two II kV the zero-sequence
a shallow sag. At
source impedance is much larger than the positive-sequence one, due to the resistance
grounding
of this voltage level. The resulting sag is very close to the type D sags duephase-to-phase
to a
fault. The large zero-sequence impedance makes that the ground connectionof a two-phase-to-
groundfault does notcarrymuch current. The voltage magnitudein the two phases with shallow
sags is thus only down toa bout 900/0. For faults at 132kV, which is solidlygrounded,these
voltages are down toabout 55°~. The 400kV system is also solidlygrounded,but the line
impedancedominatesthe source impedance, making that the zero-sequence impedance is more
than twice as large as the positive-sequence impedance. In the phase with the largestdrop,
voltage
the voltagemagnitudeis aboutthe same for the three voltage levels. Faultsat 33 kV will cause a
type G sag. As the system is resistancegroundedthis sag is very close to a type C sag due to a
phase-to-phase fault.
4.8.5 High-Impedance Faults
In all the previouscalculationsin this chapter,we have assumed the fault impe-
dance to be zero. The a rgumentationfor this wasthat the fault impedancecould be
incorporatedin the feederimpedance,ZF in (4.9). Thisargumentstill holds as long as
the magnitudeof the sag isconcerned,but the phase-anglejump can be significantly
affected. We will first addressthree-phasefaults and after that single-phasefaults.
High-impedancefaults are more likely forsingle-phase-to-groundfaults than for
three-phasefaults.
4.6.5.1 Three-Phase Faults.Consider again the basic voltage divider expres-

Rtit explicitly included:
sion (4.9), but this time with the fault resistance
V _ ZF+Rfll
(4.126)
sag - Z s + Z F + Rfll
In many cases the sourceimpedanceand the feederimpedanceare largely reactive,

whereas the faultimpedanceis mainly resistive. The angle between source
impedance
and feeder plus fault impedance gets close to 90°, which can lead to very large phase-
angle jumps.
« Rfll' thus for
The fault resistance only noticeably affects the voltage ifF I12
faults close to thepoint-of-commoncoupling with the load.For zero distance to the
Zs =}Xs):
fault we get for the complex voltage (with
V - ~t (4.127)
sag - }Xs + Rflt
The fault resistance is normally not more than a fraction of the source reactance, in
which case the sag magnitudeis the ratio of the fault and the source impedances with a
phase-anglejump equal to almost 90°.
To quantify the influence of the fault resistance, the complex voltage
during the
sag was calculated as a function of the distance to the fault for three-phase faults at
11 kV in Fig. 4.21.The calculationshave beenperformedfor a zero fault resistance and
10%,200/0, and 300/0 of the (absolutevalueof the) source
for fault resistances equal to
impedance. The sag magnitude(the absolutevalue of the complex voltage) plottedin
is
Fig. 4.115as a function of the distance to the fault. As expected the influence on the sag
magnitudeis limited to small distances to the fault. The fault resistance increases the
impedance between the pee and the fault, and thus reduces the voltage drop at the pee.
The phase-anglejump is much more influenced, as shown in Fig. 4.116. The
phase-anglejump reaches values up to 80°. For increasing fault resistance the maximum
phase-anglejump does not reduce much.
4.6.5.2 Single-Phase Faults.To assess the effect of high-impedance single-

phase faults on the voltage at the equipmentterminals, we use the classificationof
three-phaseunbalancedsags again. At first we consider solidly-groundedsystem,
a
for which we can 'assumethat the two non-faulted phase voltages remain at their
pre-fault values. Inother words, we have a clean type B sag. The voltage in the
faulted phase is influenced by the fault resistance as shown in 4.115
Figs. and 4.116.
At the equipmentterminals the sag will be of type C or D. Magnitude and phase-
anglejump at theequipmentterminals are shown in Fig. 4.117for a type C sag and
in Fig. 4.118for a type D sag.In' Fig. 4.117we see how an increasing fault resistance
increases theunbalancebetween the two affected phases. Although the characteristic
0.8
~
.5
~ 0.6
.E
ie 0.4
ee
~
Figure 4.115 Sag magnitude versus distance

for three-phase faults with fault resistances
equal to zero (solid line),100/0 (dashed line),
00 1 2 3 4 5 20°,lc, (dash-dot line), and30% (dotted line)of
Distanceto the fault inkilometers the source impedance.
o
8-10
-8~ -20
.8 -30
-
I
e, I .
, I I •
§ -40
."""'\
,
I
, ,
u
~-50 I
; I
M -60 , I
,
I
f -70 I
I
Figure4.116Sagmagnitudeversus phase- I
anglejump for three-phase faults with fault -80

to°A.
resistances equal to zero (solid line), -9°0
(dashed line),200/0 (dash-dotline), and 30% 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
(dotted line) of the source impedance. Sag magnitude in pu
magnitudeincreases due to the fault resistance, one of the phasesactually drops in

voltage. The characteristicmagnitude is the difference between the two affected
phases in the figure. We also see that the phase-anglejump at the equipmentterm-
inals only slightly exceeds 30°, despite the very large initial
phase-anglejump. The
largest phase-anglejump occurs for a30% fault resistance at zero distance: -31.9°.
In Fig. 4.118 we seethat for a type D sag, the fault resistance increases the phase-
angle jump in the phasewith the large voltagedrop, and that it raises oneof the
other two voltages and reduces the other. Fault resistances above300/0 cause a small
swell in oneof the phases.
For Figs. 4.117 and 4.118, the 11 kV system was assumed to solidlygrounded.
be
Therefore, the zero-sequence source impedancewas made equal to the positive-
sequence value. In reality this system is resistive
grounded:positive- andzero-sequence
source impedanceare significantly different. Thephase-to-neutralvoltage is much
lower in this case. Tocalculatethe phase-to-neutralvoltage a slightly revised version
of (4.38) has been used:
V-I _ 32s1 (4.128)

an - 22F1 + ZFO + 2Z S1 + ZSO + 3R.Jzt
30
\
,
,, , ,
en
Q)
20 \
tb , , '\ ,
~ " '"
.5 10 ......
'..<:~':..,
~ ... "":~ ..
e
::s 0
.'""'\
Q)
bi>
; -10 "/~~.
I /1,
Figure 4.117Magnitudeversusphase-angle
~
,1'-
" 1,-
jump at theequipmentterminals for single- f -20 I':
III,"
phase faults in a solidlygroundedsystem, sag I .' :

type C; fault resistances equal to zero (solid -30 " , :'
I I :
line), 10% (dashed line),20% (dash-dotline),

and 300/0 (dottedline) of the source 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
impedance. Sag magnitudein
pu
30
(I)
u 20
~
\
'\ \
u ",\\
"T;:)
10 . ',\\
.. ~,~
.S ,
Figure 4.118 Magnitude versus phase-angle

jump at the equipment terminals for single..
phase faults in a solidly grounded system, sag
-30 type D, fault resistances equal to zero (solid
line), 10% (dashed line),20% (dash-dot line),
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 and 30% (dotted line) of the source
Sag magnitudein pu impedance.
5r----,-----.....--------.--------.
.. :--.~~~'?o'
/ " ..
,. ~.
/~:"
,1.-
1/'
/, :
i, : :'" \ "
\ \ " Figure 4.119 Magnitude versus phase-angle
\
\
"...' . jumps at the equipment terminals for single..
phase faults in a resistance-grounded system,
sag type D; fault resistances equal to zero
-10 '------'--------'-------'-------' (solid line), 50% (dashed line),100% (dash-
0.9 0.95 t 1.05 1.1 dot line), and150°A. (dotted line) of the source
Sag magnitudei
....pu impedance.
The influence of the fault resistance is small in this case, as can be seen in Fig. 4.119.
The magnitudeand phase-angle j ump at theequipmentterminalsare plottedfor a type
D sag. Due to the small fault
currentsarc resistances can reach much higher values in a
resistance-groundedsystemthanin a solidly-groundedsystem. In thecalculationslead-
ing to Fig. 4.119 fault resistancesequal to 50%, 1000/0, and 1500/0 of the positive-
sequence source impedanceWere used. The main effectof large fault resistances is
that the sag becomes less severemagnitudeand
in in phase-anglejump.
4.8.8 Meshed Systems
All calculationsin Sections 4.4and 4.5 were based on the assumptionthat the
system is radial; thusthat we canuniquelyidentify a point-of-commoncoupling(pee), a
sourceimpedanceZs, and a feederimpedanceZF, as were shown in Fig. 4.14. From
Fig. 4.14 weobtainedthe basicvoltagedivider equationfor the complex sag voltage:
V-I _ Zs (4.129)
sag- ZS+ZF
Section 4.7 • OtherCharacteristicsof Voltage Sags 231
In case the system loaded,we

is can useThevenin'ssuperpositiontheoremwhich states
that the voltageduring the fault equals the voltage before the fault plus the change in
voltage due to the fault:
(0) z, V(O) (4.130)
V.vag = Vpee - Z Z f
s+ F
with V~~e the pre-fault voltage at the pee andV}O) the pre-fault voltage at the fault
position. Notethat the source impedance Zs includes the effecto f loads elsewhere in
the system.
For a meshed system we need matrix methods to calculate voltage during the
fault, asintroducedin Section 4.2.5. Weobtainedthe following expression (4.24) for
f:
the voltageV k at node k due to a fault at node
V
k
= V~O) _ Zkf V(O) (4.131)
Zff f
with ViOl the voltage at nodek before the fault andvjO) the voltage at the fault position
before the fault, andZij element ij of the node impedance matrix. Comparingthis
equationwith (4.129) we seethat they have the same structure.The voltage divider
model can be used for meshed systems, when the following source and feeder impe-
dances are used:
z, = Zk/ (4.132)
ZF = Zff - Zk/ (4.133)
The main difference isthat both Zs and ZF are dependenton the fault location.
Equivalentsource and feeder impedances canobtainedfor
be positive-, negative-, and
zero-sequence
networks,and all the previously discussed analysis can still be applied.
4.7 OTHER CHARACTERISTICS OF VOLTAGE SAGS
4.7.1 Point-on-Wave Characteristics
The voltage sagcharacteristicsdiscussedhitherto (magnitude, phase-anglejump,

three-phaseunbalance)are all related to thefundamental-frequency componento f the
voltage. They require the calculationof the rms value of the voltage or the complex
voltage over aperiod of one half-cycle or longer. We saw earlier how this leads to an
uncertaintyin the calculationof sagduration.To obtaina moreaccuratevalue for the
sagdurationone needs to be able to determine"start" and "ending" of the sag with a
higher precision.For this one needs to find the so-called
"point-on-waveof sag initia-
tion" and the "point-on-wave of voltage recovery" [38], [134]. Both require more
advanced analysis techniques, which are still under development. We will see in the
next chapterthat the point-on-wavecharacteristicsalso affect the behavior of some
equipment.
4.7.1.1 Point-on-Waveo f Sag Initiation. The point-on-waveof saginitiation is

the phase angle o f the fundamentalvoltage wave at which the voltage sag starts. This
anglecorrespondsto the angle at which theshort-circuitfault occurs. As most faults
are associated with a flashover, they are more likely to occur near voltage maximum
than near voltage zero. In the sag shown in Fig. 4.1 point-on-waveof
the sag initia-
tion is close to voltage maximum. In Fig. 4.9 sag initiation takes placeabout 35°
after voltage maximum, at least in the phase with the largest voltage drop. In other
phases the event startsat anotherangle comparedto the fundamentalvoltagein that
phase.
When quantifying the point-on-wavea referencepoint is needed. Theupward
zero crossingof the fundamentalvoltage is anobvious choice. One is likely to use
the last upward zero crossing of the pre-event voltage as reference, as this closely
resembles thefundamentalvoltage. The sag shown in Fig. 4.1 partly is repeatedin
Fig. 4.120: one cycle (1/60o f a second)startingat the lastupwardzero crossing before
sag initiation. We seethat the point-on-waveof saginitiation is about 275°. A closer
look at the data learns that this point is between 276° and 280°. The slope at the
beginningof the sagactually takes 4°, orabout 185 j.LS. This is probably due to the
low-passcharacterof the measurementcircuit.
Figure 4.12I plots all three phases of the sag for which one phase plotted
was in
Fig. 4.120.For each phase, the zero point of the horizontalaxis is the lastu pwardzero
crossingbefore thestart of the event inthat phase. We see t hat the point-on-waveis
different in the three phases. This obviousif
is one realizesthat the eventstartsat the
samemomentin time in the three phases. As the voltage zero crossings are 120° shifted,
2 --r-·_···~----·r--·---r----'-----r-1
1.5
0.5
; 0 F--------~-----ft--~--t
~
-0.5
-1
-1.5
- 2 '----_-'--- - A . - - _ - - ' - - _ - - - ' - _ - - ' -_ _ -L..J
Figure 4.120Enlargemento f the sag shown
o 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 in Fig. 4.1indicatingthe point-on-waveof sag
Angle of voltage wave in degrees
initiation.
i_: o 50 100 150

~~::1
200 250 300 350
'-: o 50 100 150 200 250 /1 300 350
i_:P=~o 50 100 150 200 250 300

Angle of voltage wave in degrees
Figure 4.121 Eventinitiation in the three
350 phases,comparedto the lastupward voltage
zero crossing.
Section 4.7 • Other Characteristicsof Voltage Sags 233
the point-on-wavevalues differ by 120°. In casephase-to-phase voltages are used, the

resultingvalues are again different. When quantifying point-on-wave it is essential to
clearly define the reference
.
4.7.1.2 Point-on-Waveof Voltage Recovery. The point-on-waveof voltage re-

covery is the phase angle of the fundamentalvoltage wave at which the main recov-
ery takes place. We saw before that most existing powerquality monitors look for
the point at which the voltage recovers to 90% or 95% of nominal the voltage. Note
that there is in many cases no link between these two points . Consideras an example
again the sag shown inig. F 4.1. Voltage recovery in the meaning of this section takes
placeabout 2.5 cycles after sag initiation, even though the voltage does not fully- re
cover for at leastanothertwo cycles, as can be seen in Fig. 4.3.
Voltage recoverycorrespondsto fault clearing, which takes place currentzero
at
crossing. Because the power system is mainly inductive,current zero crossing corre-
sponds to voltage maximum . Thus we expect points-on-wave of voltage recovery to be
around90° and 270°. This assumes that we use the pre-event fundamentalvoltage as
reference,not the during-event voltage . It is the pre-event voltage which drives the fault
currentand which is thus 90 ° shiftedcomparedto the faultcurrent.The recovery of the
sag in Fig. 4.120 is shown in Fig. 4.122. The recovery is, at least in this,caseslower than
the saginitiation. The shape of the voltage recovery correspondsto the so-called
" transient recovery voltage" well-known in circuit-breakertesting. The smoothsinu-
soidal curve in Fig. 4.122 is the continuationof the pre-eventfundamentalvoltage.
Considering thestart of the recovery , we find a point-on-waveof 52°. If we further
assume this to be the moment of fault-clearing taking place currentzero,
at we seethat
the currentlags the voltage by 52 °, which gives anX/R ratio at the fault position equal
to tan-I(52 °) = 1.3.
For a two-phase-to-ground or three-phasefault, fault clearing does not take place
in all three phases at the same time . This could make adeterminationof the point-on-
wave of voltage recovery difficult. Anunambiguousdefinition of the referencepoint
and phase is needed to apply this conceptto three-phaseunbalancedsags.
1.5
0.5
j 0
s
- 0.5
-I
Figure 4.122 Enlargement of Fig. 4.1
showing thepoint-on-waveof voltage - 1.5
recovery. The smoothcurve is the
continuationof the pre-sagfundamental o 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Time in degrees
voltage.
4.7.2 The MI••ing Voltage
The missing voltage isa nothervoltage sagcharacteristicwhich has beenproposed

recently [134]. The missing voltage is a wayo f describing the change inmomentary
voltage experienced by theequipment.The conceptbecameimportantwith the dimen-
sioning of series-connectedvoltage-sourceconvertersto compensatefor the voltage
drop due to the fault. We will see inChapter7 that the voltage injected by the series
compensatoris equal to the missing voltage: the difference between the voltage as it
would have beenwithout the sag, and theactual voltage during the sag.
4.7.2.1 The Complex Missing Voltage. One can thinkof the missing voltage as
a complex voltage (aphasor),being the difference in the complex plane between the
pre-event voltage and the voltageduring the sag. Theabsolutevalue of this complex
missing voltage can be directly read from a plot like shown in Fig. 4.83. In Fig. 4.83
the missing voltage is the
distancebetween the complex voltage during the sag (which
is on one of the three curves) and the top-right corner of the diagram (the point
I + jO).
EXAMPLE Consider a sag on a 50 mrn? undergroundcable, like in Fig. 4.83, with a

sag magnitudeof 600~. If the pre-event voltage was 100%, the drop in rms value of the vol-
tage is40°A.. Having no furtherinformation one would be tempted to say thatcompensator
a
should inject a voltage with an rms value equal to 40% of nominal.
Looking in the complex plane, we see that a magnitudeof 60% correspondsto a complex
voltageV = 0.45 - jO.39. The missing voltage is the difference between the pre-fault voltage and
the voltage during the sag, thus 117- = 0.55+ jO.39. The absolute value
o f the missing voltage is
67% in this example.Comparethis with the 40% drop in rms voltage.
The complex missing voltage can also calculatedfrom

be the magnitude V and the
phase-anglejump l/J of the sag. The complex voltage
during the sag is
V = V cos q,+ jV sin q, (4.134)
The missing voltage is simply
1- V= 1- Vcosq,-jVsinq, (4.135)
with as absolutevalue
Vmiss= 11 - VI =JI - V2- 2 V cosl/J (4.136)

When we neglect the phase-anglejump, thus assumethat V = V, the missing voltage is
errormade by writing 1 - V = JI + V 2 - 2V.
simply Vmiss = 1 - V. We can assess the
Comparingthis with (4.136) gives for the difference between the exact andapprox-
the
imate expression for the missing voltage:
2 -2
Vmis,f - V miss = 2V(1 - cosq,) (4.137)
4.7.2.2 The Missing Voltage in Time Domain. The conceptof missing voltage
can become much more useful by extending it to time domain. A very first step
would be to look at the difference between the fundamentalpre-event voltage and
the fundamentalduring-eventvoltage. Butthat would not give any extra information
comparedto the complex missing voltage.
Section 4.7 • Other Characteristicsof Voltage Sags 235
2 .-----.,..---.,.------r----,------,-----,
i~ 0
-1
234 5 6
Timein cycles
2.---r---,-----.-----r-----r-----.
u
01)
~ 0 ..............."'--'~
Figure 4.123·T ime-domainvoltage ~
measurementtogetherwith pre-event -1
fundamentalvoltage(top curve) andthe time-
-2
domainmissing voltagebeing thedifference 0 234 5 6
of those two(bottom curve). Time in cycles
In the top part of Fig. 4.123 the sag from Fig. 4.1 has been plotted again.
Togetherwith the actualtime-domainvoltage wave, thefundamentalpre-event voltage
has beenplotted.The latter is obtainedby applyinga fast-Fourier-transformalgorithm
to the first cycle of the voltage wave form.From the complex coefficient for the funda-
mental term in theFourierseries Ct , the (time-domain)fundamentalcomponentof the
voltage can becalculated:
(4.138)
This fundamentalc omponentof the pre-eventvoltage (pre-eventfundamentalvoltage,

for short) is the smoothsinusoidalcurve in the toppart of Fig. 4.123.
The missing voltage is
calculatedas the difference between theactualvoltage and
the pre-eventfundamentalvoltage:
(4.139)
This missing voltage isplottedin the bottompart of Fig. 4.123. Before theinitiation of
the sag 'there isobviously no fundamentalcomponentpresent; during the sag the
fundamentalcomponentof the missing voltage is large; after the principal sag (after
fault clearing) a smallfundamentalcomponentremains. The reason for this becomes
clear from theuppercurve: the voltage does not immediately fully recover to its pre-
event value.
Figure4.124repeatsthis for the voltage in oneof the non-faultedphases, for the
same event as in Fig. 4.123 and Fig. 4.1. In the top curve wethat seethe during-event
voltage has alarger rms valuethan the pre-eventvoltage. In termsof rms voltages, we
would call this an increase in voltage: a voltage swell. looking
But at the missing voltage
it is not possible to saywhetherthe underlyingevent is a swell or a sag. This might be
seen as adisadvantageof the missing voltage concept. But one shouldrealizethat this
conceptis not meant to replace theother ways of characterizingthe sag;instead,it
should giveadditionalinformation.
Finally, Fig. 4.125 plots the missing voltage in all three phases. As expected for a
single-phase-to-ground fault, the missing voltage in the two non-faultedphases is the
same and in phase with the missing voltage in the faulted phase. After the fault the
missing voltages in the three phases form a positive sequence set. This probablydue
is
to the re-accelerationof induction motorsfed from the supply.
t:~
- 20 1 2 3
Time in cycles
4 5 6
f_: ~
-2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Figure 4.124 Measured voltage with pre-
event fundamentalvoltage (top curve) and
missing voltage(boltom curve) during a
Time in cycles
voltage swell event.
~.:~
-2 0 I 2 3 4 5 6
~:~
-2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
~.:~
- 20 I 2 3 4 5 6
Figure 4.125 Missing voltage for the three
Time in cycles
phasesof a sag due to a single-phase fault .
In Figs. 4.124 and 4.125 we used thefundamentalpre-event voltage as a reference

to obtain the missing voltage. The conceptof missing voltage has been introducedto
quantify the deviationof the voltage from its ideal value. In
otherwords: we have used
the fundamentalpre-event voltage as the ideal voltage. This could become point
a of
discussion, as there are at least three
alternatives:
• Use the full pre-event waveform, including the

harmonicdistortion, as a refer-
ence. One can either take the last cycle before the event or the average over a
numberof cycles. Thelatter option is limited in its applicationbecause there
are normally not more than one or two pre-event cycles available.
• Use thefundamentalcomponentof the pre-event waveform as a reference. One
can again choose between thefundamentalobtainedfrom the last cycle before
the event (as was done in Fig. 4.124 and Fig. 4.125) obtain
or the fundamental
from a numberof pre-event cycles.
• Use as a reference, sinusoidalwaveform
a with the sameamplitudeand rms
value as the system nominal voltage and the same phase angle as the funda-
mental pre-event waveform. The difference between the last two alternatives is
Section 4.7 • OtherCharacteristicsof Voltage Sags 237
the same as the discussion between defining the voltage

drop with reference to
the pre-event rms voltage or with reference to nominal
the rms voltage. Both
methodshave theiradvantagesand can thus be used. But it important
is to
alwaysindicatewhich methodis used.
4.7.2.3 Distributionofthe Missing Voltage. An alternativeand potentially very

useful wayof presentingthe missing voltage isthrough the amountof time that the
missing voltage, inabsolutevalue, exceeds given values; other in words, theamount
of time during which the deviation from the ideal voltage waveform is larger than a
given value.
In the top curveof Fig. 4.126 the missing voltage from Fig. 4.123 is shown again.
But this time theabsolutevalue isplotted,insteadof the actualwaveform. We see, e.g.,
that this absolutevalue exceeds the value of 0.5,total a of six timesduring the event.
The cumulativedurationof these six periods is 1.75 cycles. The cumulativetime during
which the missing voltage in absolutevalue exceeds a given level can determinedfor
be
each level. The resultof this calculationis shown in thebottompart of Fig. 4.126. This
curve can be read as follows: the missing voltage is never larger than 1.53, isduring 1
cycle larger than 0.98, during 1.75 cycle largerthan 0.5, during two cycles largerthan
0.32, etc. The long tail in Fig. 4.126 is due to thepost-faultvoltage sag as well as to the
non-zeropre-event missing voltage. The latter contributioncan be removed by either
using the full pre-event waveshape as a reference calculatethe
to missing voltage, or by
only consideringthe missing voltage samples from the instantof sag-initiationonward.
Throughthe sameprocedure,distributionsof the missing voltage can be obtained
for the other two phases, resulting in the curves shown in Fig. 4.127. The missing
voltage in the faulted phase (solid curve) naturally
is larger than in the non-faulted
phases. But still, the missing voltage in the non-faultedphases is significant:during
about1 cycle it exceeds a value of 0.4. We also see a small difference in missing voltage
between the twonon-faultedphases: the value in phase bsomewhathigher
is than in
phase c.
The missing voltagedistributioncurve can be used as a generalized way of defin-
ing the eventduration.The larger thedeviationfrom the ideal voltage one considers,
the shorter the "cumulative duration" of the event. Thecumulative duration of a
2r----..---r------r----~--,-------,
II)
11.5
o
> 1
.Ef
.~ 0.5
~
°0 234 5 6
Timein cycles
2 r-----r---..----r---~--
Figure 4.126 Absolute value of the missing

voltage (top curve) and the
distributionof the
missing voltage(bottom curve) for the sag 234 5 6
shown in Fig. 4.1. Cumulativetimein cycles
Cl r------r-----r---.------.---·-..----l
1.5
.2
:s
~
fI'.I
1
~
;
~ L
.S 0.5 '- .. "" '-_'- -
fI'.I - - - _--
fI'.I - _ '_',-,
~ .. ....,
~,
.... ':..-...-_...:: :. -- ---:= "::. ----- = .... --

0' , , I _L-_>______---' Figure 4.127 Missing voltaged istribution for
o 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 phase a (solid curve), phase(dashedcurve),
b
Cumulative time in cycles and phase c(dash-dotcurve).
voltage sag for a givendeviation would be defined as the

t otal amountof time during
which the voltage deviates morethanthe given value from the ideal
voltagewaveshape.
4.8 LOAD INFLUENCE ON VOLTAGE SAGS
In the calculationof sagmagnitudefor varioussystemconfigurations,in the classifica-

tion of three-phasesags and in mosto f the examples, we have assumedthat the load
currentsare zero. In this section we will discuss some situationsin which the load
currentscan have a significant influence on the voltages during a fault. The main
load having influence on the voltage during and after a sag isformed by induction
and synchronousmotors as they have the largest currentsduring and after a short-
circuit fault. But we will also briefly discuss single-phase and
three-phaserectifiers as
they are a largefraction of the load at manylocations.
4.8.1 Induction Motors and Three-Phase Faults
During a three-phasefault the voltages at the

m otor terminalsdrop in magnitude.
The consequences o f this drop are twofold:
• The magneticflux in the air gap is no longer inbalancewith the statorvoltage.

The flux decays with a timec onstantof up to several cycles.
During this decay
the induction motor contributesto the fault andsomewhatkeeps up the vol-
tage at themotor terminals.
• The decay in voltage causesdropa in electrical torque: the electricaltorqueis
proportional to the squareof the rms valueof the voltage. Themechanical
torque in the mean time remains largely unchanged.The result isthat the
motor slows down. While themotor slows down it will take alarger current
with a smaller power factor. This could bring down thevoltageeven more.For
small voltagedrops, a new steadystatecould be reached at a lower speed,
dependingon the speed-torquebehavior of the mechanicalload. For deep
sags themotor will continueto slow down until it reachesstandstill, or until
the voltage recovers, whichever comes first. The mechanicaltime constantof
electricalmotorsis of the orderof one secondand more. Thereforethe motor
will normally not have reached zero speed uponyet voltagerecovery.
Section 4.8 • LoadInfluenceon Voltage Sags 239
The momentthe voltage recovers the oppositephenomenaoccur. The flux in the

air gap will build up again. This causes a largeinrush current, which slows down the
voltage recovery. Afterthat, the motor will re-accelerateuntil it reaches its pre-event
speed.During the re-accelerationthe motor againtakes a largerc urrentwith a smaller
power factor, which causes post-faultvoltage
a sag sometimes lasting for several sec-
onds.
The contribution of the induction motor load to the fault can be modeled as a
voltage sourcebehindreactance.The voltagesource has a value o f about 1 pu at fault
initiation and decays with thesubtransienttime-constant(between0.5 and 2 cycles).
The reactanceis the leakagereactanceof the motor, which is between100/0 and 20% on
the motor base.Note that this is not the leakagereactancewhich determinesthe start-
ing current, but the leakagereactanceat nominal speed.For double-cageinduction
machines these two can be significantly different.
EXAMPLE Considera bolted fault at primary side of a 33/11 kV transformerin the

supply shown in Fig. 4.21. Thetotal induction motor load connectedto the 11 kV bus is50/0
of the fault level. Theinduction motors have a leakagereactanceof 10% on the motor base.
We are interestedin the voltage at secondaryside of the transformer.Consideronly the reac-
tive part of the impedances.
The transformerimpedanceis the difference between the33 kV and II kV fault levels:ZT
= 47.60/0 at a 100 MVA base. The fault level at
II kV is 152 MVA, thus the total motor load is
(5% of this): 7.6 MVA. The leakagereactanceof the motorsis 100/0 at a 7.6 MVA base, which is
Z M = 132%at a 100MVA base. Thevoltageon secondarysideof the transformeris found from
the voltage dividerequation:
V/oad = Z ZT = 27% (4.140)

T+ Z M
To assess the increase motor

in current after the fault, we use thecommon
equivalentcircuit for the induction motor, consistingof the seriesconnectionof the
statorresistanceRs, the leakagereactanceXL and theslip-dependentr otor resistance
~, with s the motor slip. The motor impedanceis
ZM = s,+jXL + RR
s
(4.141)
The changeof motor impedancewith slip has beencalculatedfor four induction

motorsof four different sizes.Motor parametershave beenobtainedfrom [135], [136],
and themotorimpedancehas beencalculatedby using(4.141). The results are shown in
Fig. 4.128. For each motor, the impedanceat nominal slip is set at I pu, and the
absolutevalue of the impedanceis plotted betweennominal slip and 25% slip. We
see for eachmotor a decrease inmotor impedance,and thus an increase in m otor
current,by a factor of aboutfive. The decrease inimpedanceis much faster for large
machinesthan for smaller ones.
If we assume the voltage to recover to 1immediatelyupon
pu fault clearing, the
currenttakenby themotoris the inverseof the impedance(bothequal to 1pu innormal
operation).The path of the currentin the complex plane is shown in Fig. 4.129. The
nominalvalue to 250/0. The positive real axis
pathis given for an increase in slip from its
is in the direction of the motor terminal voltage. For small motors we seepredomi-
nantly an increase in resistivec urrent, for large motors the main increase is in the
inductive part of the current. When the slip increases further, even the resistivepart
\
I:
,: \
\
\
8 :\ \
-ae 0.8 \
I ",
, "
Jg
\
\
\
\
I \
\
0.6 ,
\
~ \
\
~ 0.4 \
'i
~
0.2 Figure 4.118Induction motor impedance
versusslip; the impedanceat nominal slip is 1
pu; 3 hp 220 V (solid line), 50 hp 460 V
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 (dashedline), 250 hp 2300 V(dotted line),
Motor slip 1500 hp 2300 V(dash-dotline).
o.-------,.------r----~----..
-I '"
""
" ,
"
"
\
\
"
" \
: \
, I
,
,
I
-5 Figure 4.129Changein induction motor

currentwith increasingslip; the currentat
nominalslip is 1 pu; 3 hp 220 V (solid line), 50
2 3 4 hp 460 V(dashedline), 250 hp 2300 V(dotted
Resistivemotor current line), 1500 hp 2300 V(dashedline).
of the currentstartsto decrease. The power factor of the currentdecreases significantly,

especially for largemotors.
The influenceof large induction motorson voltage sags is described in detail by
Yalcinkaya [136]. Fig. 4.130 shows the voltage sags (top curve) and motor the slip
(bottomcurve) due to athree-phasefault in an industrialsystem with a largeinduction
motor load. Without induction motor load, the voltage would have been zero during
the sag and 1 pu after the sag. The voltageplottedin Fig. 4.130 is theabsolutevalue of a
time-dependentphasor,used in atransient-stabilityprogram.The effectof the induc-
tion motor load is that the voltageduring the fault is increased, and after the fault
decreased. The slip o f all motors increases fast during the sag, and even continues to
increase a bitafter fault clearing.
The voltage after fault clearing, the so-called
post-faultsag, shows anadditional
decreaseabout 200 ms after fault clearing. Thiscorrespondsto the momentthe motor
starts to re-accelerate and draws larger currents. The low voltage immediately after
fault clearing is due to the largecurrentneeded to rebuild the air gap flux.
During the fault theinduction motors significantly keep up the voltage. Even
toward the endof the sag the voltage at the motor busses is still above100/0 of its
pre-event value.
Section 4.8 • Load Influence on Voltage Sags 241
1.0
0.9
0.8
::l 0.7
0.
.S 0.6
~ 0.5
~
'0 0.4
::> 0.3
0.2
0.1
, 1 , ,, , 1,,,,1,,,,1
0.0 +-r-..,...,...-.-+-..,...,...- r-rr-+-r--,--,-r+-,--,-,--,-h- -r-rr-T+-r-rr--r-r-rl
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Time in seconds
3.5
3.0 ..: .
C 2.5
~
8. 2.0
.S
.9- 1.5
U;
;:§ 1.0
0.5
Figure 4.130 Voltage sag ( top) and induction
motor slip (bottom) for three busses in an 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
industrial power system.(Reproducedfrom Time in seconds
Yalcinkaya (136).)
One should realizethat this is a somewhat exceptional case, as motor the load
connected to the system is very large. Similar but less severe effects have been noticed in
othersystems.A notherphenomenonwhich contributesto the post-fault voltage sag is
that the fault occurs in one of two parallel transformers. The protectionremoves the
faulted transformer,so that only onetransformeris available for the supply after fault
clearing. Thepost-fault fault level is thus significantly less than its pre-fault value. A
similar effect occurs for a fault in one of two parallel feeders. The post-fault sag,
described here for three-phase faults, has also been observed after single-phase faults.
4.8.2 Induction Motors and Unbalanced Faults
The behaviorof an induction motor during an unbalanced fault is rathercom-

programsimulating a large parto f the system can
plicated . Only a network analysis
give an accuratepicture of thequantitativeeffects. The following phenomena p laya
part in the interactionbetween system and inductionmotor during unbalanced faults.
• During the first one or two cycles after fault initiation the
induction motor
contributesto the fault. This causes an increase in positive-sequence voltage.
Negative- and zero-sequence voltage are not influenced.
• The induction motor slows down, causing a decrease in positive-sequence
impedance. This decrease in impedance causes an increase in current and
thus adrop in positive-sequence voltage.
242 Chapter 4 • VoltageSags-Char
acterization
• The negative-sequence impedance of motor the is low, typically 10-20%of the

nominal positive-sequence impedance . The negative-sequence voltage due to
the fault will thus be significantlydampedat the motor terminals. The nega-
tive-sequence impedance independentof
is the slip. The negat ive-sequence
voltage will thus remain constant during the event.
• The induct ion motor does not take any zero-sequence current. The zero-
sequence voltage will thus not be influenced by induction
the motor.
4.8.2.1 Simulation Example.Simulationsof the influence ofinduction motor

loads on unbalancedsags are shown in[136], [137]. Some of those results are re-
produced here. The systemstudied was a radial one with large induction m otor
load connectedto each of the low-voltage busses. Motor sizes andtransformerim-
pedances were chosen such that for each bus the fault levelcontribution from the
source was 15 times the total motor load fed from the bus. Voltages and currents
in the system werecalculated by using the transient analysis packageEMTP. All
transformers in the system wereconnected star-star with both neutral points
earthed .Although this is not a verycommon arrangement , it helped in understand -
ing the phenomena. The voltages at the terminals of one of the motors are shown
in Fig. 4.131.Without induction motor influence we would have seen a sag of type
B of zero magnitude: zero voltage in phase a, and no change in the voltage in
- _.~--~--~--~----,
3000
., 2000
_$
1000
~ 111111111/\/\/\
'" 0 11v v v v v v v v v v v
~ - 1000
..d
p... - 2000
- 3000
o'----o.~I---O.~2---0-
.3--~---'
0.4 0.5
3000
E 2000
'0 1000
>
.0 0
~ -1000
..d
e, -2000
-3000
oL----lL.:...:--:----::'-:----:--:-- --::''-:'''''- - : '
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0.\ 0.4
phase b and phasec. Instead we see a smallnon-zero voltage in phase a and in

the two non-faultedphasesan initial increasefollowed by a slow decay. After fault
clearing the system becomes balanced again, and the three phase voltages thus
equal in amplitude. The motor re-accelerationcausesa post-fault sag of about 100
ms duration.
The non-zerovoltagein the faulted phaseis due to thedrop in negative-sequence
voltage. We saw in (4.32) and (4.34) that the voltage in the faulted phaseduring a
single-phasefault is given as
(4.142)
Theeffect of the inductionmotor is that V2 dropsin absolutevalue,causingan increase
in voltagein the faulted phase.
During the sag, thepositive-sequence v oltagealso drops,which showsup as the
slow but steadydecreasein voltagein all phases.
The non-faultedphasesshow an initial increasein voltage. The explanationfor
this is as follows.The voltagein the non-faultedphasesduring a single-phasefault is
madeup of a positive-sequence, a negative-sequence, and a zero-sequence
c omponent.
For phasec this summationin the complex planeis for the systemwithout induction
motor load.
2 1 1
Vc = Vel + VcO + Vc2 = -a
3
- - - -cl
3 3
=a (4.143)
Due to the induction motor load, the positive-sequencev oltage will not immediately
dropfrom 1 pu to 0.67pu. The negative-sequence voltagewill jump from zeroto its new
value immediately. The consequenceis that the resulting voltage amplitude slightly
exceeds itspre-fault value. After a few cycles theinduction motor no longer keeps up
the positive-sequencevoltage. The voltage in the non-faultedphasesdrops below its
pre-eventvalue due to negative-and positive-sequencevoltagesbeing less than 33%
and 67%, respectively.
The currentstaken by the induction motorsare shown in Figs. 4.132and 4.133.
Figure 4.132showsthe motor currentsfor a motor with a small decreasein speed.The
slip of this motor increasesfrom 2% to 6% during the sag.The motor shownin Fig.
4.133 experienceda much largerdecreasein speed: its slipincreasedfrom 3% to 19°A>.
This behavioris difficult to explain without consideringsymmetricalcomponents.But
generallywe canobservethat the currentincreasesinitially in the faulted phase,rises to
a higher value in one of the non-faultedphases,and initially drops in the other non-
faulted phase.The current in the secondnon-faultedphaserises again after a certain
time, determinedby the slowing down of the motor.
For the motor shownin Figs. 4.131 and 4.132the componentvoltagesand cur-
rentshavebeen plotted in Figs. 4.134and 4.135. From Fig. 4.134we seethat negative
and zero-sequencevoltage remain constant during the sag, but that the positive-
sequencevoltageshowsa steadydecay,due to the decreasein positive-sequence impe-
dancewhen the motor slows down. Figure 4.135clearly showsthe increasein positive-
sequencecurrentwhen themotor slows down. The zero-sequence c urrentis zero as the
motor windings are connectedin delta. From Figs. 4.134and 4.135the positive- and
negative-sequence i mpedanceof the motor load can be calculated,simply through
dividing voltage by current. The resultsare shown in Fig. 4.136,where we seeagain
that the negative-sequence impedanceremainsconstant,whereasthe positive-sequence
impedancedrops.When the motor reachesstandstill,it is no longera dynamicelement,
and positive- and negative-sequence impedancebecomeequal.
150
J I~~
tlS
M 0
~ -50
i- IOO
-150 --------'~----'''--_.-'--- '---_--J
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
150
= 100
~
~~ 500 ~ "11""
~ ~ "JII'1,HflJIJlI1IJlIIlI
~ j~A~~~~1
-a -50 ~ V~ , ~ ~ ~ ~ V~ ij.
~-100
-150 ~--"--- ,,--_ _a . - - _ - - J
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

Time in seconds
4.8.2.2 Monitoring Example. An exampleof a three-phaseunbalancedsag was

shown in Fig. 4.48. The severe post-faultsag indicatesthe presenceof induction mo-
tor load. For each of the three sampledwaveforms,the complex voltage as a func-
tion of time wasdeterminedby using themethoddescribedin Section 4.5.From the
three complex voltages, positive-, negative- andzero-sequencevoltages have been cal-
culated. Their absolutevalues areplotted in Fig. 4.137 as afunction of time. The
zero-sequencecomponentis very small. The negative-sequence c omponentis zero
when the fault is notpresentand non-zerobut constantduring the fault. The posi-
tive-sequence voltage is I pu before the fault, shows a slow decay during the fault,
and a slow increase after the fault. This is exactly incorrespondencewith the above-
describedtheory and simulation results.
4.8.2.3 Simplified Analysis. From the simulation and monitoring results we

can extractthree stages in the voltage sag:
• The inductionmotor feeds into the fault, raising the

positive-sequencevoltage.
• The positive-sequence voltage is the same as it would have been without the
induction motor load.
• The induction motor has sloweddown, drawing additional positive-sequence
current,thus causingthe positive-sequence voltageto drop.
Section 4.8 • LoadInfluenceon Voltage Sags 245
4000
=
g 3000
=' 2000
~ 1000
]-10~
': -2000
~
:E - 3000
-4000 L -_ _--'--_ _- - ' " """'--_ ____'__ _- I
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
4000
= 3000
~ 2000
.rJ 1000
.i -10000 II \II H\1 UIII 1111II' 1111" 11111HI H1I

GJ
c: ~2000
~ -3000
- 4000 L . . -_ _..o.--_ _ -'--_~__'__ ____'___ ___I
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
4000
= 3000
~ 2000
~1000
M 0
..d -1000
Figure 4.133Induction motor currents ':' - 2000
~
during and after a single-line-to-groundfault ~ -3000
in the supply. Thismotor showeda large -4000 L . -_ _- ' - -_ _---" ~
decrease in speed.(Reproducedfrom o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Yalcinkaya[136].) Timein seconds
80 , . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Positive-sequence
voltage
ijo 60
~
e,
.5 40 Zero-sequence
voltage
i -----------------
~ 20 ....................... -
Negative-sequence
voltage
.
Figure 4.134Symmetricalcomponentsfor Ot------+-----+-----+-----&-....J
the voltagesshown in Fig. 4.131. 50 100 150 200 250
(Reproducedfrom Yalcinkaya[136].) Timeinmilliseconds
170·.,..------------------.
fj J50 Negative-sequence
current
~
&J30
.S .,.""...--
-_.....-.----
1: 110 ____ -- -' Positive-sequence
current
.,.,..".--
8t: 90
Figure 4.135 Symmetricalcomponentsfor 70 .....-_+-_--.-._-+-_ _--+---+---o.....--._~
the currentsshown in Fig. 4.132. 90 110 130 150 170 190 210 230 250
(Reproducedfrom Yalcinkaya[136].) Timeinmilliseconds
6 80
()
[ 60
c=
.;; 40
s
i 20 ~gativ~s~~n~m..£e~a~e_
~ O~---i---+--+--+--+---+--+--+----' Figure 4.136 Positive- andnegative-sequence
90 110 130 150 170 190 210 230 250 impedance for an induction motor during a
Timeinmilliseconds sag. (Reproduced from Yalcinkaya [136].)
:::s
a.
=
.;; 0.8
J
~ 0.6
5
i= 0.4
o
o
0.2
Figure 4.137 Positive-, negative- and zero..

5 10 15 sequence voltages for the three-phase
Timein cycles unbalanced sag shown in Fig. 4.47.
The negative-sequence v oltage is constantduring the fault, but lower than without
induction motor load. To quantify the effect of induction motors, we use atwo-step
calculation procedure.At first we calculate positive- and negative-sequence v oltage
(V~no), V~no» for the no-load case. As we sawbefore this will lead to voltage sags of
type C or type D with different characteristicmagnitude.We assumeda' zero charac-
teristic phase-angle. jump. As a secondstep the influence of the induction motor is
incorporated.For this we model the supply as a sourcegeneratinga type C or type
D sag, with a finite sourceimpedance.Note that this is a three-phaseTheveninsource
representationof the supplyduring the fault. Theeffect of the inductionmotor load is a
difference betweenthe sourcevoltagesand the voltagesat the motor terminals, for
positive as well as for negative-se~uence components.T he voltageat the motor term-
inals are denotedas V}/oaa) and V 2/oad). For the three above-mentioned"stages"these
relationsare assumedto be as follows:
1. The drop in positive-sequencevoltage is reduced by 15%, the negative-

sequencevoltagedrops by 300/0.
V~/oad) = 0.15 + 0.85V}no)

V~/oad) = O.7 V~no)
2. The negative-sequence
voltagedrops by 30%.
_ V(no)
V(/oad)
I - 1
V~load) = 0.7 vjno)
3. The positive-sequence voltage

drops by 100~, the negative-sequence voltage
dropsby 300/0.
V~load) = 0.9V~no)
V~load) = O.7 V~no)
The voltages at themotor terminals are calculated from the positive- and negative-
sequence voltagesV~load) and V~load). The resulting phase voltages for the three stages
are shown in Figs. 4.138 and 4.139. For sag type C the voltages are shown for one
of
the phases with a deep sag, and for the phase with a shallow sag. The more the
motorsslow down, the more the voltage in this phase drops. The voltage in the worst-
affected phase is initially somewhat higher due to induction
the motor influence, but
dropswhen themotor slows down and the positive-sequence voltage dropsin value as
well. For type D we seethat the voltage in the least-affected phases
dropsduring all
stages of the sag. The voltage in the worst-affected phase increases initially but
decreases later.
Figure 4.138 Voltages at the equipment

terminals, for three stages of induction
motor
influence for type C sags. The solid lines are
without induction motor influence, the
dashed lines with.
~ o.~!~~;~~-~~---~~---------~-----I
~Q~
~ tOt - . .
i
1
Figure 4.139 Voltages at the equipment
terminals, for three stages of induction
motor
influence for type D sags. The solid lines are
j ~=I
O.5~_
without induction motor influence, the 00 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 I
dashed tines with. Characteristicmagnitude
From the curves in Figs. 4.138

a nd 4.139 we can see the following two
patterns:
• The lowestvoltageincreases, the highest voltage.decreases,thus the unbalance

becomes less. This isunderstandableif we realize that the negative-sequence
voltagedropssignificantly.
• For longer sags all voltagesdrop. This is due to thedrop in positive-sequence
voltage.
4.8.3 Power Electronics Load
In systems with a largefraction of the loadformed by single-phaseor three-phase

rectifiers, these can also influence thevoltageduring and after the voltagesag. Below
somequalitativeaspectsof the effectof rectifiers on thevoltagewill be discussedbriefly.
Different aspects willdominatein different systems. Thebehaviorof powerelectronics
equipmentduring voltage sags is discussed in detail in Chapter5.
• Especially for longer and deepersags, a largepart of the electronicsload will

trip. This will reduce theload currentand thus increasethe voltage,during as
well as after the sag.
• Equipment that does not trip will initially take a smaller current from the
supply or even nocurrentat all because the de bus voltage is larger than the
peakof the ac voltage.Within a few cycles the de bus capacitorhasdischarged
sufficiently for the rectifier tostartconductingagain. Normally the total power
taken by the load remainsconstantso that the accurrentwill be higher. This
currenthas a highharmoniccontentsso that the harmonicvoltagedistortion
during the sag will increase.
• Upon voltage recovery, the dc busc apacitorswill take a large current pulse
from the supply. This canpostponethe voltage recovery by up to one cycle.
• For three-phaserectifiers, under unbalancedsags, thelargest current flows
between the twophaseswith the largestvoltage difference. The effect isthat
the voltagein thesephasesdropsand increasesin the other phase. The three-
phaserectifier thusreduces theunbalancebetween thephases.In this sense they
behavesimilar to induction motor load. For unbalancedsags thecurrent to
three-phaserectifiers containsso-called non-characteristicharmonics,notice-
ably a third harmoniccurrent, so that the voltage during the sagcontainsa
third harmoniccomponenthigher than normal.
• Three-phasecontrolled rectifiers will experiencea longer commutationperiod
because thesourcevoltage is lower during the sag. This leads to m ore severe
commutationtransients(notches)during the sag.Again this assumesthat the
equipmentwill not trip.
4.9 SAGS DUE TO STARTING OF INDUCTION MOTORS
In the previoussectionsof this chapter,we have discussedvoltage sags due toshort-

circuit faults. Thesevoltagesags are the main cause
of equipmentfailure and malfunc-
tion, and oneof the main reasonsfor powerquality to become an issue during the last
decade.Anotherimportantcauseof voltagesags, one which has actuallybeenof much
more concernto designersof industrialpowersystems in thepast,is the startingof large
Section 4.9 • Sags due to
Startingof Induction Motors 249
inductionmotors. Also the switching on o f otherloads will cause a voltage sag, just like
the switching offof a capacitorbank. But in thoselatter cases thedrop in voltage is
rather small, and the voltage onlyd rops but does not recover.Thereforethe term
"voltagemagnitudestep" would be moreaccurate.
During start-upan induction motor takes a largercurrentthan normal, typically
five to six times as large. This
currentremainshigh until themotor reaches its nominal
speed, typically between several seconds and one minute.drop Thein voltage depends
strongly on the system parameters.Considerthe system shown in Fig. 4.140, where Zs
is the sourceimpedanceand ZM the motor impedanceduring run-up.
Figure 4.140 Equivalent circuit for voltage

sag due to inductionmotor starting.
The voltage experienced by a load fed from the same bus as

motor
the is found
from the voltage dividerequation:
v _ ZM
(4.144)
.wg - ZS+ZM
Like with most previouscalculations,a source voltage of 1 pu has been assumed. When
a motor of rated powerSmotor is fed from a source withshort-circuitpower Ssourc:e,we
can write for the source impedance:
vn_
Zs = __
2
(4.145)
Ssource
and for themotor impedanceduring starting
_ Vn2
ZM--- - (4.146)
fJSmotor
with fJ the ratio between the

startingcurrentand the nominalcurrent.
Equation(4.144) can now bewritten as
v _ S.fOurc:e
(4.147)
sag - S.'iOurc:e + /3Smotor
Of course one needs to realize
that this is only anapproximation.The value can be used
to estimate the sag due inductionmotorstarting,but
to for anaccurateresult one needs
a power system analysis package. The latter will also enable the user to
incorporatethe
effect of othermotorsduring startingof the concernedmotor. The drop in voltage at
the other motor's terminals will slow them down and cause an additional increase in
load currentand thus anadditionaldrop in voltage.
EXAMPLE Supposethat a 5 MVA motor is startedfrom a 100 MVA, 11 kV supply.

The startingcurrent is six times thenominal current. This is a ratherlarge motor for a supply
of this strength,as we will see soon. The voltage at the
motor terminals during motor starting
can beestimatedas
_ 100MVA _ ° (4.148)
Vrag - 100MVA + 6 x 5 MVA - 77Yo
In case the voltageduring motor starting is too low for equipmentconnectedto the
same bus, one can decide to usededicatedtransformer.This
a leads to thenetwork
shown in Fig. 4.141.
Let again Zs be the sourceimpedanceat the pee,ZM the motorimpedanceduring
fun-up, and ZT the transformerimpedance.The magnitudeof the voltage sag experi-
encedby the sensitive load is
v _ 2 T+ZM
(4.149)
sag - Zs + ZT + 2 M
Introducing,like before, theshort...circuit power of the sourceS.'iource,the rated power of
the motor Smolor and assumingthat the transformerhas the same rated power of the
motor and animpedancef, we get from (4.149):
v _ (1 + 6€)Ssource
(4.150)
sag - (1 + 6f)Ssource+ 6Smotor
Figure 4.141 Induction motor starting with

dedicatedtransformerfor the sensitive load.
EXAMPLE Considera dedicatedsupply for themotor in the previous example. The

motor is fed through a 5 MVA, 5% 33/11 kV transformerfrom a 300 MVA, 33 kV supply.
Note that the fault currentat the 33 kV bus is identical to the fault
currentat the 11 kV in the
previous example. That gives the following parameter values: Ssource= 300 MVA,
Sma tor= 5 MVA, and € = 0.05, giving, from (4.150), a sag magnitudeof 930/0. Most loads will
be able towithstand such a voltagereduction. Note that the reduction in sag magnitudeis
mainly due to the increased fault level at the pee, not so much due totransformerimpe-
the
dance. Neglecting the transformerimpedance(€ = 0 in (4.150»)gives Vsag = 91 % •
The duration of the voltage sag due to m otor startingdepends on anumberof

motor parameters,of which the motor inertia is the main one. Whendeterminingthe
fun-up time, it is alsoimportantto determinethe sagmagnitudeat themotor terminals.
Section 4.9 • Sags due to
Startingof Induction Motors 251
The torqueproducedby themotor is proportionalto thesquareof the terminalvoltage.

That makes that a sag down to90% causes adrop in torque down to 81%. It is the
difference betweenmechanicalload torque and electricaltorquewhich determinesthe
accelerationof the motor,andthus therun-uptime. Assumethat the mechanicalt orque
is half the electricaltorqueduring most of the run-upif the terminalvoltageis nominal.
This assumptionis based on the general design criterion that the pull-out torqueof an
induction motor is about twice the torque at nominal operation.When the voltage
drops to 90% of nominal the electrical torque drops to 81 % of nominal which is
162% of the mechanicaltorque. The acceleratingtorque, the difference between elec-
trical and mechanicalt orquedropsfrom 100 % to 62%, a drop of 38%.
EXAMPLE Consideragain the 5 MVA induction motor startedfrom a 100 MVA 11

kV supply. The voltage at the motor terminalsduring run-up drops to 770/0 as we saw before.
The electrical torque drops to 590/0 of nominal which is 118% of the mechanicaltorque. The
acceleratingtorquethus dropsfrom 1000/0 to only 18%, and therun-up time will increaseby a
factor of 6.
A dedicatedtransformeralone cannot solve this problem, as the voltage at the motor
terminalsremainslow. What is needed here is strongersupply.
a To limit thevoltagedrop at the
motor terminalsto Vmin' the sourcestrength,from (4.147), needs to be
6Smotor
Ssourc(! = 1- V . (4.151)
mm
A 5 MVA motor, with a minimum-permissablevoltageof 85% during starting,needs asource
strengthof at least 6x~~5VA = 200 MVA. To keep thevoltage above 90%, the sourcestrength
needs to be 300 MV A.
From these examplesit will be clear that large voltagedrops are not only a
problem for sensitive load, but that they also lead tounacceptablylong run-up
times. The situation becomes even worse if more motors are connectedto the same
bus, as they willf urther pull down the voltage. Voltaged ropsdue to induction motor
startingare seldom deeper than 85%.
Voltage Sags-
Equipment Behavior
In this chapterwe will study theimpact of voltage sags on electrical

equipment.After
the introductionof some generalterminology,we will discuss three types of
equipment
which are perceived as most sensitive to voltage sags.
1. Computers,consumerelectronics, andprocess-controlequipmentwhich will

be modeled as a single-phase diode rectifier.Undervoltageat the dc bus is the
main cause of tripping.
2. Adjustable-speedac drives which arenormally fed through a three-phase
rectifier. Apart from the undervoltageat the de bus,current unbalance,de
voltage ripple, andmotor speed are discussed.
3. Adjustable-speedde drives which are fedthrough a three-phasecontrolled
rectifier. The firing-anglecontrolwill causeadditionalproblemsdue to phase-
angle jumps. Also the effect of the separatesupply to the field winding is
discussed.
This chaptercloses with a brief discussion

of otherequipmentsensitive to voltage sags:
induction and synchronousmotors,contactors,and lighting.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.1.1 Voltage Tolerance and Voltage-Tolerance Curves
Generally speaking electrical equipmentoperatesbest when the rms voltage is

constantand equal to the nominal value. In case the voltage is zero certainperiod
for a
of time, it will simply stop operatingcompletely. No piece of electrical
equipmentcan
operateindefinitelywithout electricity. Someequipmentwill stop within one second like
most desktopcomputers.Other equipmentcan withstanda supplyinterruptionmuch
longer; like a lap-top computerwhich is designed towithstand (intentional) power
interruptions.But even alap-top computer'sbatteryonly containsenoughenergy for
253
254 Chapter5 • VoltageSags-EquipmentBehavior
typically a few hours. For eachpiece of equipmentit is possibleto determinehow long

it will continueto operateafter the supply becomesinterrupted.A rather simple test
would give the answer.The sametestcan be donefor a voltageof 10% (of nominal),for
a voltageof 20% , etc. If the voltagebecomeshigh enough,the equipmentwill be ableto
operateon it indefinitely. Connectingthe points obtained by performing these tests
results in the so-called"voltage-tolerancecurve." An exampleof a voltage-tolerance
curveis shownin Fig. 5.1. In this caseinformationis providedfor the voltagetolerance
of power stationsconnectedto the Nordic transmissionsystem[149]. The auxiliary
supply should be able to toleratea voltage drop down to 25% for 250 ms. It should
be able to operateon a voltage of 95% of nominal. No requirementsare given for
voltagesbelow 250/0 of nominal as thesearc very unlikely for the infeed to the auxiliary
supplyof a powerstation.Onemay claim that this is not a voltage-tolerancecurve, but
a requirementfor the voltage tolerance.One could refer to this as avoltage-tolerance
requirementand to the result of equipmenttests as avoltage-toleranceperformance.
We will refer to both the measuredcurve, as well as to therequirement,as avoltage-
tolerancecurve. It will be clear from the context whether one refers to thevoltage-
tolerancerequirementor the voltage-toleranceperformance.
The concept of voltage-tolerancecurve for sensitive electronic equipmentwas
introduced in 1978 by Thomas Key [1]. When studying the reliability of the power
supplyto military installations,he realizedthat voltagesagsand their resultingtripping
of mainframecomputerscould be a greaterthreat to national security than complete
interruptionsof the supply. He thereforecontactedsomemanufacturersfor their design
criteria and performedsometestshimself. The resultingvoltage-tolerancec urvebecame
known as the"CBEMA curve" severalyearslater. We will comeback to the CBEMA
curve when discussingcomputing equipment further on. Note that curves plotting
minimum voltageagainstmaximumdurationhavebeenused forsynchronousmachines
for many years already, but not for electronicequipment.We will come back to the
voltage toleranceof synchronousmachinesin Section5.5.
The voltage-tolerancecurveis also an importantpart of IEEE standard1346 [22].
This standardrecommendsa method of comparingequipmentperformancewith the
supply powerquality. The voltage-tolerancecurve is the recommendedway of present-
ing the equipmentperformance.T he conceptof "voltagesag coordinationchart" [20],
which is at the heartof IEEE standard1346, will be presentedin detail in Section6.2.
While describingequipmentbehaviorthroughthe voltage-tolerancec urve,a num-
ber of assumptionsare made. The basic assumptionis that a sag can be uniquely
characterizedthrough its magnitudeand duration. We already saw in the previous
100% .
95% j
I
t
:
25% f . - - - - - - - < '
0% "--_ _---'- I
.....t.-- _
Oms 250ms 750ms Figure 5.1 Voltage-tolerancerequirementfor

Duration powerstations.(Data obtainedfrom [149].)
Section 5.1 • Introduction 255
chapterthat this is only anapproximation.From an equipmentpoint of view the basic

assumptionbehind thevoltage-tolerancecurve is: if two sags have the same magnitude
and duration then they will both lead to tripping o f the equipmentor both not lead to
tripping of the equipment.As we have seen in the previous chapter,the definitions of
magnitudeand durationof a sagcurrently in use are far fromunique. Further,phase-
anglejumpsand three-phasevoltageunbalancecan significantly influence thebehavior
of equipment.The two-dimensionalvoltage-tolerancecurve clearly has itslimitations,
especially forthree-phaseequipment.We will present someextensionsto the conceptin
the nextchapter.
An overviewof the voltagetoleranceof currentlyavailableequipmentis presented
in Table 5.1. The range in voltagetoleranceis partly due to the difference between
equipment,partly due to theuncertaintiesmentionedbefore.With thesedata,as well as
with the voltage-tolerancedatapresentedin the rest of thischapter,one shouldrealize
that the valuesnot necessarily apply to a specific piece of equipment.As an example,
Table 5.1 gives formotor startersa voltagetolerancebetween 20 ms,60% and 80 ms,
40%. Using this range to design an installation could berather unreliable; using the
averagevalue even more. These values are only meantto give thereaderan impression
of the sensitivity of equipmentto voltage sags, not to serve asdatabasea for those
designinginstallations.For the time being it is still necessary to determinethe voltage
toleranceof each criticalpart of an installationor to subject the wholeinstallationto a
test. In future, voltage-tolerancerequirementsmight make thejob easier.
The values in Table 5.1 shouldbe read as follows. A voltage toleranceof a rns, bOlo
implies that the equipmentcan toleratea zero voltage ofa ms and a voltageof b% of
nominalindefinitely. Any sag longerthan a ms and deeperthan bOlo will lead to tripping
or malfunction of the equipment.In other words: the equipmentvoltage-tolerance
curve isrectangularwith a "knee" at a ms, bt/«.
TABLE S.1 Voltage-Tolerance Ranges of Various Equipment Presently in Use
Voltage Tolerance
Equipment Upper Range Average Lower Range
PLC 20 ms,75% 260 ms,60°A» 620 ms,450/0
PLC input card 20 ms,80% 40 ms,55°A» 40 ms, 30%
5 h.p. ac drive 30 ms,800/0 50 ms,75% 80 ms,600/0
ac control relay 10 ms,75% 20 ms,65% 30 ms, 60%
Motor starter 20 ms,600/0 50 ms,50°A» 80 ms,400/0
Personal computer 30 ms,800/0 50 ms,60% 70 ms,500/0
Source: As given data obtained from IEEE Std.1346

[22]. This data should not be used as a basis for design of
installations.
5.1.2 Voltage-Tolerance Tests
The only standardthat currently describes how toobtain voltage toleranceof

equipmentis lEe 61000-4-11[25]. This standard,however, doesnot mentionthe term
voltage-tolerancecurve. Insteadit defines anumberof preferredmagnitudesanddura-
tions of sags for which theequipmenthas to be tested. (Note: The standarduses the
term "test levels," which refers to theremainingvoltageduring the sag.) Theequipment
doesnot need to be tested for all these values, but onemoreor of the magnitudesand
TABLE S.2 PreferredMagnitudesand Duration for EquipmentImmunity

TestingAccording to IEC-61000-4-11 [25]
Duration in Cyclesof 50 Hz
Magnitude 0.5 5 10 25 50
durationsmay be chosen. The preferredcombinationsof magnitudeand durationare

the (empty) elements o f the matrix shown in Table 5.2.
The standardin its currentform does not set anyvoltage-tolerancerequirements.
It only defines the way in which the voltage toleranceequipmentshall
of beobtained.
An informative appendixto the standardmentionstwo examplesof test setups:
• Use atransformerwith two outputvoltages. Make oneo utputvoltage equal to

1000/0 and theother to the requiredduring-sagmagnitudevalue. Switch very
fast between the twooutputs,e.g., by usingthyristor switches.
• Generatethe sag by using a waveform generatorin cascade with a power
amplifier.
The IEEE standard1346 [22] refers tolEe 61000-4-11for obtainingthe equip-

ment voltagetolerance,and specificallymentionsthe switching between two supply
voltages as a way ofgeneratingsags. Bothmethodsare only aimed at testing one
piece ofequipmentat a time. To make a whole installationexperience acertainvoltage
sag, each piece needs to be testedhoping that their interconnectiondoes not cause any
unexpecteddeteriorationin performance.A methodfor testing a wholeinstallationis
presentedin [56]. A three-phasedieselgeneratoris used to power the installationunder
test. A voltage sag is made by reducing the field voltage.It takesabouttwo cycles for
the ac voltage to settle down after a sudden change in field voltage,thatso
this method
can only be used for sags of five cycles and longer.
5.2 COMPUTERS AND CONSUMER ELECTRONICS
The power supply of acomputer, and of most consumerelectronics equipment

normally consists of a diode rectifier along with an electronic voltage regulator
(de/deconverter).The power supplyof all these low-power electronic devices is similar
and so is their sensitivity to voltage sags.
What is different are the consequencesof a
sag-inducedtrip. A television will show a black screen for up to a few seconds; a
compactdisc player will reset itself andstart from the beginningof the disc, orjust
wait for a newcommand.Televisions and video recorders normallyhave a smallbattery
to maintain power to thememory containingthe channel settings. This is to prevent
loss of memory when the television is moved or unplugged for some reason. If this
batteryno longercontainsenoughenergy, a sag orinterruptioncould lead to the loss of
these settings. The same could happento the settingsof a microwave oven, which is
often not equippedwith a battery.
The process-controlcomputer of a chemical plant is rather similar in power
supply to anydesktopcomputer.Thus, they willboth trip on voltage sags and inter-
Section 5.2 • Computersand ConsumerElectronics 257
ruptions,within one second. But the desktopcomputer'strip might lead to the lossof 1
hourof work (typically less), where the
process-controlcomputer'strip easily leads to a
restartingprocedureof 48 hours plus sometimes a very dangeroussituation.It is clear
thatthe first is merely an inconvenience, whereaslattershould
the be avoided at any cost.
5.2.1 Typical Configuration of Power Supply
A simplified configurationof the power supply to acomputeris shown in Fig. 5.2.

The capacitorconnected to thenon-regulatedde bus reduces the voltage ripple at the
input of the voltageregulator. The voltageregulator converts thenon-regulatedde
voltage of a fewhundredvolts into a regulated de voltage of the order of 10 V. If
the ac voltage drops, the voltage on the de side of the rectifiernon-regulated
(the de
voltage) drops. The voltage regulatoris able to keep itsoutputvoltageconstantover a
certainrange ofinput voltage. If the voltage at the de bus becomes too low the regu-
lated dc voltage will alsostart to drop and ultimatelyerrors will occur in the digital
electronics. Somecomputersdetect anundervoltageat theinput of the controller and
give a signal for a"controlled" shutdownof the computer,e.g., byparking the hard
drive. Thosecomputerswill trip earlier but in a morecontrolledway.
Nonregulateddc voltage
Regulated
de voltage
1
230 Vac
Voltage
controller
Figure 5.2Computerpower supply.
5.2.2 Estimation of Computer Voltage Tolerance
5.2.2.1DC Bus Voltages. As shown in Fig. 5.2, a single-phase rectifier consists

of four diodes and acapacitor.Twice every cycle thecapacitoris charged to the am-
plitude of the supply voltage. In between the
chargingpulses thecapacitordischarges
via the load. The diodes only conduct when the supply voltage exceeds the de vol-
tage. When the supply voltage drops the diodes no longerconductand thecapacitor
continuesto discharge until the de voltage reaches the reduced supply voltage again.
In normal operation the capacitoris charged during two small periods each cycle,
and dischargesduring the rest of the cycle. In steady state, the
amount of charging
and discharging of thecapacitorare equal.
To study the effect of voltage sags on the voltage at (non-regulated)
the de bus,
the power supply has been modeled as follows:
• The diodesconductwhen theabsolutevalue of the supply voltage is larger

than
the de bus voltage. While the diodes
conduct,the de bus voltage is equal to the
supply voltage.
• The supply voltage is a 1pu sinewave before the event and constant-ampli-
a
tude sinewaveduring the eventbut with an amplitude less than 1pu. The
voltage only shows a -drop in magnitude,no phase-anglejump. The supply

voltage is not affected by the load current.
• While the diodes do not conduct, the capacitoris dischargedby the voltage
regulator.The power taken by the voltageregulatoris constantand indepen-
dent of the dc busvoltage.
This model has been used tocalculatethe dc busvoltagesbefore,during, and after a

voltagesag with amagnitudeof 50% (without phase-anglejump). The result is shown
in Fig. 5.3.As a reference,the absolutevalue of the ac voltage hasbeen plotted as a
dashedline.
I , , ,
I ~ ~ ~ ~ I I , , I
:' I: ': ,: : ,: ,~ f ~ (~
, I, " " II
" II " II
0.8 :: :: :: : ~ ~ :: :: : ~ ::
, ' " , 1'1 """,' ,
I" """ , II
""" I I,
, I" 'I"",' ,
0.6 : : : ~: ~: : "","'" ,
" " I' ,'"
~ ::::::~: " ,I I' " I, ,
1! I" I I " I· • "

"
"
,I
" "
" "
"
"
"
,
,
~ :::~:::::~:~ I: :' ~ , ~ I , I " " " " " ,
~
II " .' " " ,
0.4, " " " , ' I " : I " , : , I , II " " .' " ,
~: ~::::, ~ ~ ~ 'I I' " " "
" ,: :I " " ': I: I: " ~, ~ t, ~' 'I

: :' ': .: : I. I , :
,I ",I '.,: ""

" II " " "
t
"'I
:" : : :; :: :1 :: :: :: I:~, :: :: ,: :: 'I
"
" " , 'I
0.2 'I " 'I II ,I " " "
I "
I' "
"
I,
"
"
,
" " ,I I: :'
-, ~, ,I \" \\
" " " " II II 'I " ,I
\\ ~, ~# "~ I' " "I "'I".' :, I''"" ~' "~
- " I' II I
" I' Figure 5.3 Effect of a voltage sag on de bus
: : ! \ : : ~ • ! : ~ ~ : : ,
I
, ,
I
I
I
\
I voltage for a single-phase rectifier: absolute
00 2 4 6 8 10 value of the ac voltage (dashed line) and de
Time in cycles bus voltage (solid line).
Due to the voltage drop, the maximum ac voltage becomesless than the de
voltage. Theresultingdischargingof the capacitorcontinuesuntil the capacitorvoltage
drops below the maximum of the ac voltage. After that, a new equilibrium will be
reached.Because aconstantpower load has beenassumedthe capacitordischarges
fasterwhen the de busv oltageis lower. This explainsthe largerdc voltageripple during
the sag.
It is importantto realize that the dischargingof the capacitoris only determined
by the load connectedto the de bus,n ot by the acvoltage.Thus all sagswill causethe
same initial decay in devoltage. But the duration of the decay is determinedby the
magnitudeof the sag.The deeperthe sag thelonger it takesbeforethe capacitorhas
dischargedenoughto enablechargingfrom the supply. In Fig. 5.4 the sags in ac andde
voltage are plotted for voltagesagsof different magnitude.The top curveshave been
calculatedfor a sag in acvoltagedown to 50%, the bottomonesfor a sag in acvoltage
down to 70% • The dottedlines give the rmsvoltageat ac side(thesag in acvoltage).We
seethat the initial decay in de busvoltageis the samefor both sags.
5.2.2.2 Decayof the DC Bus Voltage. Within a certain rangeof the input vol-
tage, thevoltage regulator will keep its output voltage constant,independento f the
input voltage. Thus, the output power of the voltage regulatoris independento f the
input voltage. If we assumethe regulator to be lossless theinput power is indepen-
dent of the devoltage. Thus, the load connectedto the de buscan be consideredas a
constantpower load.
u
EO.5
~
0
2 4 6 8 10
Time in cycles
.i~ 0.5
Figure 5.4 Voltage sag at ac side(dashedline)
and at the de bus (solid line) for a sag down to 0
50% (top) and for a sag d own to 70% 2 4 6 8 10
(bottom). Time in cycles
As long as theabsolutevalueof the ac voltage is less

than the de bus voltage, all
electrical energy for the load comes from the energy stored incapacitor.Assume
the
that the capacitor has capacitanceC. The energy a timet after saginitiation is
! C{ V(t)}2, with V(t) the de bus voltage. This energy is equal to the energy at sag
initiation minus the energy consumed by the load:
1 2
-CV2=1-CVo - Pt (5.1)
2 2
where Vo is the de bus voltage at sag initiation and P the loading of the de bus.
Expression (5.1) holds as long as the de bus voltage is higher than the absolute value
of the ac voltage, thus
during the initial decay period in Figs. 5.3 and 5.4. Solving (5.1)
gives an expression for the voltageduring this initial decay period:
(5.2)
During normal operation,before the sag, the variation in de bus voltage is small, so
that we can linearize (5.2)around V = Vo, resulting in
(5.3)
wheret is the time elapsed since the last recharge ofcapacitor.The

the voltage ripple is
defined as the difference between the maximum and the minimum value of the de bus
voltage. The maximum is reached fort = 0, the minimum fort = f, with T one cycle of
the fundamentalfrequency. The resulting expression for the voltage ripple is
PT
E= 2V2C (5.4)
o
The voltage ripple is often used as a design
criterion for single-phase diode rectifiers.
Inserting the expression for the de voltage ripple (5.4) in (5.2) gives an expres-
sion for the dc voltageduring the discharge period, thusduring the initial cycles of a
voltage sag:
(5.5)
where f is the numberof cycleselapsedsince saginitiation. The larger the dc voltage

ripple in normal operation,the faster the devoltagedropsduring a sag.
5.2.2.3 VoltageTolerance. Tripping of a computerduring a voltage sag is at-

tributed to the de busvoltage dropping below the minimum input voltage for which
the voltagecontroller can operatecorrectly. We will refer to this voltageas Vmin. We
will further assumethat in normal operation, before the sag,both ac and de bus
voltage areequal to 1 pu.
A sag with amagnitudeV will result in a newsteady-statede voltage which is also
equal to V, if we neglect the dc voltage ripple.From this we canconcludethat the
computerwill not trip for V > Vmin• For V < Vmin' the dc bus voltage onlyd ropsbelow
Vmin if the sag duration exceeds acertain value lmax. The time tmax it takes for the
voltage to reach a levelVmin can befound by solving t from (5.5) with Vo = I:
I - V;';n T
tmax = - - - (5.6)
4E
When theminimum de bus voltage isknown, (5.6) can be used to calculatehow long it
will takebefore tripping. Or in otherwords: what is themaximumsagdurationthat the
equipmentcan tolerate. The dc busvoltage at which the equipmentactually trips
dependson the designof the voltage controller: varying between 50% and 90% de
voltage, sometimeswith additional time delay.Table 5.3 gives some values of voltage
tolerance,calculatedby using (5.6).
Thus, if a computertrips at 50% de bus voltage, and as the normal operationde
voltage ripple is50/0, a sagof lessthan four cycles indurationwill not cause amaltrip.
Any sag below50°A, for more than four cycles will trip thecomputer.A voltageabove
50% can bewithstood permanentlyby this computer.This results inwhat is called a
"rectangularvoltage-tolerancec urve," as shown in Fig. 5.5. Each voltage regulatorwill
have anon-zerominimum operatingvoltage. The row for zerominimum de bus voltage
is only insertedas a reference. We can see fromTable5.3 that the performancedoes not
improve much by reducing the minimum operatingvoltage of the voltagecontroller
beyond50%. When the dcvoltagehas droppedto 50°A" the capacitorhas alreadylost
75°A, of its energy.
TABLE 5.3 Voltage Tolerance of Computers and Consumer Electronics

Equipment:Maximum-AllowableDuration of a Voltage Sag for a Given
Minimum Value of the DC Bus Voltage, for Two Values of the DC Voltage
Ripple
Maximum Sag Duration

Minimum de Bus Voltage 5°AJ ripple I % ripple
0 5 cycles 25 cycles
50% 4 cycles 19cycles
70% 2.5 cycles 13 cycles
900/0 I cycle 5 cycles
100% - --.-.---..--.---------..-..-- -.-- -- - - -
Minimum steady-statevoltage
~ Vmin -._-_.. -------
.~
~
Maximumduration
Figure 5.5 Voltage-tolerancecurve of a ,/ of zerovoltage
computer:an exampleof a rectangular
voltage-tolerancecurve. Duration
5.2.3 Measurements of PC Voltage Tolerance
The voltage tolerance of personal computershas been measured bynumberof a

authors[28], [29], [41], [49],[50]. The voltage-tolerancecurves they present are in the
same range as found from the simplified model presented in the previous section. Figure
5.6 showsmeasuredvoltages andcurrentsfor a personalcomputer.The applied voltage
sag was oneof the most severe the computercould tolerate.
In Fig. 5.6 we see the de bus voltage startingto drop the momentthe ac voltage
drops.During the decay in de bus voltage, the input currentto the rectifier is very small.
The output of the voltagecontroller remainsconstantat first. But when the de bus
voltage hasdroppedbelow acertainvalue, the de voltage regulatorno longeroperates
properly and itsoutput also startsto drop. In this case a new steady state is reached
where the regulated de voltageapparentlystill
is sufficient for the digital electronics to
operatecorrectly. During the new steady state, the input current is no longer zero.
Upon ac voltage recovery, the de bus voltage also recovers quickly. This is associated
Slightde offsetrelated
to instrumentation
Regulated
de voltage
(l V/div)
Unregulated
de voltage
Figure 5.6 Regulatedand non-regulatedde (100V/div)
voltages for a personalcomputer,during a
200 ms sag down to500/0: (top-to-bottom)ac
voltages; accurrent; regulatedde voltage;
non-regulatedde voltage.(Reproducedfrom
EPRI PowerQuality Database[28].) Time(SO milliseeonds/div)
262 Chapter5 • Voltage Sags--·EquipmentBehavior
IOO,------r----.-----r-------,
80
20
Figure 5.7 Voltage-tolerancecurves for

.5 10 15 20 personalcomputers.(Data obtainedfrom
Duration in cycles EPRI PowerQuality Database[29J.)
with a very largecurrentpeak chargingthe dc buscapacitor.This currentcould cause

an equipmenttrip or even a longinterruption if fast-acting overcurrentprotection
devices are used.
The voltage-tolerancecurvesobtainedfrom various tests are shown in Fig. 5.7
and Fig. 5.8. Figure 5.7 shows the result of a U.S. study [29]. For each personal
computer, the tolerance for zero voltage was determined, as well as the lowest
steady-statevoltage for which thecomputerwould operateindefinitely. For one com-
puterthe tolerance for800/0 voltage wasdetermined;all othercomputerscould tolerate
this voltage indefinitely. We see t hat there is a large range in voltage tolerancefor
different computers.The age or the price o f the computerdid not have any influence.
The experiments wererepeatedfor various operating states of thecomputer: idle;
calculating; reading; or writing. Itturned out that the operatingstate did not have
any significant influence on the voltage tolerance or on the power consumption.
Figure 5.7 confirms that the voltage-tolerancecurve has analmostrectangularshape.
Figure 5.8 showsvoltage-tolerancecurves forpersonalcomputersobtainedfrom
a Japanesestudy [49], in the sameformat and scale as the Americanmeasurements in
Fig. 5.7. The general shapeo f the curves is identical, but the curves in Fig. 5.7 indicate
less sensitivecomputersthan the ones in Fig.5.8.
100..----,------r-----.-----,
80
20
Figure 5.8 Voltage-tolerancecurves for

100 200 300 400 personalc omputers-Japanese tests.(Data
Duration in milliseconds obtainedfrom [49J.)
Summarizingwe can saythat the voltagetoleranceof personalcomputersvaries

over a rather wide range:30-170ms, 50-70% being the rangecontaininghalf of the
88% and 210 ms, 30%.
models. The extreme values found are 8 ms,
5.2.4 Voltage-Tolerance Requirements. CBEMA and ITIC
As mentionedbefore, the firstmodern'voltage-tolerance curve was

introducedfor
mainframecomputers[1]. This curve is shown as a solid line in Fig. 5.9. We see
that its
5.5,5.7,and 5.8.
shape doesn ot correspondwith the shapeof the curves shown in Figs.
This can beunderstoodif one realizesthat these figures give thevoltage-tolerance
performancefor one pieceof equipmentat a time, whereas Fig. 5.9 isvoltage-toler-
a
ance requirementfor a whole range ofequipment.The requirementfor the voltage-
tolerance curves ofequipmentis that they should all be above thevoltage-tolerance
requirementin Fig. 5.9. The curve shown in Fig. 5.9 became well-known when the
ComputerBusinessEquipmentManufacturersAssociation(CBEMA) startedto use
the curve as arecommendationfor its members. The curve was subsequentlytakenup
in an IEEE standard[26] and became a kindo f reference forequipmentvoltage toler-
of voltage sags. Anumberof softwarepackagesfor analyz-
ance as well as for severity
ing power quality data plot magnitudeand duration of the sagsagainstthe CBEMA
curve. The CBEMA curve alsocontains a voltage-tolerancepart for overvoltages,
which is not reproducedin Fig. 5.9. Recently a "revisedCBEMA curve" has been
adoptedby the InformationTechnologyIndustryCouncil (ITIC), which is the succes-
sor of CBEMA. The new curve isthereforereferred to as theITIC curve; it is shown as
a dashedline in Fig. 5.9.
The ITIC curve givessomewhatstrongerrequirementsthan the CBEMA curve.
This is because powerquality monitoringhas shownthat there are analarmingnumber
of sagsjust below theCBEMA curve [54].
100 . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
CBEMA
,
80 +--------.---------~
--- ... I
--.------~
ITIC
20
O-----._-..l.--------"'--------L.-------J
0.1 10 100 1000
Durationin (60 Hz) cycles
Figure5.9 Voltage-tolerance requirements for computing equipment:

CDEMA
curve (solid line) and ITIC curve (dashed line).
264 Chapter 5 • VoltageSags-EquipmentBehavior
5.2.5 Process Control Equipment
Processcontrol equipmentis often extremelysensitiveto voltagesags;equipment

has beenreportedto trip when the voltagedropsbelow 800/0 for a few cycles [31], [37],
[39], [41]. The consequences o f the tripping of processcontrol equipmentcan be enor-
mous. For example,the tripping of a small relay can causethe shutdownof a large
chemical plant, leading to perhaps$IOO~OOO in lost production.Fortunatelyall this is
low-powerequipmentwhich can be fedfrom a UPS, or for which the voltagetolerance
can be improved easily by addingextra capacitors,or somebackupbattery.
Tests of the voltage toleranceof programmablelogic controllers (PLC's) have
been performedin the sameway as the PC testsdescribedbefore [39]. The resulting
voltage-tolerancecurvesfor somecontrollersare shown in Fig. 5.10. It clearly shows
that this equipmentis extremelysensitiveto voltagesags. Asmost sagsare between4
and 10 cycles in duration, we can reasonablyassumethat a PLC trips for each sag
below a given threshold,varying between85% and 35%.
Even more worrying is that some controllers may send out incorrect control
signalsbefore actually tripping. This has to do with the different voltage toleranceof
the various parts of the controller. The incorrect signals could lead to dangerous
processmalfunctions.
Additional voltage-tolerancecurvesfor processcontrol equipment,obtainedfrom
anotherstudy [41], are shown in Fig. 5.11. The numberswith the curvesrefer to the
following devices:
1. Fairly commonprocesscontrollerused for processheatingapplicationssuch

as controlling water temperature.
2. More complicated processcontroller which can be used toprovide many
compensationof flow.
control strategiessuch as pressure/temperature
3. Processlogic controller.
4. Processlogic controller, newer and more advancedversion of 3.
5. AC control relay, usedto power importantequipment.
6. AC control relay, used topower important equipment;samemanufacturer
as 5.
7. AC control relay usedto power motors; motor contactor.
100
80
5e
8. 60 I
/
I
---------
.5
~ 40
/
~
~
20
:/ 5 10 15 20
Figure 5.10Voltage-tolerancecurves for
programmablelogic controllers(PLCs).
Duration in cycles (Data obtainedfrom [39].)
Section 5.3 • Adjustable-SpeedAC Drives 265
100.------r-----,..-----r--------,
80
6
20
3
Figure 5.11 Voltage-tolerancecurvesfor 5 10 15 20

variousprocesscontrol equipment(41]. Duration in cycles
This study confirmsthat processcontrol equipmentis extremely sensitive to voltage

disturbances,but alsothat it is possible to buildequipmentcapableof toleratinglong
and deep sags. The factthat someequipmentalready trips for half-a-cycle sags suggests
a serious sensitivity to voltage transientsas well. The main steps taken to prevent
tripping of processcontrol equipmentis to power all essential process control equip-
ment via a UPS or to ensure anotherway
in that the equipmentcan withstandat least
short and shallow sags. Devices 2 and 3 in Fig. 5.11 show that it is possible to make
processcontrolequipmentresilient to voltage sags. But even here the costs of installing
a UPS will in almost all cases be justified.
Here are someotherinterestingobservationsfrom Fig. 5.11:
• Device 2 is the more complicated version of device 1. Despite the higher com-
plexity, device 2 is clearly less sensitive to voltage sags than device 1.
• Device 4 is a newer and more advanced version of device 3. Note enormous
the
deteriorationin voltage tolerance.
• Devices 5 and 6 come from the same manufacturer,but show completely
different voltage tolerances.
5.3 ADJUSTABLE-SPEED AC DRIVES
Many adjustable-speeddrives are equally sensitive to voltage sags as process

control
equipmentdiscussed in the previous section.
Tripping of adjustable-speed drives can
occur due to several
phenomena:
• The drivecontroller or protectionwill detect the sudden change operating

in
conditionsand trip the drive to prevent damage to the power electronic com-
ponents.
• The drop in de bus voltage which results from the sag will cause
maloperation
or tripping of the drivecontroller or of the PWM inverter.
• The increased ac currentsduring the sag or the post-sag
overcurrentscharging
the decapacitorwill cause anovercurrenttrip or blowing of fusesprotecting
the power electronics components.
• The process driven by the

motor will not be able totoleratethe drop in speed
or the torquevariationsdue to the sag.
After a trip some drivesrestartimmediatelywhen the voltage comes back; some restart
after a certaindelay time andothersonly after a manualrestart.The variousautomatic
restartoptionsare only relevantwhen the processtoleratesa certainlevel of speedand
torquevariations.In the restof this section we will first look at the results
of equipment
testing. This will give animpressionof the voltagetoleranceof drives. The effecto f the
voltage sag on the de bus voltage, the main cause of equipmenttripping, will be dis-
cussed next.Requirementsfor the sizeof the de buscapacitorwill be formulated.The
effect of the voltage sag on the ac
currentand on themotor terminalvoltagewill also be
discussed, as well as some aspects of automaticrestart. Finally, a short overview of
mitigation methodswill be given.
5.3.1 Operation of AC Drives
Adjustable-speeddrives (ASD's) are fedeither through a three-phasediode rec-

tifier, or througha three-phasecontrolledrectifier. Generallyspeaking,the first type is
We will discuss
found in ac motor drives, the second in de drives and in large ac drives.
small andmediumsize ac drives fedthrougha three-phasediode rectifier in this section,
and de drives fedthroughcontrolled rectifiers in the next section.
The configurationof mostac drives is as shown in Fig. 5.12. The three ac voltages
are fed to athree-phasedioderectifier. Theoutputvoltageof the rectifier issmoothened
by meansof a capacitorconnectedto the de bus. Theinductancepresentin some drives
aims atsmootheningthe dc linkcurrentand soreducingthe harmonicdistortionin the
current taken from the supply.
The devoltageis inverted to an ac voltageof variablefrequencyand magnitude,
by meansof a so-calledvoltage-sourceconverter(VSC). The most commonly used
method for this is pulse-width modulation (PWM). Pulse-width modulation will be
discussed briefly when we' describe the effect of voltage sags on them otor terminal
voltages.
The motor speed iscontrolledthroughthe magnitudeand frequencyof the output
voltage of the VSC. For ac motors, the rotational speed ismainly determinedby the
frequency of thestator voltages.Thus, by changingthe frequency an easy methodof
speed control is obtained. The frequency andmagnitudeof the stator voltage are
plotted in Fig. 5.13 as afunction of the rotor speed.For speeds up to thenominal
speed,both frequency andmagnitudeare proportional to the rotational speed. The
Variable
50 Hzr-------.. de link frequency
ac
ac dc
dc ac
Controlsystem
'--- -.J Figure 5.12Typical ac drive configuration.

nom
Rotational speed
nom . ,-- - -- - - -
... .. .. ._. .
Figure 5.13 Voltage and frequency as a

nom
function of speed for an acadjustable-speed Rotational speed
drive.
maximum torque of an induction motor is proportional to the squareof the voltage

magnitudeand inverselyproportionalto the squareof the frequency [53], [206]
:
V2
r.: ~ /2 (5.7)
By increasingboth voltage magnitudeand frequency, themaximum torque remains

constant.It is not possible to increase the voltage
magnitudeabove itsnominal value.
Furtherincrease in speed will lead to a fast
drop in maximum torque.
5.3.2 Results of Drive Testing
The performanceof a numberof adjustable-speed drives inrelationto voltage sag

monitoring in an industrial plant is presentedin Fig. 5.14 [40]: the circlesindicate
magnitudeand duration of voltage sags for which the drives trip ; for the voltage
sags indicated by the crosses, the drives did not trip. Wethat seethe drives used in
this plant were very sensitive to sags. The voltage toleranceof these drives is 80%of
voltage for less than six cycles . The exactduration for which the drivestripped could
not bedeterminedas theresolution of the monitors was only six cycles. Similar high
sensitivitiesof adjustable-speeddrives to voltage sags have been reported in other
studies [2],[35], [42], [48]. Using thesedataas typical foradjustable-speed drives carries
a certain risk. If the drives had not been sensitive to ,sags the study would never have
beenperformed. This warning holds for manypublicationsthat mention a high sensi-
tivity of equipmentto sags. It would thus be very well possible t hat a largefraction of
the adjustable-speeddrives are not sensitive to sags at all. To determinethe perfor-
mance of typical drives , one needs to apply tests randomlyselected
to drives.
Studies after the voltage toleranceof adjustable-speed drives, selected atrandom
arepresentedin [32],[47]. In oneof the studies [47] tests were performedfor 20 h.p. and
3 h.p.drives, from several different manufacturers.Eachmanufacturerprovideda 20 h.p.
and a 3 h.p.drive. Each drive was tested for the following three voltage magnitudeevents:
Chapter 5 • VoltageSags-EquipmentBehavior
Figure 5.14 Voltage sags which led to drive

tripping (0) and voltage sags which did not
20 40 60 80 100 lead to drivetripping (x). (Data obtained
Duration in cycles from Sarmiento[40].)
• zero voltage for 33 ms.

• 500/0 voltage for 100ms.
• 700/0 voltage for 1 sec.
The driveperformanceduring the event was classified based on the three types
of speed
curves shown in Fig.5.15;
• I: The speed of themotor shows a decrease followed by a recovery.

• II: The speed of themotor reduces to zero after which the drive
restartsauto-
matically and accelerates the
motor load back to nominal speed.
• III: The motorspeed becomes zero, and the drive is unablerestartthe
to motor.
The test results aresummarizedin Tables 5.4 and5.5. Eachof the columns in the
tables gives thenumberof drives with the indicatedperformance.For a 500/0, lOOms
sag, fourof the 20 h.p. drives showed performance
a accordingto curve II in Fig. 5.15
and sevenof the drivesaccordingto curve III. Table 5.4 gives the results for drives at
full load; a distinctionis made between 3 h.p. and 20 h.p. drives.
Table5.5comparesthe
drive behaviorat full load with the drivebehaviorat half-load. These results include
20 h.p. as well as 3 h.p. drives.
Nominal speed
1············.···········.······..··-.-.·.··.···.·····...
I
I II
II
I
I
I
I!
Stand-I
still i I III
···············t···········t··············.L.---......L--------- Figure 5.15 Three types
of motor speed
..--.' Time behaviorfor an adjustable-speed
drive due to
Sag duration a sag.
TABLE 5.4 Resultsof Voltage-ToleranceTestingof Adjustable-Speed

Drives: Numberof Drives with the IndicatedPerformance.I: Only Drop in
Speed; II:Automatic Restart;III: Manual Restart
Drive Performance
Applied Sag 20 h.p. drives 3 h.p. drives
I II III I II III
00/0 33 ms 4 2 5 12
50% 100 ms 4 7 3 5 4
70% 1000 ms 5 6 1 7 4
TABLE 5.5 Influenceof Loading on Drive Voltage Tolerance:Numberof

Driveswith the IndicatedPerformance.I: Only Drop in Speed; II:Automatic
Restart;III: Manual Restart
Drive Performance
Applied Sag Full Load Half-Load
I II III I II III
0% 33 ms 7 I 2 8 I I
50% 100ms 2 4 4 3 4 3
700/0 1000 ms 1 5 4 1 4 5
From the results in Tables 5.4 and 5.5 one can

draw the following conclusions:
• 3 h.p. drives are less sensitivethan20 h.p. drives. This does not necessarily hold
in all cases,a lthougha comparisonof 3 h.p. versus 20 h.p. drives for the same
manufacturer,the same voltage sag, and the same drive loadinggives in 25of
the cases abetterperformancefor the 3 h.p. drive; in 20 cases the performance
is the same (i.e., in the same class accordingto the classification above); and
only in three cases does the 20 h.p. drive perform better.
• Thereis no significant difference between the full load and the half-load vol-
tage tolerance.F or some loads theperformanceimproves, forothersit dete-
riorates,but for mostit doesnot appearto have any influence. Doing the same
comparisonas before shows t hat in two casesperformanceis betterat full load,
in four cases it isbetterat half-load,and in 24 cases theperformancefalls in the
sameperformanceclass.For drives falling inperformanceclass I it may bethat
at full load thedrop in speed is more severe thanat half-load,but the study did
not report this amountof detail.
• Very shortinterruptions(0%, 33 ms) can behandledby all 3 h.p. drives and by
a largepart of the 20 h.p. drives.
of 100 ms and longer,
• Adjustable-speeddrives have severe difficulties with sags
especially as one
considersthateven response I could mean a seriousdisruption
of sensitivemechanicalprocesses.
• The tests confirmthat adjustable-speed

drives are very sensitive to sags; how-
mentionedby some isnot found in
ever, the extreme sensitivity (85%, 8 ms)
this test.
The resultsof a similar set of tests arereportedin [32]: two different voltage sags were
applied to 17 drives:
• voltagedown to 50% of nominal for 100ms (6 cycles);

• voltage down to70% of nominal for 167ms (10 cycles).
Their results are shown in Table 5.6. The classification used is fairly similar to the one
used inTables 5.4 and 5.5, with the exception t hat a class"drive kept motor speed
constant" is included. This driveperformanceis indicated as class 0 inTable 5.6.
Responseclasses I, II, and IIIcorrespondto the ones used before.
From these studies, it is possible toobtain a kind of "averagevoltage-tolerance
curve" for adjustable-speed drives. The resulting curve is shown in Fig. 5.16, with the
measurementpointsindicatedas circles.Toleranceis defined here asperformance0 or
I. Note that the actual drives show a largespreadin voltage tolerance: some drives
could not tolerateany of theappliedsags, where one o f the drivestoleratedall sags. It
has further beenassumedthat the drives couldoperateindefinitely on 85% voltage.
Conrad et al. [48] obtained voltage tolerancedata for adjustable-speeddrives
througha survey of drivemanufacturers.The voltagetolerancestatedby the manufac-
turers is shown in Fig. 5.17. The circles indicate manufacturerswhich gaveminimum
voltage as well asmaximumsagduration.The othermanufacturers,indicatedby trian-
gles in Fig. 5.17, only gave a value for the
maximumsagduration.Note that 10 out of 13
manufacturersindicatethat their drives trip for sagso f three cycles or less ind uration.
TABLE 5.6 Resultsof Voltage-ToleranceTestson Adjustable-SpeedDrives
Responseof the Drive
Sag Applied o II III

50% 100 ms 2 9 5
70% 170ms II 5
100%
85% .............................
~
a 70% .........................
/
.~
(l;S
~
50%
Figure 5.16 Averagevoltage-tolerancecurve

33 ms 100 ms 170 ms 1000ms for adjustable-speeddrives. Note the non-
Duration linear horizontalscale.
Section 5.3 • Adjustable-Speed AC Drives 271
100 I.M.. . I
Voltage not stated
u
00
80 - •
• •
•
~> 60
§
.5
.s 40 '-
~
20 -
I I I
0
0 10 20 30
Maximum duration in cycles
Figure s.t 7 Adjustable-speeddrive voltage tolerance,accordingto the drive
manufacturer.• = Magnitudeand duration; A = durationonly. (Data
obtainedfrom [48].)
5.3.2.1 Acceptance Criterion.When testing anadjustable-speed drive, without

detailed knowledge of the load driven by the drive, a well-defined
criterion is needed
to distinguish successful from unsuccessful behavior. lEe
The standard61800-3 [52]
gives criteria to assess theperformanceof adjustable-speeddrives for EMC testing.
Thesecriteria are given in Table 5.7; they should also be used for voltage sag testing
of adjustable-speeddrives. The IEC performancecriteria can be summarizedas
follows:
• A: the drive operatesas intended;

• B: the drive temporarily operatesoutsideof its intendedoperatingrange but
recoversautomatically;
• C: the drive shuts down safely.
TABLE 5.7 AcceptanceCriteria for Drives According to IEC 61800-3 [52]
AcceptanceCriterion
A B C
Specific performance No changewithin the Noticeablechanges,self- Shutdown,big changes,n ot
specified tolerance recoverable self-recoverable
Torque-generating Torque within tolerances Temporarydeviation Loss of torque
behavior outsideof tolerances
Operationsof power No maloperationof a Temporarymaloperation Shutdown,triggering of
electronicsand driving power semiconductor which cannotcause protection
circuits shutdown
Information processing Undisturbedcommuni- Temporarydisturbed Errors in communication,
and sensingfunctions cation and data communication loss of dataand
exchange information
Operationof display and No changeof visible Visible temporarychanges Shutdown,obviously wrong
control panel display information of information display information
5.3.3 Balanced Sags
Many trips of ac drives are due to a low voltage at the de bus. The trip or
maloperationcan be due to thecontroller or PWM inverter not operatingproperly
when the voltage gets too low. But it can also be due tointerventionof
the undervoltage
protectionconnectedto the dc bus. ·Most likely, the protectionwill intervene before any
equipmentmalfunction occurs.
The de bus voltage is
normallyobtainedfrom the three ac voltages througha diode
rectifier. When the voltage at ac side drops, the rectifier will stop conductingand the
PWM inverterwill be powered from thecapacitorconnectedto the de bus. This capa-
citor has only limited energyc ontent(relative to the powerc onsumptionof the motor)
and will not be able to supply the load much longer than a few cycles. Animproved
voltage toleranceof adjustable-speed drives can be achieved by lowering the setting of
the undervoltageprotectionof the de bus. One shouldtherebyalways keep in mindthat
the protectionshould trip before anymalfunction occurs and beforecomponentsare
damaged.N ot only is theundervoltagea potentialsourceof damagebut also the over-
currentwhen the ac voltage recovers. If the drivenot is equippedwith additionalover-
current protection, the de bus undervoltage should also protect against these
overcurrents.Many drives areequippedwith fuses in series with the diodes, against
large overcurrents.Theseshouldnot be used toprotectagainstthe overcurrentafter a
sag.Havingto replace the fuses aftera voltage sag only causes additionalinconvenience.
5.3.3.1 Decayof the DC BusVoltage. The de bus voltage for anadjustable-

speed driveduring a sag in three phases behaves the same as the de bus voltage of a
personalcomputer, as discussed in Section 5.2. When we consider a drive with a
motor load P, a nominal de bus voltageVo, and capacitanceC connectedto the de
calculatethe initial decayof the de bus voltaged uring the sag:
bus, we can use (5.2) to
V(t) = J 2;
V6 - t (5.8)
It has been assumedthat the de bus voltage at sag

initiation equals thenominalvoltage.
We further assumed aconstantpower load. For the standardPWM invertersthis is
probablynot the case. But one can translatethe constant-powerassumptioninto the
assumptionthat the load on ac side of the inverter, i.e., the motor,
ac does not notice
anythingfrom the sag. Thus, the o utputpower of the inverteris independento f the dc
bus voltage. If we neglect the increaseinverter
in loss for lower de bus voltage (due to
the highercurrents)we arrive at theconstant-powerassumption.The constant-power
assumptionthus correspondsto assumingan ideal inverter: nodrop in voltage at the
motor terminals, and no increase in lossesduring the sag.
5.3.3.2 VoltageTolerance. The adjustable-speed drive will trip either due to an

active interventionby the undervoltageprotection(which is the mostcommonsitua-
tion), or by a maloperationof the inverter or the controller. In both cases the trip
will occur when the de busvoltage reaches acertain value Vmin. As long as the ac
voltage does notd rop below this value, the drive will not trip.For sags below this
value, (5.8) can be used tocalculatethe time it takes for the de bus voltage to reach
the value Vmin:
(5.9)
EXAMPLE 'Consider the example discussed[42]:in a drive with nominalde bus vol-
tage Vo = 620V and de buscapacitanceC = 4400j.tF powers an acmotor taking an active
power P = 86 kW. The drive trips when thede bus voltagedrops below Vmin = 560V. The
time-to-trip obtainedfrom (5.9) is
4400j.tF ( 2 2) (5.10)
t = 2 x 86kW x (620V) .- (560 V) = 1.81ms
The minimum ac bus voltage for which the drive will not trip is 560/620 = 90%. This drive will
thus trip within 2 ms when the ac bus voltage drops below 900/0.
Supposethat it would be possible to reduce the setting of the undervoltageprotectionof
the de bus, to 310 V(50°tlc»). That would enormouslyreduce thenumberof spurioustrips of the
drive, because thenumberof sags below500/0 is only a small fraction of thenumberof sags
below900/0. But the time-to-trip for sags below50% remains very short. Filling inVmin = 310V
in (5.9) givest = 7.38 ms. In fact, bysubstituting Vmin = 0 we can seethat the capacitanceis
completely empty 9.83 ms after sag initiation, assumingthat the load power remains constant.
We can concludethat no matter how good the inverter, the drive will trip for any voltage
interruption longer than 10 ms.
The amountof capacitanceconnectedto the dc bus of anadjustable-speed drive

can be expressed inI-tF/kW. If we express the de bus voltage in kV and the time in ms,
(5.9) can bewritten as
t= O.5(~)(V6 - V;'in) (5.11)
with (C/P) in JLF/kW. With (C/P) in JLF/h.p. (5.11) becomes
t = O.67(~)(V6 - V;'in) (5.12)
The amountof capacitanceconnectedto the de busof modernadjustable-speed

drives is between 75 and 360 JLF/kW [138]. Figure 5.18 plots therelation between the
undervoltagesetting for the de bus (vertical) and the
time-to-trip (horizontalscale), for
three valuesof the ratio between de buscapacitanceand motor sizeaccordingto (5.11).
The voltagetoleranceof the drive, for balancedsags, can beobtainedas follows:
100 ~ ...
ij
[ 80
.5
.tg 60
\
,,
\
\
-.
e 40
\
\
.~
\
\ \
\
, \
\
~ 20 \ \
\ \
,
\ \
Figure5.18 Voltage tolerance of adjustable- , \
sizes.
speed drives for different capacitor \
Solid line: 75J.LF/kW; dashedline: 165 I-tF/ 20 40 60 80

kW; dotted line: 360J.LF/kW. Maximum timeinmilliseconds
274 Chapter5 • Voltage Sags-EquipmentBehavior
• The setting of the de busundervoltageprotection determinesthe minimum

voltage for which the drive is able to operate.
• From the appropriatecurve, determinedby the capacitorsize, themaximum
sag duration is found.
We seethat even for very lowvaluesof the settingof the de busundervoltage,the drive
will trip within a few cycles.
5.3.3.3 Capacitor Size. It is obvious from the aboveexamplesthat the amount

of capacitanceconnectedto the de busof an adjustable-speed drive, is not enoughto
offer any seriousimmunity againstvoltage sags. The immunity can be improved by
adding more capacitanceto the de bus.To calculate the amount of capacitance
neededfor a given voltage tolerance,we go back to (5.8) and assumeV(t max) = Vmin,
leadingto
- 2Ptmax
C- (5.13)
Vo2 - Vmin
2
This expressiongives the amount of dc bus capacitanceneededto obtain a voltage

toleranceof Vmin, tmax (Le., thedrive trips when the voltagedropsbelow Vmin for longer
than tmax) .
EXAMPLE Considerthe same drive as in the previousexampleWe want the drive to

be able totoleratesags withdurationsup to 500 ms. Theundervoltagesetting remainsat 560
V (90% of nominal). The capacitanceneeded to achieve this is o btained from (5.13) with
tmax = 500msand Vmilf = 560V:
c= 286kW x 500ms = t.12F (5.14)

(620 V)2 - (560 V)2
This exampleis used in [42] tocomparedifferent ways of improving the drive's voltage
tolerance,including the costsof the variousoptions.The total costsof 1.12 F capacitance,with
enclosures,fuses, bars, and fans, would be about$200,000 and to place these capacitorswould
2
require a space 2.5 x 18 m and 60 em high. Abattery backupwould cost "only" $15,000 and
requirea spaceof 2.5 x 4 x 0.6 rrr'. Howeverthe batteryblock would requiremore maintenance
than the capacitors.
Assumethat an undervoltageprotectionsetting of 310 V (50%) is feasible, andthat the
drive shouldbe able totoleratevoltagesags up to 200 ms in d uration.Equation(5.13) can again
be used to give therequiredcapacitance,which is 119 mF.
This is only one-tenthof the required capacitancefor the original inverter. The costs of
installing capacitancewould still be higher than for the batteryblock but the lowermaintenance
requirementsof the capacitorsmight well tip the balancetoward them. Making an inverter that
can operatefor even lowervoltageswould not gain much ridethroughtime or savecapacitors.
This is because the s toredenergy in acapacitoris proportionalto the squareof the voltage. It
would, however, increase the current through the inverter significantly. Bringing theminimum
operatingvoltage down to 25% would doublethe requiredcurrentrating of the inverter but still
require95 mF of capacitance;a reductionof only 20%.
5.3.4 DC Voltage for Three-Phase Unbalanced Sags
In normal operation,the debus voltageis somewhatsmoothenedby the capaci-

tanceconnectedto the dc bus.T he largerthe capacitance,the smallerthe voltageripple.
I "", :----,~--"o~-""""~-r"__~---r<:------,,
,, ,,
,, ,
0.98 " : I I
, ' ,I
,,
, I
, ,I
g, 0.96 \ :
,,
\
,
, '
I
'
, ,,
,
I , '
,, ,'
I
I
.8 ", 'I ,, ,,
\ I
*' 0.94
, I
. "
': ""
,,
"
~ "i
] 0.92
g 0.90
Figure 5.19 DC bus voltage behind a three- 0.88
phase rectifier during normaloperation,for
largecapacitor(solid line), smallcapacitor
(dashed line)
, and nocapacitorconnected to 0.2 0.8
the dc bus (dotted line)
.
Where with a single-phase rectifier the capacitoris only charged twice a cycle , it is
chargedsix times every cycle for athree-phaserectifier. Figure 5.19 shows the de bus
voltage behind athree-phaserectifier, for variouscapacitorsize. The load fed from the
de bus was assumed to of bethe constant-powertype. The size of thecapacitanceswas
chosen as follows: for the largecapacitanceand a de bus voltage o f 100%, the initial
rate of decayof the voltage is 10% per cycle when the ac side voltage drops; for the
small capacitancethe initial rate of decay is 75% per cycle. We will relate this to the
drive parametersfurther on.
We saw in Section 4.4 that the most commonsags experienced by three-phase
a
load are type A, type C, and type . DFor a type A sag all three phases drop in
magnitudethe sameamount.All six voltage pulses in Fig. 5.19 willdrop in magnitude
and the load will empty thecapacitorconnectedto the de bus, until the de bus voltage
drops below the peak of the ac voltage again . The voltagetolerancefor this case has
been discussed in the previous section.
5.3.4.1 Sagsof Type C. For a three-phase .unbalancedsag of type C or type

D, different phases have different voltage drops. Some phase voltages also show a
jump in phase angle . The behavior of the dc bus voltage , and thusof the drive, is
completely different than for a balancedvoltage sag . The upper plot in Fig. 5.20
shows the voltages at the drive terminalsfor a sagof type C. Note that these are the
line-to-line voltages, as the drive isconnectedin delta. We see how the voltage drops
in two phases, while the sine waves move toward each other. The third phase does
not drop in magnitude.A sag with acharacteristicmagnitudeof 50% and zero char-
acteristic phase-anglejump is shown. The voltagemagnitudesat the driveterminals
are 66.1% (in two phases) and 100% in the third phase; phase-anglejumps are
-19.1°, +19.1°, and zero.
The effect of thisthree-phaseunbalancedsag on the de bus voltage is shown in the
lower plot of Fig. 5.20.The capacitorsizes used are the same as in Fig. 5.19. Wethat see
even for the smallcapacitance , the de bus voltage does not drop below 70%. For the
large capacitance,the dc bus voltagehardly deviates from itsnormal operatingvalue.
In the lattercase, the drive will never tripduring a sag of type C, nomatterhow low the
characteristicmagnitudeof the sag. As one phase remains at its pre-event ,value the
three-phaserectifier simply operatesas a single-phase rectifier during the voltage sag.
The drop in de bus voltage (actually : the increase in voltage ripple) is only
moderate.
276 Chapter 5 • VoltageS ags-EquipmentBehavior
fO:~
U-0.5
«
- I
o 0.5 I 1.5 2 2.5 3
.~ , --: -', -: ', - { \ ;

j 0.8 . ', '
.. I · \
'. ' ,
I
;
.
: ', :
" .'
". ', :
..
o
> . .' ..~' .. ~' ",' Figure 5.20 Voltage during a three-phase
gj unbalanced sag of type C: ac side voltage
.o 0.6
U (top) and dc side voltages(bottom) for large
Cl
capacitor (solid line), smallcapacitor(dashed
0.5 1.5 2 2.5 3 line), and nocapacitorconnected to the dc
Time in cycles bus (dotted line).
The initial behaviorremains identical to the one discussed before for the balanced
sag (due to athree-phasefault). The main difference is t hat the de bus voltage recovers
after one half-cycle. This is due to the one phase
that remains atnominal voltage for a
sag of typeC.
5.3.4.2 Sagsof Type D. The voltages on ac side and de side of the rectifier are
shown in Fig. 5.21 for athree-phaseunbalancedsag of type D with characteristic
magnitude50% and nocharacteristicphase-anglejump. The magnitudeof the vol-
tages at the driveterminals is 50%, 90.14%, and 90.14%, with phase-anglejumps
zero, -13.9° and +13 .9°.
For a sag of type D, all three phases
drop in voltage , thus there is no longer one
phase which can keep up the de bus voltage. Fortunatelythe drop in voltage is mod-
erate for twoof the three phases. Even for a terminal fault, where the voltage in one
phase drops to zero, the voltage in theother two phases does notd rop below
4.j3 = 86%. The top curve in Fig. 5.21 shows how one phase drops significantly in
voltage. Theother two phasesdrop less in voltagemagnitudeand theirmaximamove
away from each other. In the b ottomcurve of Fig. 5.21 the effecto f this on the de bus
~ 0.5
~
"0
>
gj
.0
u -0.5
-e
~
"0 0.8
' 1 '1 :
\" .' \
. ..
:' , ,'
I
- ., '\~-..ron--_J'"'...--....j
..
: '...
,
;
,
.' , ,
.
,'
> ",' . ',I Figure 5.21 Voltage during a three-phase
]'" 0.6
" unbalanced sag of type D: ac side voltage
U (top) and dc side voltages (bottom) for large
Cl
capacitor(solid line), smallcapacitor(dashed
0.5 1.5 2 2.5 3 line), and nocapacitorconnected to the dc
Time in cycles bus (dotted line).
voltage is shown.F or not too small valuesof the dc buscapacitance,the dc bus voltage
reaches a value slightly below the peak value of the voltage in the two phases with the
moderatedrop. Again the effect of the sag on the de bus voltage, andthus on themotor
speed andtorque,is much lessthan for a balancedsag.
5.3.4.3 Phase-Angle Jumps.In Figs. 5.20 and 5.21 it isassumedthat the char-
acteristic phase-anglejump is zero. This makesthat two of the phasevoltages have
the same peak value: the highest phases for a sag of type D (Fig . 5.21); the lowest
phases for a sagof type C (Fig . 5.20). A non -zerocharacteristicphase-angle jump
the higher. The effecto f
makesthat one of these .two voltages gets lower, and other
this is shown in Fig. 5.22 for athree-phaseunbalancedsag of type D, with acharac-
teristic magnitude of 50%. All phase-anglejumps are assumed negative ; positive
phase-anglejumps would give exactly the same effect. When there is capacitance
no
connectedto the de bus(dotted line) the minimum de bus voltage isdeterminedby
the lowest ac side voltage. The effectof the phase-anglejump is that the minimum
de busvoltage gets lower. But for a drive with a largecapacitanceconnectedto the
de bus, it is the highest peak voltage whichdeterminesthe de bus voltage.F or such
a drive, the de bus voltage will increase for increasing phase-anglejump. For a
phase-anglejump of -300 the de bus voltage is even higher than during normal
operation. Note that a -300 phase-anglejump is an extremesituation for a sag
with a characteristicmagnitudeof 50%.
I
~ , , ., ,,
~ ,~
'0 0.8 1 - . ,J - ' .'" 0.8 .
1
1
-, ,
,
:-
] 0.6
"
1 ,
'.
1
0.6
" "
I
o
Q 0.4 0.4
0 0.5 0 0.5
I
Figure 5.22 DCbus voltageduring a three- " ., ,
~
1
. 1 1 1
i
,, ,
phase unbalanced sag of type
characterist ic magnitude50% and
D, with '0 0.8
:- ,I
1
,
,. I
1
, 0.8 •
"
-,
' ,I
1
characteristicphase-anglejump zero (top ..5"' 0.6 0.6

left), 10' (top right), 20' (bottomleft), and 30· o
Q 0.4 0.4
(bottom right). Solid line: largecapacitance ;
0 0.5 0 0.5
dashed line: smallcapacitance ; dotted line: no Time in cycles Time in cycles
capacitanceconnected to the de bus.
For three-phaseunbalancedsagsof type C, the de busvoltageis determinedby

the voltage in the phase which does not drop in magnitude. The phase-anglejump has
Thusfor sagsof type C the de bus
no influence on this value: it simply remains at 100%.
voltage is not influenced by the phase-anglejump, assumingthe capacitanceconnected
to the de bus is largeenough.
5.3.4.4 EffectofCapacitor Size and Sag Magnitude.Some of the effectsof the

size of the de buscapacitanceon the de bus voltageduring unbalancedsags are
summarizedin Figs. 5.23through 5.30. In all the figures, thehorizontal axis gives
the characteristicmagnitudeof the sag, the solid linecorrespondsto a largecapaci-
tanceconnectedto the de bus, thedashedline holds for smallcapacitance,the dotted
~ 0.8
.5
~
S
~ 0.6
]
.g 0.4
.1 Figure 5.23 Minimum de bus voltage as a
~ 0.2 function of the characteristicmagnitudeof
three-phaseunbalancedsags of type C. Solid
line: largecapacitance;dashed line: small
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 capacitance;dotted line: no capacitance
Characteristic magnitude in pu connected to the de bus.
line for no capacitanceat all. Figures 5.23 through 5.26 are for three-phaseun-
balancedsags of type C. Figures 5.27 through 5.30 are thecorrespondingfigures
for type D.
Figure 5.23 shows the influence on the minimum de bus voltage. The de bus
undervoltageprotection normally uses this value as a trip criterion. There is thus a
direct relation between theminimum dc bus voltageand the voltagetoleranceof the
drive. We see from the figure t hat the presenceof sufficient capacitancemakesthat the
dc busvoltageneverdropsbelow acertainvalue, nomatterhow deep the sag at ae side
is. This is obviously due to the onephaseof the ac voltage which stays at its normal
value. For a largecapacitance,the drop in de busvoltageis very small. The smaller the
capacitance,the more thedrop in de bus voltage.
Figure 5.24 shows the influenceof sag magnitude and capacitor size on the
voltage ripple at the de bus. The largerthe capacitanceand the larger thecharacteristic
magnitude,the smaller thevoltage ripple. Again a largecapacitancemitigates the
voltage disturbanceat the de bus. Some drives use the voltage ripple to detect mal-
functioning of the rectifier. This ismore used in controlled rectifiers where a large
voltage ripplecould indicate an error in one of the firing circuits. The figure is some-
I00 ~---r------r----'--r-------r-----.,
Figure 5.24 Voltage ripple at the de bus as a

---
function of thecharacteristicmagnitudeof
three-phaseunbalancedsags of type C. Solid
line: largecapacitance;dashed line: small
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 capacitance;dotted line: no capacitance
Characteristic magnitude in pu connected to the de bus.
_ _ _ _ _ - -. -:-. '7'.":'.~ .-:'."": ..
[ 0.8
.S
i
($ 0.6
;>
j
~ 0.4
~u
Figure 5.25 Average de bus voltage as a .( 0.2
function of the characteristic magnitude of
three-phase unbalanced sagstypeC.
of Solid
line: large capacitance; dashed line: small
capacitance; dotted line: no capacitance 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
connected to the dc bus. Characteristicmagnitudein pu
what misleadingin this sense, as a large capacitancewould also make it more difficult to
detectunbalancesin the rectifier (likeerrorsin the thyristor firing). In thatcase,eithera
more sensitive'setting of the voltage rippledetectionshould be used (which would
overrule.the gain in voltagetolerance)or the rectifiercurrentsshould be used as a
detectioncriterion (which might introducemore sensitivity tounbalancedsags).
The average de bus voltageshownin
is Fig. 5.25, the rms value in Fig. 5.26. These
determinehow themotordriven by the drive slows down in speed. We see that the drop
in average or rmsvoltageis not asdramaticas thedrop in minimum voltage: although
of the capacitance,the less thedrop in speed. Especially for
also here, the larger the size
longer voltage sags, orlow-inertia loads, this could be a decisive difference. Of course
one needs to assume that the inverteris able tooperateduring the voltage sag.That is
more likely for largecapacitance,where the dc bus voltage remains high, thanfor small
capacitance,where the de bus voltage drops to a low value twice a cycle.
The results for athree-phaseunbalancedsag of type D are shown in Figs. 5.27
through5.30. We saw in Fig. 5.21 t hat for large capacitance,the new steadystatedoes
not settle inimmediately.All values for the type D sag have been calculatedfor the
third cycleduring the sag. Theminimum de bus voltage for a sag of type D is shown in
-----------------------------~~~~~~~.
[ 0.8
.S
&>0
~ 0.6
;>
~
..0
.g 0.4
t+-
o
tI.)
Figure 5.26 The rms of the dc bus voltage as
a function of the characteristic magnitude of
~ 0.2
three-phase unbalanced sags of type C. Solid
line: large capacitance; dashed line: small
capacitance; dotted line: no capacitance 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
connected to the de bus. Characteristicmagnitudein pu
::l
0. 0.8
.S
"
OIl
.f!0 0.6
>
ee
::l
or>
o
-e 0.4
E
::l
E Figure5.27 Minimum de bus voltage as a
'2
~ 0.2 function of thecharacteristicmagnitude of
three-phase unbalanced sags of type . Solid
D
line: largecapacitance ; dashed line: small
0 capacitance ; dotted line: nocapacitance
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Characteristic magnitude in pu connected to the de bus .
100
....
;:: 80
"~
"0.
.S 60
"0.
Q.
' 1:
.s" 40
OIl
0
>
o 20
~. ~.. Figure5.28 Voltage ripple at the de bus as a
0
function of the characteristicmagnitudeof
three-phase unbalanced sags of type D. Solid
line: large capacitance; dashed line
: small
00 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 capacitance; dotted line
: no capacitance
Characteristic magnitude in pu
connected to the dc bus.
5. 0.8
.S
~
~ 0.6
:g
or>
.g 0.4
t
~ 0.2 Figure 5.29 Average de bus voltage as a
function of thecharacteristicmagnitudeof
three-phaseunbalancedsags of type D. Solid
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 line: large capacitance; dashed line
: small
Characteristic magnitude in pu capacitance;dotted line: no capacitance
connected to the de bus .
Section 5.3 • Adjustable-SpeedAC Drives 28t
a0.8
.s
~
~ 0.6 .
>
]
~ 0.4
C+-t
o
rJ)
Figure 5.30 The rms of the de bus voltage as~ 0.2

a function of the characteristicmagnitudeof
three-phaseunbalancedsags of type D. Solid
line: large capacitance;d ashedline: small
capacitance;d otted line: no capacitance
00 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Characteristicmagnitudein pu
connectedto the de bus.
Fig. 5.27. Comparisonwith Fig. 5.23 for type C revealsthat for a type D sag the
minimum de busvoltagecontinuesto drop with lower characteristicmagnitude,even
with large capacitorsize. But againan increasein capacitancecan significantly reduce
the voltage drop at the de bus.For the drive with the largecapacitancethe de bus
voltagedoes not drop below 80% , even for thedeepestunbalancedsag.
Figure 5.28 plots' thevoltageripple for type D sags, whichshowsa similar beha-
vior as for type C sags.T he voltage ripple is calculatedas the peak-to-peakripple
related to the normal value. Therefore,the voltage ripple for the drive without capa-
citancedoes not reach 1000/0 for a sagof zero characteristicmagnitude.
In Figs. 5.29and 5.30, showingaverageand rms valueof the de busvoltage,we
seesimilar values as for sags o f type C. Again the differenceis that the de busvoltage
continuesto drop for decreasingcharacteristicmagnitude.Deep sags of type D will
causemore drop in motor speed than sags of the samemagnitudeof type C. For
shallow sags the effect on the m otor speed will beaboutthe same.
5.3.4.5 Sizeof the DC BusCapacitance. In the previous figures, the de bus

voltagewas calculatedfor threevalues of the sizeof the capacitanceconnectedto the
dc bus. Thosewere referred to as "large capacitance,""small capacitance,"and "no
capacitance."Large and small werequantified through the initial decayof the de bus
voltage: 10% per cycle for the largecapacitance,75% per cycle for the smallcapaci-
tance.Here we will quantify the amountof tLF to which this corresponds.
The de busvoltage V(t) during the sag isgovernedby the lawof conservationof
energy: the electricload P is equalto thechangein energystoredin the de buscapacitor
C. In equationform this readsas
!!-{!CV
dt 2
2
} =p (5.15)
Let Vo be the de busvoltageat saginitiation. This gives at saginitiation
dV
CVo-=P (5.16)
dt
from which the initial rateof decay of the dc busvoltagecan becalculated:

dV P
d(= CVo (5.17)
From (5.16) we can derive an expressionfor the capacitorsizeneededto get acertain

initial rate of decay of de bus voltage:
p
C=--cw
V
(5.18)
oClt
EXAMPLE For the same driveparametersas before (620 V, 86 kW) we can use
(5.18) to calculate the required size of the
capacitance.As a first step we have totranslateper-
cent per cycle into volts per second:
75% per cycle = 27,900Vis

100/0 per cycle = 3730Vis
To obtain a rate of decay of750/0 per cycle, we need caapacitanceof

86kW
C = 620 V x 27,900V/s = 4970JlF (5.19)
or 57.8 /-LF/kW. Similarly we find that 37.3 mF or 433/-LF/kW correspondsto 10% per cycle.
These values need to be comparedto the amountof capacitancepresentin moderndrives, which
is between 75 and 360 JlF/kW, accordingto [138]. We seethat the "largecapacitance"curves are
feasible withmodernadjustable-speed drives.
5.3.4.6 Load Influence. The main load influence on voltage sags is the reduc-
tion in negative-sequencevoltage due to induction motor load, as explained in
Section 4.8. To see w hat the effect is onadjustable-speed
drives, wereproducedtype
C and type 0 sags withreducednegative-sequence voltageand calculatedde bus vol-
tage behind a non-controlledrectifier. The three-phaseunbalancedsags with reduced
negative-sequence voltage were calculatedin the same way as for Figs. 4.138 and
4.139. Theanalysiswas performedfor a three-phaseunbalancedsag with acharac-
teristic magnitudeof 50% and zero phase-anglejump. The voltagesat the equipment
terminalsare for a 50% sag of type C:
Va = 1
Vb = _!2 - !j./3
4
(5.20)
Vc = -~+~j./3
and for a sagof type 0:
(5.21)
Splitting the phasevoltages in sequence

componentsgives
(5.22)
for a sagof type C, and
3
VI =-
4 (5.23)
1
V2 =--
4
for a sagof type D. A "distortedtype C" sag iscreatedby keeping the positive-sequence
voltage constant,while reducingthe negative-sequence voltage. This is to simulate the
effect of induction motor load. If we assumethat the negative-sequence voltage drops
by a factor of {J, thus from V2 to (1 - {J) V2, we obtain the phase voltages from
Va = VI +(I-fJ)V2
Vb = VI + a2( 1 - fJ)V2 (5.24)
V(. = VI + a(l - {J)V2
where a = -!+ !j,J3. The resulting phase voltages are usedcalculatethe

to de bus
voltagesduring the sag, in the same way as for the "nondistorted"sag. The results are
shown in Figs. 5.31through 5.34. Figure 5.31 plots the average de bus voltage as a
function of the drop in negative-sequence voltage. Notethat a drop of 50o~ in negative-
sequencevoltagerequiresa very largeinductionmotorload. We see from Fig. 5.31 that
the motor load drops the minimum dc bus voltage in case capacitoris
a used.For a
drive without de buscapacitor,the minimum de bus voltage increases. The drop in
negative-sequence voltagemakesthat the three voltages get closer magnitude,so
in that
the effect of acapacitorbecomes less. The same effect is seen in Fig. 5.33 for type D
sags. Figs. 5.32 and 5.34 show that also the average de bus voltage
dropsfor increasing
motor load.
[ 0.8
.S
~g 0.6
j
.g 0.4
.1
Figure 5.31 Induction motor influence on
~ 0.2
minimum de bus voltage for sags of type C.
Solid line: large capacitor; dashed line: small
capacitor; dotted line: no capacitor connected 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
to the de bus. Drop innegative-sequence
voltage
~ 0.8
.S .
Go)
f 0.6
-0
>
:g
.,D
~ 0.4
Go)
<G0.2 Figure 5.32 Induction motor influenceon

averagede busvoltage for sagsof type C.
Solid line: largecapacitor;dashedline: small
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 capacitor;dottedline: no capacitorconnected
Drop in negative-sequence
voltage
to the de bus.
&e 0.8
.5
i
] 0.6
]
~ 0.4
§
:~~ 0.2
Figure 5.33 Induction motor influenceon
minimum de busvoltage for sagsof type D.
voltage to the de bus.
a 0.8 ------------------_ --.

.53 .
;
-0 0.6
>
]
~ 0.4
-<
t 0.2
Figure 5.34 Induction motor influenceon
averagede busvoltagefor sagsof type D.
voltage to the de bus.
5.3.4.7 Powering the Controllers.In older drives thecontrol electronics for the
PWM inverter was powered from the supply. This made the drive very sensitive to
disturbancesin the supply. Inmoderndrives thecontrol electronics is powered from
the de bus which can be more constantdue to the presence of capacitors.But even
here the samereasoningcan be used as for process control equipment.Controllers
are essentiallylow-power equipmentwhich only require a smalla mount of stored
energy to ridethrough sags. The design of the power supply to the drive controller
should be suchthat the controller stays active at least as long as the power electro-
nics or themotor do not require apermanenttrip. It should not bethat the control-
ler becomes the weak p art of the drive. Figure 5.35 shows the typicalconfiguration
for powering the controller. The capacitanceconnected to the de bus between the
rectifier and theinverter is normally not big enoughto supply themotor load and
the controller during a balancedsag longerthan a few cycles. The power supply to
the controller can beguaranteedin a numberof ways:
• By inhibiting firing of the inverter sothat the motor no longer discharges the de
buscapacitance.The power taken by the controlleris so much smallerthanthe
motor load, that the capacitorcan easily power thecontroller even for long
voltage sags. When the supply voltage recovers,controllerthe can automati-
cally restartthe load.
• Additional capacitancecan be installed on low-voltage side of the de-de
switched mode power supply between the dc bus and control the circuitry.
As this capacitanceonly needs to power thecontroller, a relatively small
amountof capacitanceis needed. Also abatteryblock would do the job.
• Some drives use the rotationalenergy from themotor load to power the con-
trollers during a voltage sag orshortinterruption.This causes small additional
drop in motor speed, smallenoughto be negligible. A special control technique
for the inverter is needed, as well as methodto
a detect the sag[33].
Diode PWM
rectifier inverter ac motor
Figure 5.35 Configurationof the power

supply to the control circuitry in an
adjustable-speed drive.
5.3.5 Current Unbalance
5.3.5.1 Simulations. Unbalanceof the ac voltages not only causes an increased

ripple in the de voltage but also a large
unbalancein ac currents.The unbalancein
currentdependson the typeof sag.Considerfirst a sagof type D, where one voltage
is much lower than the other two. The upperplot in Fig. 5.36 shows the ac side vol-
tages (inabsolutevalue) comparedwith the de bus voltage (solid line near the top)
during one cycle, for a sag of type D with characteristicmagnitudeequal to 50% •
Here it is assumedthat the de bus voltage does
not change at allduring the sag. The
286 Chapter5 • Voltage Sags
-EquipmentBehavior
fo:o/>:' -'> ;::>~,- >: :Jj

oL~'.:-><: . . . . : ' < ;
_~l o~ V0,' I 0:6 0,'
J_~1 0,' A 0:' M : I
_
OJ}01
.
0: ;
_
0.'
.
0,6
.
J~ 'I Figure 5.36 ACsideline voltages (top) and
currents(phase a, b, and c from top to
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 I bottom) for a three-phase unbalanced sag of
Time in cycles type D.
rectifier only deliverscurrent when the ac voltage (inabsolutevalue) is largerthan

the dc voltage . We have assumed that this current is proportional to the difference
between theabsolutevalue of the ac voltage and the de voltage . This results in the
line currentsas shown in the three remainingplots in Fig. 5.36.
The three voltages in the top plot of Fig. 5.36 are the voltage difference between
phase a and phase (dashed),between
b phase b and phase(dash-dot),and
c between
phase c and phase (dotted).The
a first pulse occurs when the voltage between a and c
exceeds the de voltage ( around t = 0.2 cycle). This results in acurrent pulse in the
phases a and c. Around t = 0.3 cycle the voltage between bandc exceeds the dc voltage
leading to acurrent pulse in the phases b andc. The patternrepeatsitself around t =
0.7 cycle andt = 0.8 cycle. Thecurrentsflow in oppositedirection because the ac vol-
tages areopposite now. Whereasat t = 0.2 cycle the voltage between c and a was
negative resulting in acurrent from a to c, the voltage is positive now resulting in a
currentfrom c to a. The voltage between a and b has droppedso muchthat there are no
currentpulses between a and b. This results in two missing pulses per cycle for phase a
as well as for phase b.
Whereas innormal operationthe capacitoris charged 6 times per cycle, this now
only takes place four times per cycle. These four pulses must carry the sameamountof
charge as the original six pulses. The consequenceis that the pulses will be up to 50%
higher in magnitude.
For a type C sag thesituationis even worse, as shown in the top plot of Fig. 5.37.
One line voltage is much higher than the other two, so that only this voltage leads to
current pulses. The resultingcurrent pulses in the three phases are shown in the three
bottom plots of Fig. 5.37.
Due to a sag of type C thenumberof currentpulses is reduced from 6 per cycle to
2 per cycle, leading to up to 200% overcurrent.Note that a large overcurrentwould
alreadyarise for a shallow sag. The momentone or two voltagesdrop below the de bus
voltage, pulses will be missing and the remainingcurrentpulses will have to be higher to
compensatefor this.
5.3.5.2 Measurements.Figures 5.38, 5.39, and 5.40 show measurementso f the

input currents of an adjustable-speeddrive [27], [30]. Figure 5.38 shows theinput
Section 5.3 • Adjustable-Speed AC Dr ives 287
Figure 5.37 AC side volta ge (top ) and

cur rents (ph ase a, b, and c from top to
bottom) for a three-phaseu nbalancedsag of
type C.
300
200
100
./
.5 o
~ l \ \ I
3 - 100
u
-200
-300
o 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Time in seconds
300,--- , -- ....,.----,---r- ---,,--- ,---,
200 l--tHr-+tHl--1---It-Ir--+---+Ht---l
~ 1001-t-ft-t---HUHH---ttH+---'I-Ht+----i
~
.5 0 H-l...--li-'r-,.....--lo+--t""'4--l-o,--+1p.o1--jloo~
~
3 -100 H---t-\-Itti---t1tt-t--HH--+-IHl
o
- 200 JV---t-+HF-t----ftt+-t--\tPJ-- +-ffi
- 300 " -_ ..L-_-'-_ - - ' -_ - - "_ _" - _-'-----'

Figure 5.38 Input cur rent for an ac drive in o 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
normal operation. (Reproduced from Time in seconds
Mans oo r (27).)
currents for the drive under normal operating conditions. Only two currents ar e
shown , the th ird one issimilar to one of the other two. The drive is connectedin
delt a, so that each current pulse shows up in two phases. total
A of four pulses in
each of the threephasesimplies 6 pulsesper cycle chargingthe capacitor. Therewas a
small unbalancein the supply voltage leading to the difference between thecurrent
pulses. We see t hat the magnitudeof the currentpulses is between 200 and 250 A.
400
300
'" 200
~
~
100
.5 o .\
s5 - 100
o
-200
- 3000 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06

Time in seconds
400
300
n n
/\ t\
ru N
i
200
100
.5 o
~ - 100
8 -200
-300
~ lJ\ ~I \~
~ ~ ~ ~ Figure 5.39Input currentfor an ac drive with
-400 voltage unbalance(Reproduced
. from
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Mansoor[27].)
Time in seconds
Figure 5.40Input current for an ac drive during a single-phase fault.

(Reproduced
from Man soor [27).)
Figure 5.39 showsthe samecurrents,for an unbalancein the supply voltage. The

highestvoltagemagnitudewas 3.6% higher than the lowest one. This smallunbalance
alreadyleads to two missing pulses both relatedto the same linevoltage.Thereare now
only four pulsesleft, with a magnitudebetween300 and 350 A, confirming the 500/0
overcurrentpredictedabove.
Figure 5.40 shows the rectifierinput currentfor a single-phasesag at the rectifier
terminals. A measuredsag is reproducedby means of three power amplifiers. As
explainedin Section4.4.4, asingle-phasefault will cause a type D sag on the terminals
of delta-connectedload. The two remainingpulses per cyclea ndthe peakcurrentof 500
to 600 A confirm the 200% overcurrentpredictedabove.
5.3.6 Unbalanced Motor Voltages
The de busvoltageis convertedinto an acvoltageof the requiredmagnitudeand

frequency, by using a voltage-sourceconverter (VSC) with pulse-width modulation.
The principle of PWM can beexplainedthrough Fig. 5.41. A carrier signal Vcr with
. a frequency of typically a few hundred Hertz, is generatedand comparedwith the
referencesignal Vrej (dashedcurve in the upper figure). The referencesignal is the
required motor terminal voltage, with a certain magnitude, frequency, and phase
angle. If the referencesignal is largerthan the carriersignal, theoutput of the inverter
is equal to the positive input signal V+ and the other way around:
Vout = V+, V ref > Vcr

(5.25)
Vout = V_, Vr~f < Vcr
The resulting output voltage Vout is shown in the lower plot of- Fig. 5.41. It can be
shown that the output voltage consistsof a fundamentalfrequency sine wave plus
harmonicsof the switching frequency[43]. The latter can beremovedby a low-pass
filter after which the requiredsinusoidalvoltageremains.If the de busvoltagevaries,
both the positive and the negativeoutput voltage V+ and V_will changeproportion-
ally. These variations will thus appearas an amplitude modulation of the output
voltage. Let the requiredmotor voltagesbe
I
::s
.e 0.5
~
0
S
0-0.5
::>
-I
o~----::-.L..:-----:-~--~-_.L.--_--J
0.6 0.8
1 r- r--
~
.9 0.5
i 0
0-0.5
Figure5.41 Principle of pulse-width ::> .....-.
modulation:carrier signal with reference -1 '-- ~
'----
signal (dashed)in the top figure; the pulse- o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
width modulatedsignal in the bottom figure. Timein cycles
=
Va Vm cos(2rrfmt)
Vb = Vm cos(2rr.fmt- 120°) (5.26)
Vc = Vm cos(2rrfmt+ 120°)
We assumethat the high-frequencyharmonicsdue to the PWM switching are all

removedby the low-passfilter, but that the variationsin dc busvoltagearenot removed
by the filter. The motor voltagesfor a de bus voltage Vdc(t) are the product of the
requiredvoltage and the p.u. dc bus voltage:
Va = Vdc(t) X Vmcos(2rrfmt)
Vb = Vdc(t) X Vmcos(2rrfmt- 120°) (5.27)
Vc = Vdc(t) X Vmcos(2rrfmt+ 120°)
Normally the motor frequencywill not be equalto the systemfrequency,thusthe ripple

in the de voltage is not synchronizedwith the motor voltages.This may lead to un-
balancesand interharmonicsin the motor voltages.
The motor terminal voltageshave beencalculatedfor sagsof type C and 0, for
various characteristicmagnitudesand motor frequencies.A small capacitorwas con-
nectedto the de bus. Figure 5.42showsthe resultsfor a 500/0 sag of type C (see Fig.
5.20) anda motor frequencyequalto the fundamentalf requency.We seethat the motor
terminal voltagesare seriouslydistortedby the ripple in the de busvoltage.One phase
dropsto 75% while anotherremainsat 100%. The de busvoltageis shownas adashed
line in the figure. Figure 5.43 showsthe result for a 50% sag of type 0 and a motor
frequencyof 50 Hz. The effect is similar but lessseverethan for the type C sag.
Figure 5.44 plots the three motor terminal voltages for a motor frequency of
40 Hz and a supply frequency of 50 Hz. The motor frequency is now no longer an
integer fraction of twice the power systemfrequency (the de ripple frequency). But
two periods of the motor frequency (50 ms) correspondto five half-cycles of the
power system frequency. The motor terminal voltage is thus periodic with a period
of 50 ms. This subharmonicis clearly visible in Fig. 5.44.
Figure 5.45 shows the unbalanceof the voltages at the motor terminals, as a
function of the motor speed.The unbalanceis indicatedby showingboth the positive
and the negative-sequence componento f the voltages.The largerthe negative-sequence
component,the larger the unbalance.We seethat the unbalanceis largest for motor
Figure 5.42 Motor terminal voltagedue to a

three-phaseunbalancedsag of type C with a
characteristicmagnitudeof 50%, for a motor
o 234 5 6 frequencyof 50 Hz. The de busvoltageis
Time in cycles shownas adashedcurve for reference.
j 0.5
'0
>
]
.~ 0
B
~ -0.5
~
Figure 5.43 Motor terminal voltage due to a

three-phase unbalanced sag of type D with a
characteristic magnitude of
500/0, for a motor
frequency of 50 Hz. The de bus voltage is o 234 5 6
shown as a dashed curve forreference. Timein cycles
~-: o 2 4 6 8 10
~ -: o 2 4 6 8 10
Figure 5.44 Motor terminal voltages due to a

three-phase unbalanced sag of type C with a
characteristic magnitude of 50%, for a motor
j-: o 2 4 6 8 10
speed of 40 Hz. Time in cycles
0.9 ...------r----~------..---------.
0.8
::s 0.7
Q..
.s 0.6
.t
~
0.5
H0.4
g.0.3
Figure 5.45 Positive- (solid) and negative- rI} 0.2
sequence component (dashed) of the motor
terminal voltages as a function of the motor 0.1
,,'--- .....
speed. A sag of type C with a characteristic °O~---.....::a....:-.;:l-----"""'O---~-~--_--J-_-----J
magnitude of500/0 was applied at the supply 50 100 150 200
terminals of the adjustable-speed drive. Motorfrequencyin Hz
TABLE 5.8 Motor Terminal and DC Bus Voltagesfor AC Drives Due to a

50% Type C Sag
Negative-sequence
Positive-sequence
voltage voltage de busvoltage
max min max avg. rms
Small capacitance 88.88% 83.44% 5.56% 87.38% 87.80%

Large capacitance 98.250/0 96.91% 0.81 % 97.83% 97.84%
speedsaround50 Hz. For low,speed theunbalanceis very small.Note that the voltage
at the supply terminals of the drive (i.e., the type C sag)
contains25% of negative-
sequence and75% of positive-sequence voltage. Even for a small de buscapacitorthe
unbalanceat the motor terminalsis significantly lessthan at the supply terminals.
The resultsof the calculationsare summarizedin Table 5.8. Maximum andmini-
mum positive andnegative-sequence voltageshave beenobtainedas in Fig. 5.45. (The
lowestnegative-sequence voltagewas lessthan0.01% in bothcases.) The average de bus
voltage wasobtainedas in Fig. 5.25; the rmso f the de bus voltage as in Fig. 5.26.
For a
large dc buscapacitor,the ripple in the de busvoltagebecomes very small, so that the
motorterminalvoltagesremainbalanced,no matterhow big theunbalancein the supply.
5.3. 7 Motor Deacceleratlon
Most ac adjustable-speed drives trip on one of thecharacteristicsdiscussed before.

After the tripping of the drive, theinduction motor will simply continueto slow down
until its speed getso ut of the rangeacceptablefor the process. In case the electrical
part
of the drive is able towithstandthe sag, thedrop in systemvoltagewill cause adrop in
voltage at themotor terminals. We will estimatethe motor speed forbalancedand
unbalancedsags. We will use a simplifiedm otor model: the electricalt orqueis propor-
tional to thesquareof the voltage,but independento f the motor speed; themechanical
torque is constant.
5.3.7.1 Balanced Sags.For balancedsags all threephasevoltages drop the

sameamount. We assumethat the voltagesat the motor terminals are equal to the
supply voltages (in p.u.),thus that the sag at themotor terminalsis exactly the same
as the sag at the rectifier terminals. The de buscapacitorwill somewhatdelay the
drop in voltage at the de bus andthus at the motor terminals; but we sawthat this
effect is relatively small. Thevoltage drop at the motor terminals causes adrop in
torque and thus adrop in speed. Thisdrop in speed candisrupt the production
processrequiring an intervention by the processcontrol. The speed of amotor is
governed by the energy balance:
d
dt (12: J w2) = w(Tel - Tm£'ch) (5.28)
where J is the mechanicalmoment of the motor plus the mechanicalload, «o is the

motor speed (inradiansper second),Tel is the electricaltorquesuppliedto the motor,
and Tmech is themechanicall oad torque.The electricaltorque Tel is proportionalto the
squareof the voltage. Weassumethat the motor is runningat steadystatefor a voltage
of I pu, sothat
Tel = V 2 Tmech (5.29)

For V = 1 electricaland mechanicalt orqueare equal.The resultingexpressionfor the
drop in motor speedis
2
d to (V - I) Tmech
(5.30)
dt = J
Introduce the inertia constant H of the motor-load combinationas the ratio of the
kinetic energyand the mechanicaloutput power:
IJw2
H= 2 0 (5.31)
lOo T,nech
with lOo the angularfrequencyat nominal speed;and the slip:
lOo - w
s=--- (5.32)
lOo
Combining(5.31) and (5.32) with (5.30) gives anexpressionfor the rate of changeof
motor slip during a voltagesag (for w ~ wo):
ds I - V 2
dt = ---:uI (5.33)
Thus for a sagof duration ~t and magnitude V the increasein slip is

ds 1 - V2
tls = -tlt
dt
= -2H
-tlt (5.34)
The largerthe inertia constantH, the less theincreasein slip. For processessensitive to
speedvariations,the voltage tolerancecan be improved by addinginertia to the load.
Figure 5.46 showsthe increasein slip as afunction of the sagmagnitudeandduration,
for an inertia constantH = 0.96 sec.N ote that an increasein slip correspondsto a drop
in speed.The increasein slip is given for four different sagdurations,correspondingto
2.5,5,7.5,and 10 cycles in a50Hz system.As expectedthe speed willdrop more for
deeperandfor longersags. But even for zero v oltage(PWM disabled)the drop in speed
is only a fewpercentduring the sag.
If the maximum-allowableslip increase(slip tolerance)is equal to tlsmClx , the
minimum-allowablesag magnitude Vmin for a sagduration T is found from
O.I.------r----~--~----..-------..
0.08
~
fI.)
~ 0.06
S
.S
Q,)
~ 0.04
j
0.02 "
......
...... "
Figure 5.46Increasein motor slip as a
function of the sagmagnitudefor different
sagduration: 50ms(solid curve), lOOms 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
(dashed),150ms(dash-dot),200 ms(dotted). Sag magnitude in pu
vmin. -- J I - 2H f).smax
T (5.35)
A zero voltage, Vmin = 0, can be tolerated for a duration 2H f:1s max' The resulting
voltage-tolerancecurves have beenplotted in Fig. 5.47 for H = 0.96 secand various
valuesof the slip tolerancef:1s max' Theseare thevoltage-tolerancecurvesfor an adjus-
table-speeddrive wherethe drop in speedof the mechanicall oad is the limiting factor.
Note that some of the earlier quoted tolerancesof adjustable-speeddrives are
even abovethe 1% or 2% curves.This is mainly due to thesensitivity of the power-
electronicspart of the drive. Note also that it has beenassumedherethat the drive stays
on-line. Temporary tripping of the drive correspondsto zero voltage at the drive
terminals.This will obviously lead to alarger drop in speed.
5.3.7.2 Unbalanced Sags.The curves in Figs. 5.46and 5.47 have been calcu-
lated assumingthat the voltagesat the motor terminalsform a balancedthree-phase
set. For a balancedsag this will obviously be the case. But as we have seen in the
previous section, for an unbalancedsag themotor terminal voltagesare also rather
balanced.The larger the de buscapacitance,the more balancedthe motor terminal
voltages. The above calculations of the motor slip are still applicable. When the
motor terminal voltage show a serious unbalance, the positive-sequencevoltage
should be used.
The effect of three-phaseunbalancedsags on themotor speed has been calculated
underthe assumptionthat the positive-sequence voltageat themotor terminalsis equal
to the rmsvoltageat the de bus.T his is somewhatan approximation,but we haveseen
that the motor terminalvoltageis only slightly unbalancedeven for a largeunbalancein
the supplyvoltage.This holdsespeciallyfor a drive with a largede buscapacitance.The
de bus rmsvoltageshave been calculatedin the sameway as for Figs. 5.26and 5.30.
Thesewere used tocalculatethe drop in motor speedaccordingto (5.34) and voltage-
tolerancecurveswere obtained,as in Fig. 5.47.T he resultsfor type C sags areshownin
Figs. 5.48, 5.49,and 5.50. Figures 5.48 and 5.49 presentvoltage-tolerancecurvesfor
different values of the maximum drop in speed which theload can tolerate, for no
capacitanceand for a small capacitance,respectively,presentat the de bus.Even the
small capacitorclearly improvesthe drive's voltage tolerance.Below a certaincharac-
teristic magnitudeof the sag, the rms valueo f the de busvoltageremainsconstant.This
100
1%
90
=80
G,) 5%
t
0-
70
]0%
.5 60
G,)
] 50
.~ 40
~
«I
30
C/.)
20
10 Figure 5.47 Voltage-tolerancecurvesfor
adjustable-speeddrives, for three-phase
200 400 600 800 1000 balancedsags, fordifferent valuesof the slip
Sag duration in milliseconds tolerance.
100r----r------r-====::::======::::::::~
90 10/0
... 80 2%
[ 70
5%
.S 60
u
] 50 10%
.~ 40
; 30
~
fIl 20 200/0
10
Figure 5.48 Voltage-tolerancecurves for sag
200 400 600 800 1000
type C, nocapacitanceconnectedto the de
Sag duration inmilliseconds
bus, for different values of the slip tolerance.
... 80
5
e
&
.5 60
i.~ 40
e 1% 2% 5%
~
fIl 20
Figure 5.49 Voltage-tolerancecurvesfor sag

200 400 600 800 1000
type C, smallcapacitanceconnectedto ~he de
Sag duration inmilliseconds
bus, for different values of the slip tolerance.
100----r----.,.------r----=~======l
- - -- --
.;
.:--
,',
:,
:
,I
Figure 5.50 Voltage-tolerancecurves for sag

type C, large (solid line), small(dashed),and
no (dotted)capacitanceconnectedto the de 200 400 600 800 1000
bus. Sag duration inmilliseconds
shows up as a vertical line in Fig. 5.49.Figure 5.50 comparesdrives with large, small,
and no de buscapacitancefor a load with a slip toleranceof 1%. The capacitorsize has
a very significant influence' on the drive
performance.
The largeimprovementin drive performancewith capacitorsize for type C sags is
obviouslyrelatedto the onephaseof the acsupplywhich doesnot drop in voltage.For
a largecapacitance,this phasekeeps up thesupply voltage as if almost nothing hap-
pened.For type D sags, this effect issmaller,as even theleast-affectedphasesdrop in
voltage magnitude.Figure 5.51 shows the influence o f the capacitorsize on thevoltage
tolerancefor type D sags.T he threecurveson the left are for a sliptoleranceof 1%, the
ones on the right for10% slip tolerance.The improvementfor the I % casemight look
marginal,but one shouldrealizethat the majority of deepvoltagesags have aduration
around100 ms. The largecapacitanceincreasesthe voltagetolerancefrom 50 to 95 ms
for a 50% sag magnitude. This could imply a serious reduction in the number of
equipmenttrips.
From Figs. 5.48through5.51 it becomesclear that the effectof unbalancedsags
on themotor speed is small. The best way preventspeedvariationsis
to by using a large
de buscapacitorand by keeping the drive online. The small speedvariations which
would result may becompensatedby a control systemin case theycannotbe tolerated
by the load.
100
,~
.;
+J 80
e
Q)
1%
~
8.
.5 60 /'
.sa /
/ /
.~ 40 ,,
eu I
e I
~ :; I
en 20 :: ," 10%
:, ,
:, ,
:''I Figure 5.51 Voltage-tolerancecurves for sag
o :1 , I I I
type D, for two valuesof the slip tolerance,
o 200 400 600 800 1000 large (solid line), small(dashed),and no
Sag duration in milliseconds (dotted)capacitanceconnectedto the de bus.
5.3.8 Automatic Restart
As we saw before many drivestrip on undervoltage,for a sagof only a few cycles.

This tripping of the drive doeshowevernot always imply aprocessinterruption.What
happensafter the tripping dependson how themotor reactswhen thevoltage comes
back. A good overviewof options is given in [51], which served as a basis for the list
below.
• Some drives simply tripandwait for a manualrestart.This will certainlylead to

a processinterruption.A drive which doesnot automaticallyrecoveraftera trip
looks like aratherbad choice.Howeverthereare cases in which this is the best
option. On onehandthere areprocesseswhich arenot very sensitive to a drive
outage.The standardexampleis a drive used forair-conditioning.An interrup-
tion of the air flow for a fewminutesis seldomany concern.On theothersideof
the spectrumone finds processes which are extremely sensitive to speed varia-
tion. If a very small speedvariation alreadyseverelydisruptsthe process, it is
best tonot restartthe drive. Restartingthe drivecertainlyleads to a speed and
torquetransient,which could makethe situationworse. Safetyconsiderations
could dictatethat a total stoppageis preferableabove anautomaticrestart.
• Some drives wait a few minutesbeforethe automaticrestart.This ensuresthat
the motor load has come to acompletestop. Thecontrol system simplystarts
the motor in the same way it would do for an ormal start. With a delayed
automaticrestart,safety measureshave to betakento ensurethat nobodycan
be injured by the restartof the motor.
• The control system of the drive canapply electrical ormechanicalbraking to
bring the load to a forcedstop, after which a normal restart takes place.
Without specialcontrol measures,it is very hard to restartthe drive success-
fully before it has come to astandstill.Thusforced brakingcan reduce the time
to recovery.The requirementis that the process driven by the drive is able to
toleratethe variationsin speed andtorquedue to braking and reacceleration.
• Most drives are able tostart under full load, which also impliesthat they
should be able to pick up thealready spinning load. The dangerof already
spinningload is that it might still containsomeair-gapflux causingan open-
circuit voltageon themotor terminals.Whenthe drive isrestartedwithout any
synchronizationsevere electricaltransientsare likely to occur due to the resi-
dual flux. The solutionis to delay therestartfor aboutone second to allow this
residual flux to decay. Thisoption will imply that the motor load will be
without poweringfor one or two seconds. In this time the motor speed decays
to a typical valueof 50% of the nominalspeed,dependingon the intertia of the
load. Also at themomentof restartthe inverterfrequency will not beequalto
the motor speed, themechanicaltransientthis causes might not be toleratedby
the process.
• A speedidentification techniquecan be used toensurethat the inverter picks
up the load at the right speed. This reduces mechanical
the transienton restarts
and makesthe motor recoverfaster. Thespeed-identificationprocessshouldbe
able todeterminethe motor speed within a few cycles to enablea fastrestartof
the drive.
• To seriouslylimit the drop in speed and the time to recovery, the drive needs to
restartvery soonafter the voltagerecovers.For this theinvertershouldbe able
to resynchronize.on the residual stator voltages. This requiresextra voltage
sensors,thus increasingthe priceof the drive.
• Insteadof resynchronizingthe drive after the sag, it is possible tomaintain
synchronizationbetween inverter and motor during the sag. This requires a
more complicatedmeasurementand control mechanism.
Figures5.52and 5.53showthe responseof a drive with automaticrestart.In Fig.

5.52 the driverestartssynchronouslywhich leads to adrop in speed well within 10%.
The motor currentdropsto zeroduring the sag. Thisindicatesthat the operationof the
inverter was disabled(by inhibiting the firing of the inverter transistors).The moment
the voltagerecovered,inverteroperationwasenabledleading to the large peak in motor
current.As the air-gapfield in the motor is low and not synchronizedwith the inverter
voltage, it takesanother hundred milliseconds before themotor is actually able to
298 Chapter 5 • VoltageS ags-Equ
ipment Behavior
Motor speed •
. • • •
, ,
. 0- 0 _ . 1.
(445 rpm/div)
, , , . . , . , ,
._----1-------[-------[------r------1-------1-------[-------[-------r------
·..··-j-·.... -l..·.. r·. ·r·..·)'· · . l. . ·.
t···.. ··r....··'j'·..··
.---- . ~ -----_. ~ --_..--r---_•. -l--_ . - - - ~ - - - __ A - ; - -- -- - - ~- --- -_or -------r ---_.-
1 ! 1 1 1 j 1 1 j
, , , I , I , ,
- - - _ . • - _ . - -- - ~ - ---- - - :- - - - - - -~-- __ A - - ~- -_. - - -~ - - - - - - -~ - -- - - - -:- . - - - - -7 --- ---

1 : : ! ! : : !
Motor current
(20 A/div)
Figure 5.52 Drive response with

synchronous
Time (30 cycles or 0.5 seconds/div)
restart.(Reproducedfrom Mansoor[32].)
Motor speed Ai
(445 rpm/div)
orpm '------'-I--'----J_--'-~..i......----' _ _ ' _ _l.._----'-_.J
,
. . .. 4• •I , ..
. _. . . • .
. . ..... _
: ! : ! :
Motor current
(20 A/div) .
--- ~-- - - - -- i - ---· _ · . - - - - - - -~--- _ · - -:.. - ---- ·
.,
! ! ! ! !
! : : : ! Figure 5.53 Drive response with non-
synchronousrestart.(Reproducedfrom
Mansoor[32].)
reaccelerate. If the process driven by the

motor is able towithstandthe variation in
speed or torque, this is a successful throughfrom
ride the process point of view. In Fig.
5.53 we see whathappensduring non-synchronousrestart. It now takesabout one
second before the inverter is enabled, and another 500 ms for themotor to start
reaccelerating. By tha t time them otor speed hasdropped to almost zero. If the
motor is used to power any kind ofproduction process this would almost certainly
not be acceptable . However, if the
motor is used forair-conditioningthe temporary
drop in speed would not be of any concern .
5.3.9 Overview of Mitigation Methods for AC Drives
5.3.9.1 Automatic Restart.The most commonly used mitigation method is to

disable theoperationof the inverter, so that themotor no longer loads the drive.
This prevents damagedue to overcurrents,overvoltages, andtorque oscillations.

After the voltage recovers the drive automaticallyrestarted.The
is disadvantageof
this method is that the motor load slows down morethan needed. When synchro-
nous restartis used thedrop in speed can be somewhatlimited, but non-synchronous
restartleads to very largedrops in speed or evenstandstill of the motor. An impor-
tant requirementfor this type of drive is that the controller remain online.Powering
of the controllersduring the sag can be from the dc bus capacitoror from separate
capacitorsor batteries.Alternatively, one can use the kinetic energy of the mechani-
cal load to power the de buscapacitorduring a sag orinterruption[33], [35], [150].
5.3.9.2 Installing Additional Energy Storage.The voltage-toleranceproblem of

drives is ultimately an energy problem. In manyapplicationsthe motor will slow
down too much tomaintain the process. This can be solved addingadditionalca-
by
pacitorsor a battery block to the de bus. Also the installation of a motor generator
set feeding into the de bus will give the required energy. A large amount·of stored
energy is needed to ensure tolerance againstthree-phasesags andshort interruptions.
For sags due to single-phase and phase-to-phasefaults, which are the mostcommon
ones, only a limitedamount of storedenergy is needed as at least one phase of the
supply voltage remains at a high value. Thisappearsto be the easiest way of improv-
ing the voltagetolerancefor the majority of sags.
5.3.9.3 Improving the Rectifier.The useof a diode rectifier ischeapbut makes

control of the de bus voltage difficult. Themoment the ac voltagemaximum drops
below the de bus voltage, the rectifier stops supplying energy andmotor the is pow-
ered from thecapacitor.Using acontrolled rectifier consistingof thyristors,like used
in de drives, gives some control of the dc bus voltage. When the ac bus voltage drops
the firing angle of thethyristors can be decreased to maintain the de bus voltage.
For unbalancedsags different firing angles are needed for the three phases which
could make thecontrol rather complicated.Additional disadvantagesare that the
control system takes a few cycles to react and that the firing-anglecontrol makes the
drive sensitive tophase-anglejumps.
Anotheroption is to use someadditionalpower electronics todraw more current
from the supplyduring the sag. A kind of power electronic currentsource isinstalled
between the diode rectifier and the dc bus capacitor.This currentcan becontrolledin
such a waythat it keeps the voltage at the de bus constantduring a voltage sag [150],
[151].
By using a rectifier consisting of
self-commutatingdevices (e.g.,IGBTs), complete
control of the dc voltage is possible. Algorithms have beenproposedto keep the de
voltage constantfor any unbalance,drop, or change in phase angle in the ac voltages
[44], [45],[46]. An additionaladvantageis that theseIGBT inverters enable a sinusoidal
input current,solving a lot of theharmonicproblems caused by adjustable-speeddrives.
The main limitation of all thesemethodsis that they have aminimum operating
voltage and willcertainly not operatefor an interruption.
5.3.9.4 Improving the Inverter. Instead ofcontrolling the de bus voltage, it is

also possible tocontrol the motor terminal voltage.Normally the speedcontroller as-
sumes aconstantde bus voltage and calculates the switching instantsof the inverter
from this. We saw earlierthat the effect of this isthat the de bus voltage is
amplitude
modulatedon the desiredmotor terminal voltages. This effect can be compensated
by consideringthe dc busvoltage in the algorithms used to calculatethe switching

instants.For this (5.25)should be revised as follows,w ith Vdc the de busvoltage:
Vre;f V
Vout = V+, -V > er
de
(5.36)
Vref V
- < cr
Vde
This in effectincreasesthe referencevoltagewhen the de busvoltagedrops(insteadof
pulse-widthmodulationthis resultsin a kind of "pulse-areamodulation"). The draw-
back of this method is that it will result in additional harmonicdistortion, especially
when the drive isoperatedclose tonominal speed.Again this methodhas aminimum
voltage below which it will no longer work properly.
5.4 ADJUSTABLE-SPEED DC DRIVES
DC drives havetraditionally been much better suited for adjustable-speedo peration

than ac drives.The speedof ac motors is, in first approximation,proportionalto the
frequencyof the voltage. The speedof dc motors is proportionalto the magnitudeof
the voltage. Voltage magnitudeis much easierto vary than frequency.Only with the
introductionof power transistorshavevariable-frequencyinvertersand thus ac adjus-
table-speeddrives becomefeasible. In thissectionwe will discuss someaspectsof the
behaviorof dc drives during voltage sags.Modern de drives come in many different
configurations,with different protectionandcontrol strategies.A discussionof all these
is well beyondthe scopeof this book. The behaviordescribedbelow doesnot coverall
types of de drivesand should be viewed as anexampleof the kind of phenomenathat
occur when avoltagesag appearsat the terminalsof a de drive.
5.4.1 Operation of DC Drives
5.4.1.1 Configuration. A typical configurationof a de drive ispresentedin Fig.

5.54. The armaturewinding, which usesmost of the power, is fed via a three-phase
controlled rectifier. The armaturevoltage is controlled through the firing angle of the
thyristors. The more the delay in firing angle, thelower the armaturevoltage. There
is normally no capacitorconnectedto the de bus.The torque produced by the de
motor is determinedby the armaturecurrent, which shows almost no ripple due to
-----------,
Firing
angle
,--_--J<.---.,. Armature Control
ae system
de
Figure 5.54 Modern de drive with separately

excited armatureand field winding.
Section 5.4 • Adjustable-SpeedDC Drives 301
the largeinductanceof the armaturewinding. The field winding takes only a small
amountof power; thus a single-phase rectifier is sufficient. The field winding is pow-
ered from oneof the phase-to-phase voltagesof the supply. In case field-weakening
is used to extend the speed range of the dc motor, a controlled single-phase rectifier
is needed. Otherwise a simple diode rectifier is sufficient. To limit the field
current,a
resistance is placed in series with the field winding. The resulting field circuit is there-
fore mainly resistive, sothat voltage fluctuations result in current fluctuations and
thus in torque fluctuations. A capacitor is used to limit the voltage (andtorque)
ripple. To limit thesetorque fluctuations a capacitor is used like the one used to
limit the voltage ripple in single-phase rectifiers.
5.4.1.2 DC Motor Speed Control.The standardequivalent circuit for a dc

motor is shown in Fig. 5.55. This circuit can only be used for normal operation,
because it only considers the componentof
de voltages andcurrents.A model includ-
ing the inductanceof the windings will be discussed further on.
The voltage Vf over the field winding causes current
a If accordingto
(5.37)
where Rt is the resistance in the field circuit (the resistance of the winding plus any
external series resistance). This field
currentcreates theair-gapfield
(5.38)
which rotateswith a speedWm thus inducing a voltage F., the so-called

"back-EMF" in
the armaturewinding:
E = kwmIf (5.39)
a rmaturecurrent fa:
This induced voltage limits the
Va = E+Rafa (5.40)
where Va is the voltage over the

a rmaturewinding andRa the resistanceo f the armature
winding. Field currentand armaturecurrenttogetherproducea torque
(5.41)
which accelerates the m otor up to the speed at which m otor torque and load torque
balance.
The designof the motor is typically suchthat the armatureresistance is low and
the field resistance relatively high. Neglecting the
armatureresistance gives the follow-
ing expression for thearmaturevoltage:
(5.42)
Figure 5.55Equivalent scheme for dc

m otor
during normaloperation.
Rewriting this, and using field voltage as an independentvariable, gives the basic
expressionfor the speedcontrol of dc motors:
(5.43)
The speedof a dc motor is increasedby increasingthe armaturevoltageor by decreas-

ing the field voltage. Speedcontrol of a de drive takesplace in two ranges:
1. Armature voltage control range. The field voltage is kept at its maximum
value and the speedis controlled by the armaturevoltage. This is the pre-
ferred range. The field current is high, thus the armaturecurrent has its
minimum value for a given torque. This limits the armaturelossesand the
wear on the brushes.
2. Field weakeningrange. Above a certain value the armaturevoltage can no
longer be increased.It is kept constantand the speed isfurther increasedby
reducing the field voltage. As there is a maximum value for the armature
current, the maximum torque decreaseswith increasingspeed.
5.4.1.3 Firing-Angle Control. The de componentof the output voltage of a

thyristor rectifier is varied by meansof firing-angle control. The firing angle deter-
mines during which part of the cycle the rectifier conducts,and thus the averageout-
put voltage. The output voltage of a non-controlledthree-phaserectifier was shown
•
in Fig. 5.19 in Section5.3. A diode startsconductingthe momentits forward voltage
becomespositive; a thyristor conductsonly when the forward voltage is positive and
a pulse isapplied to its gate. By firing the thyristor at the instant a diode would start
conducting,the output voltage of a controlled rectifier is the sameas that of a non-
controlled one. This is called free-firing. The firing angle of a thyristor is the delay
comparedto the free-firing point. Figure 5.56 shows the output voltage of a three-
phasethyristor rectifier with a firing angle of 50°. For a controlled rectifier the de
bus voltage still consistsof six pulsesbut shifted comparedto the output voltage of
a non-controlledrectifier. As the conductionperiod is shifted away from the voltage
maximum, the averagevoltage becomeslower.
0.8
a
.5
~0.6
~
] 0.4
U
c
Figure 5.56 Output voltageof controlled
rectifier with a firing angleof 50°. No
capacitanceis connectedto the de bus. Note
100 150 200 250 300 350 the differencein vertical scalecomparedto
Time in degrees Fig. 5.19.
A firing angle a delaysconductionover a period 2Jr x T, with T one cycleof the

fundamentalfrequency.The averageoutputvoltage(i.e., the dccomponent)for a firing
angle a is
(5.44)
with Vmax the outputvoltageof a non-controlledrectifier. The voltagealso containsan

alternatingcomponent,with' a frequency of six times the power system frequency:
300 Hz in a 50 Hzsystem;360 Hz in a 60 Hz system.This voltagecomponentwill not
lead tolargefluctuationsin the currentand in torquedue to the largeinductanceof the
armature'winding.
The firing of the thyristorstakesplaceat acertainpoint of the supplyvoltagesine
wave. For this the control systemneedsinformation about the supply voltage. There
are different methodsof obtainingthe correctfiring instant:
I. The thyristorsare fired with acertaindelay comparedto the zero-crossingof

the actualsupply voltage. In normal operationthe threevoltagesare shifted
1200 comparedto eachother. Therefore,the zero-crossingof one voltageis
used as areferenceand all firing instantsare obtainedfrom this reference
point. This method of control is extremely sensitive to distortion of the
supply voltage.Any changein zero-crossingwould lead to achangein firing
angle and thus to a changein armaturevoltage. The problem is especially
seriousas thyristor rectifiers are themain sourceof notching, creatinglarge
distortion of the supplyvoltagesine wave [53], [55]. Onecould end up with a
situation where the drive isnot immune to its own emission.
2. The output voltage of a phase-lockedloop (PLL) is used as areference.A
phase-lockedloop generatesan output signal exactly in phasewith the fun-
damentalcomponentof the input signal. The referencesignal is no longer
sensitiveto short-time variationsin the supply voltage. This slow response
will turn out to be aseriouspotentialproblemduring voltage. sagsassociated
with phase-anglejumps.
3. A more sophisticatedsolution is to analyzethe voltage in the so-calledsyn-
chronouslyrotating dq-frame. In the forwardly rotating frame the voltage
consists of a dc componentproportional to the positive-sequencesupply
voltageanda componentw ith twice the fundamentalfrequencyproportional
to the negative-sequence supplyvoltage.In the backwardlyrotatingframethe
dc componentis proportionalto the negative-sequence voltage.Using a low-
passfilter will give complexpositive and negative-sequence voltageand thus
all required information about the systemvoltages.The choice of the low-
pass filter's cut-off frequency is again a compromisebetween speed and
sensitivity to disturbances[152], [153].
5.4.2 Balanced Sags
A balancedvoltage sag leads to arathercomplicated.t ransientin the demotor,

with a new steadystateat the samespeed as theoriginal one. The new steadystatewill,
however,rarely be reached.Most existing drives will trip long before, mainly through
the interventionof somekind of protectionin the powerelectronicconverters.But even
if the drive doesnot trip, the voltagesag will typically be over well within one second.
The new steadystatewill only be reachedfor long shallow sags.
According to (5.43), themotor speed isproportional to the ratio of armature

voltage and field voltage. The voltage sag in all three phases makes
that armatureand
field voltagedrop the sameamount;the speedshouldthus remain the same. The model
behind (5.43), however, neglects thetransient effects, which are mainly due to the
inductanceof the motor winding and theinertia of the load. A model of the dc
La and Lf
motor, which is valid for transientsas well, is shown in Fig. 5.57, where
are theinductanceof armatureand field winding, respectively.
5.4.2.1 Theoretical Analysis.The qualitative behavior of the motor can be

summarizedas follows, where it is assumedt hat neither thecontrol system nor the
protectionintervenes.
• Becauseof the voltage sag, the voltage on ac side of the field-winding rectifier
will drop. This will lead to a decay in fieldcurrent. The speedof decay is
determinedby the amountof energystoredin the inductanceand in thecapa-
citance. Typically thecapacitorwill give the dominanttime constantso that the
decay in fieldcurrentcan be expressed as follows:
(5.45)
where If o is the initial currentand r is the timeconstantof the decay in field

current.The fieldcurrentwill not decay to zero, as suggested by (5.45), but the
decay will stop the momentthe field voltage reaches the ac voltageamplitude
again. For a voltagedrop of 20% the fieldcurrentwill also drop 20%. This is a
similar situationas discussed in Section 5.2. Theonly difference isthat the load
is a constantimpedanceinsteadof constantpower. For small dc voltage ripple
it may take 10 cycles or more for the capacitorvoltage, and thus for the field
current, to decay.Note that the ripple in the fieldcurrent directly translates
into a torqueripple. As thelatter is often not acceptable,a largecapacitanceis
generally used. Some drives useconstant-voltage
a transformerto supply the
field windings. The effect is againthat the fieldcurrentdropsslowly.
• The voltage sag leads to a direct drop in armaturevoltage, which leads to a
decay inarmaturecurrent.The decay issomewhatdifferent from the decay in
field current. The armaturecurrent is driven by the difference between the
armaturevoltage and theinducedback-EMF. As this difference isnormally
only a few percent,the changein armaturecurrent can be very large. The
current quickly becomes zero, but not negative because the rectifier blocks
that. From Fig. 5.57 weobtain the following differential equation for the
armaturecurrent I a :
(5.46)
Figure 5.57 Equivalentcircuit for a dc motor

during transients.
Section 5.4 • Adjustable-Speed DC Drives 305
The solution, with /0 the armaturecurrentat time zero, is
Ia=
Va -E (l Va - E)
n, + 0 - n, e
_L
f (5.47)
1-.
where Vais the armaturevoltageduring the sag, andT = As we saw before,
the field current remains close to itspre-eventvalue for aDt least a few cycles.
Because themotor speed doesnot immediatelydrop, the back-emfE remains
the same. The effect of a drop in armaturevoltage is thusthatthe currentdrops
toward a large negative value (Va - E)I Ra.
We will estimatehow fast thearmaturecurrentreaches zero by

a pproximating
(5.47) for t « T. Using e-f ~ 1 - ~ gives
E-V
t, ~ 10 - L at (5.48)
a
The pre-sagsteady-statecurrent /0 may beobtainedfrom

l-E
/0=-- (5.49)
Ra
where thesteady-statearmaturevoltage is chosenequal to 1pu. The time for
the currentto reach zero is, in cycles
of the fundamentalfrequency:
t
1 (X
a)
= 21l' Ra 1 - V
1- E (5.50)
whereX a is thearmaturereactanceat thefundamentalfrequency.For X a/ R a =

31.4 and 1 - E = 0.05 we obtain
t = 10.25 I
_ V (eye es) (5.51 )
For a sag down to75% the currentdropsto zero in one cycle; for a90% sag it
takes 2.5 cycles which is still very fast.T hus for the majority of sags thearma-
ture currentand thetorquewill drop to zero within a few cycles.
• The drop in armatureand in field current leads to adrop in torque which

causes adrop in speed. Thedrop in speed and the d rop in field currentcause a
reductionin back-EMF.
II Sooneror later theback-EMFwill become smallerthan the armaturevoltage,
reversing thedrop in armaturecurrent. Because speed as well as field current

havedroppedthe newarmaturecurrentis higher than the pre-eventvalue.
• The more the speed drops,the more theback-EMFdrops,the more thearma-
ture current increases, the more thetorque increases. Inother words, the dc
motor has abuilt-in speedcontrol mechanismvia the back-EMF.
• The torquebecomes higherthan the load torque and the load reaccelerates.
• The load stabilizes at theoriginal speed andtorque, but for a lower field
current and a higherarmaturecurrent. The drop in field current equals the
drop in voltage; thearmaturecurrent increases asm uch as the fieldcurrent
drops, because their product(the torque) remainsconstant.
-EquipmentBehavior
5.4.2.2 Simulationof Balanced Sags. Some simulations have beenperformed

to quantify the behavior described above. The results are shown in Figs. 5.58
through 5.61. The simulated drive was configured as shown in Fig. 5.54, with a
three-phaserectifier to power the armaturewinding and a single-phaserectifier for
the field winding. The drive was operating at nominal speed ,thus with zero firing
angle for the rectifiers. In thissystemthe time constantwas 100 ms,both for the ar-
maturewinding and for the field wind ing . Asupply voltage of 660 V was used result-
ing in a pre-sagmotor power of 10 kW and a speed of 500 rpm The . moment of
inertia of the load driven by themotor was 3.65 kgm/s" ,T he load torque was pro-
portional to the speed.The simulations were performed by solving the differential
equations with a step-by-stepapproximation[154]. The voltage dropped to 80% in
all three phasesduring 500 ms (30 cycles).T he plots show two cyclespre-sag,30 cy-
cles during-sag,and 88 cyclespost-sag.
The armaturecurrentis shownin Fig . 5.58.The armaturecurrentdropsto zero in
a veryshorttime due to thephenomenondescribedbefore. As a directconsequence the
torque becomes zero also , as shown in Fig . 5.60. This inturn leads to a fastd rop in
speed, asshown in Fig. 5.61. After a few cycles the fieldcurrent (Fig . 5.59) and the
speed havedroppedsufficiently for the back-EMF to becomelower that the armature
2.5
50 2
.5
~::l 1.5
o
e
a
! 0.5
0.5 1.5 2
Figure 5.S8 DCmotor armaturecurrent
dur ing balanced sag.
~
t:: 0.6
::l
o
.",
~ 0.4
0.2
0.5 I
-~~2 1.5 Figure 5.59 DCmotor field current during
Time in seconds
balanced sag.
2.5
0.5
Figure 5.60 Torqueproducedby de motor 0.5 1 1.5 2

during balancedsag. Time in seconds
1.15
1.1
a
.S 1.05
1
....
~ 0.95
~
0.9
0.85
0.8
Figure 5.61 Speedof de motor during 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
balancedsag. Time in seconds
voltage. From this momenton thearmaturecurrentand thetorquerecover and a few

hundredmillisecondslater even exceed their pre-sag value. The result that
is the motor
picks up speed again.
Upon voltage recovery,a round t = 0.5 in the figures, the opposite effect occurs.
The armaturevoltage becomes much larger than the back-EMF leading to a large
overcurrent,a large torque, and even a significant overspeed. The post-sag transient
is overafteraboutone second. Notethat the simulated behavior was due to a sag down
to 80% , a rather shallow sag. Due to the fastdrop in armaturecurrent even such a
shallow sag willalreadylead to a serioustransientin torqueand speed.
5.4.2.3 Interventionby the Control System. The control system of a de drive

can control a numberof parameters:a rmaturevoltage, armaturecurrent, torque, or
speed. In case the control system is able to keep armatureand field voltageconstant,
the drive will not experience the sag. However, the control system will typically take
a few cycles to react, sot hat the motor will still experience the fastd rop in armature
current.The useof such acontrol system may also lead to an even more severe tran-
sient at voltage recovery. The a rmaturevoltage will suddenly become much higher
than the back-emfleading to a very fast rise inarmaturecurrent, torque, and speed.
If the motor aims at keeping themotor speedconstant,the drop in speed (as shown
in Fig. 5.61) will be counteractedthrough a decrease in firing angle of the
thyristor
rectifier. For a deep sag the firing angle will quickly reach its minimum value.
Further compensationof the drop in armaturevoltage would requirecontrol of the
field voltage. But as we saw above, the field voltage is kept
intentionally constantso
that control is difficult.
5.4.2.4 Intervention by the Protection.The typical reason for thetripping of a

dc drive during a voltagesag isthat one of the settingsof the protectionis exceeded.
As shown in Figs. 5.58through 5.61, voltage,current,speed, andtorqueexperience a
large transient.The protectioncould trip on anyof theseparameters,but more often
than not, the protectionsimply trips on de busundervoltage.
DC drives areoften used for processes in which very precise speedpositioning
and
are required,e.g., in robotics. Even smalldeviationsin speedcannotbe toleratedin
such a case. We saw beforethat the motor torquedropsvery fast, even for shallow sags,
so that the drop in speed will become more severe than for an ac drive. A shallow sag
will alreadyhave the same effect on a de drive as a zero voltage on an ac drive:bothin
cases thetorqueproducedby the motor dropsto zero.
5.4.3 Unbalanced Sags
One of the effectsof unbalancedsags on dc drives isthat armatureand field

voltage do not drop the sameamount. The armaturevoltage is obtained from a
three-phaserectifier, the field voltage from a single-phase rectifier. During an unba-
lanced sag, thesingle-phaserectifier is likely to give adifferent outputvoltage than the
three-phaserectifier. If the field voltagedropsmore than the armaturevoltage, the new
steady-statespeedcould be higher than the original speed. However, initiallyboth
armature and field current decrease, leading to a decrease torque in and thus in
speed. The slowest speed recovery takes place when thevoltageremainsconstant.
field
The back-EMFonly startsto drop when themotor slows down. Thearmaturecurrent
will remain zerolonger when the field voltage stays constant.
• If the field voltage drops more than the armaturevoltage, theback-emfwill

quickly be lessthan the armaturevoltage, leading to an increase armature
in
current. Also the newsteady-statespeed is higherthan the pre-eventspeed.
Overcurrentin the armaturewinding and overspeed are the main risk.
• If the field voltagedropslessthan the armaturevoltage, thearmaturecurrent's
decay will only be limited bythe drop in motor speed. It will take a long time
before themotor torquerecovers. As the new steady-statespeed is lowert han
the pre-eventspeed,underspeedbecomes the main risk.
Simulationshave beenperformedfor the same driveconfigurationas before. But

insteadof a balancedsag, anumberof unbalancedsags were applied to the drive. The
results of two sagso f type D and one sag of type C are shown here. All three sags had a
durationof 10 cycles, acharacteristicmagnitudeof 50%, and zerocharacteristicphase-
anglejump. Note that in this case the sag type refers to the
line-to-linevoltages, not the
the line-to-neutralvoltage. The rectifier isdelta-connected;thus the line-to-line voltages
more directly influence the drivebehavior.
• SAGI: a sag of type 0 with the large voltagedrop in the phasefrom which the
field winding is powered.The field voltagethus drops to 50%. The results for
sag I are shown in Figs. 5.62 through 5.65.
• SAGII: a sagof type 0 with a small voltagedrop in the phasefrom which the
field winding is powered,making the field voltage drop to about 90%. The
results for sag11 are shownin Figs. 5.66through 5.69.
• SAGIll: a sagof type C with the field windingpoweredfrom the phasewithout
voltage drop. The field voltage thus remains at 100%. The resultsfor sag III
are similar to those for sag11 and thereforenot reproducedin detail.
All plots show two cycles before the sag, 10 cyclesduring the sag, and 48 cycles
afterthe sag.F romthe figures we can seethat a deep sag in the field
voltage(sag I) causes
a highovershootin the armaturecurrent(Fig . 5.63), in thetorque(Fig. 5.64),andin the
speed (Fig. 5.65).For a shallowsag in the fieldvoltage(sag11) the armaturecurrentand
torqueare zero for a long time, but with smallerovershoot(Figs
a . 5.67 and 5.68); the
speed shows a large drop but only a smallovershoot(Fig . 5.69).Note the ripple in the
armaturecurrentduring the sag. Theunbalancein the acvoltageleads to a muchlarger
,
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Figure 5.62 Fieldcurrentfor sag type D, with
Time in seconds
largedrop in field voltage.
Figure 5.63Armaturecurrentfor sag type D, 0.8

with large drop in field voltage.
310 Chapter 5 • Voltage Sags
-Equipment Behavior
4
;>
"'-
.S
., 3
e-
B
...
B 2
0
::E
0.8 Figure 5.64Motor torque for sag type D,

with large drop in field voltage.
1.3 ~-- ---,---,--~--~---,
1.25
1.2
5.
.S 1.15
1l
~ 1.1
~ 1.05
::E
0.95
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Figure 5.65Motor speed for sag type D, with
Time in seconds
large drop in field voltage.
;>
c, 0.8
.S
C
50.6
o
'"
"0
u: 0.4
0.2
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Figure 5.66 Fieldcurrentfor sag type D, with
Time in seco nds
smal1 drop in field voltage.
5 c----~----.---_--~-----,
0.4 0.6 0.8

Figure 5.67 Armaturecurrentfor sag type D,
Time in seconds
with small drop in field voltage .
4
::l
0.
.5
<Ll 3
::l
go
B
....
2
~
~
0.4 0.6 0.8

Figure 5.68 Motor torque for sag type D, Time in seconds
with small drop in field voltage .
1.15
1.1
5.
.5 1.05
1 ....
J -
~ 0.95
~
0.9
0.85
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Figure 5.69 Motor speed for sag type D, with Time in seconds
small drop in field voltage .
ripple in armaturevoltage than during normal operation.This ripple disappearsupon

voltagerecovery and is alsonot presentduring a balancedsag (Fig. 5.58).
The maximumand minimum values forcurrent,torque, and speed are shown in
Table 5.9. All values are given as percentage
a of the averagepre-eventvalue.Tripping
of the drive can be due to undervoltageor overcurrent.The undervoltageis similar for
the three sags; thus sag I is the most severe one for the electricalpart of the drive
becauseof the largearmaturecurrent. The mechanicalprocess can, however, get dis-
rupted due to torque variations and variations in speed.For a process sensitive to
underspeed,sags II and III aremostsevere; for a process sensitivetorquevariations,
to
sag I is themostsevere one. The main conclusionis that unbalancedsagsrequiretesting
for all phases; it ishardto predictbeforehandwhich sag will be most severe to the drive.
TABLE 5.9 DC Drive PerformanceDuring UnbalancedSags inDifferent

Phases
Field Current ArmatureCurrent Motor Torque Motor Speed
Sag Type FieldVoltage min max min max min max min max
I D 50% 59% 100% 0 460% 0 367% 93% 124%

II D 90% 900AJ 100% 0 264% 0 256% 85% 107%
III C 100% 100% 100% 0 229% 0 229% 85% 114%
5.4.4 Phase-Angle Jumps
Phase-anglejumps affect the angle at which the thyristors are fired. The firing
instantis normally determinedfrom the phase-lockedloop (PLL) output, which takes
at least several cycles to react to the
phase-anglejump.
A calculatedstepresponseof a conventionaldigital phase-lockedloop to a phase-
angle jump is shown by Wang [57]. His results arereproducedin Fig. 5.70, where we
can seethat it takesabout400 ms for thePLL to recover. Theerror gets smallerthan
10% after about250 ms, which is still longerthan the durationof most sags. Thus for
our initial analysiswe can assumethat the firing instantsremain fixed to thepre-event
voltage zero-crossings.W ith additional measures it is possible to m ake PLLs which
respondfaster tophase-anglejumps, but those will be more sensitive to harmonicsand
other high-frequencydisturbances.
We can reasonablyassumethat the phase-locked-loopoutput does not change
during the sag.The effect of the phase-anglejump is that the actual voltage is shifted
0.....--....----------------.
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1 ......-------I
~
-1.2 Figure 5.70 Stepresponseof a conventional

o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 digital phase-lockedloop. (Reproducedfrom
Time (sec) Wang[57].)
Firing
I
I
::s 0.8
0.. PLLoutput ,/ '" ,Supplyvoltage
.S I
I ,
~0.6
\
I
\
I
S I
\
,
15 I
I
\
;> 0.4 I
\
\
I
\
t
\
I
\
I
\
0.2 I
I
\
\
I
\
I
\
I
\
Figure 5.71 Influenceofphase-lockedloop o 50 100 150 200 250

on firing angle. Timeindegrees
Actual firing Intendedfiring
::s 0.8
e,
.S
~ 0.6
~
;> 0.4
0.2
Figure 5.72Influenceof phase-locked loop 0"----.A---a..---..4.-~-~-..L-----'--J
on firing angle: with actual voltage as a o 50 100 150 200

Timeindegrees
reference.
comparedto the reference voltage. Because of this thyristors

the are fired at a wrong
point of the supply-voltagesine wave. This is shown in Fig. 5.71 for a negative phase-
anglejump. The during-sagvoltage lags the pre-sag voltage; thus the zero-crossing of
the actualsupply voltage comes later than the zero crossingo f the PLL output. In Fig.
5.72 the sine waveo f the actualvoltage is used as a reference: due to the negative phase-
anglejump t!¢, the thyristorsare fired at an anglet!¢ earlier than intended.
5.4.4.1 Balanced Sags.For balanced sags the phase-angle jump is equal in the
three phases; thus the shift in firing angle is the same for all three voltages.
If the
shift is lessthan the intendedfiring-angle delay, theoutput voltage of the rectifier
will be higher than it would be without phase-anglejump. This assumesthat the
phase-anglejump is negative, which isnormally the case. A negativephase-angle
jump will thus somewhatcompensatethe drop in voltage due to the sag. For a posi-
tive phase-anglejump the output voltage would be reduced and the phase-anglejump
would aggravatethe effects of the sag.
For a firing angle equal toa the pre-sagarmaturevoltage equals
Va = cos(a) (5.52)
120,------r--
110
=
~ 100
8- 70 degrees
.5 90
~
S
~ 80
:g
~ 70
o
60
30 degrees
Figure5.73 Influenceof phase-anglejump on
5 10 15 20 25 30 the armaturevoltage,for different firing
Phase-anglejump in degrees
angles.
The voltage is rated to thearmaturevoltage for zero firing angle.For a sag with
magnitude V (in pu) and phase-anglejump !:14>, the during-eventarmaturevoltageis
V~ = V x cos(a - /j.l/J) (5.53)
The phase-anglejump is assumednegative, /j.(j> is its absolutevalue. The ratio between

V~ and Va is the relativemagnitudeof the sag in thearmaturevoltage.This isplottedin
Fig. 5.73 for firing-angle delayso f 30°, 50°, and 70°. Aduring-eventmagnitude V of
500~ has beenassumed,and the phase-anglejump is varied between zero and 30°.
According to Fig. 4.86 this is the range one can expect for50% a sag. For large
firing-angle delays thearmaturevoltageis low; thusa jump in phase-anglecan increase
the voltagesignificantly. For a 70° firing-angle delayandphase-anglejumpsof 20° and
higher theduring-eventvoltageis evenhigher than the pre-eventvoltage.Whetherthis
actually makesthe sag less severe dependson the behaviorof the fieldvoltage.When a
diode rectifier is used topowerthe field winding, the fieldvoltagewill not be influenced
by the phase-anglejump. The consequenceof the phase-anglejump is that the field
voltagedropsmorethanthe armaturevoltage,similar to sag Idiscussedin the previous
section. This can lead to large overcurrentsin the armaturewinding and to overspeed.
When a controlled rectifier is used there is a risk of missing pulses which would make
the field voltagemuch lowerthan the armaturevoltage.
If the shift is largerthan the intendedfiring-angle delay, theactualfiring will take
place before the free-firingpoint. As the forward voltage over the thyristors is still
negative it will not commenceconducting.How seriousthis effect isdependson the
durationof the firing pulse. The use o f a shortpulse will makethe drivemoresensitive.
Note that eitherthe armatureor the field rectifier isoperatedat its maximumvoltageso
that at least one of them always will be proneto missing pulses.
5.4.4.2 UnbalancedSags. For unbalancedsags thesituation becomes rather

complicated. In most cases thedifferent phases showpositive as well as negative
phase-anglejumps. Thus for some phasesthe phase-anglejump can be animprove-
ment, for othersnot. Somephasesmight miss their firing pulses,o thersnot. The ar-
mature winding might be influenceddifferently from the field current as wealready
saw before.
1.1r-------.---~----
& 0.9
.~ 0.8
co
11o0.7
>
] 0.6
~ 0.5
0.4
Figure 5.74 DCvoltage for sag type D, with 0.5 1 1.5 2

rectifier operatingat 10° firing angle. Time in cycles
1.1....----..,-----r------r------,
=' 0.9
Q.
.9
4)
08
•
co
~ 0.7
>
.8 0.6
g 0.5
0.4
Figure 5.75 DCvoltage for sag typeC, with 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time in cycles
rectifier operatingat 10° firing angle.
Figures5.74 and 5.75 show the dc bus voltagebeforeandduring a voltage sag, in

case the rectifier isoperatedat a firing angleof 10°. Figure 5.74 shows the effect
of a
type D sagof 50% magnitude.As all three voltages go down in m agnitudethe max-
imum de voltage alsodrops. The two voltage pulses belonging to the least-affected
phases come very close after each other. In the phasor diagram they move away
from eachother, so that the voltagemaxima of the rectified voltage come closer. The
consequence is that the commutationbetween these two phases takes place natural
at a
commutationpoint. The firing of the thyristor has taken place already before that
momentin time. Thereis thus a risk for a missing pulse which would even more distort
the de bus voltage.Figure 5.75 shows the effectof a type C sagof 50% magnitude.
5.4.5 Commutation Failures
The momenta thyristor is fired andforwardly biased, itstartsconducting.But the

currentthroughthe conductordoesnot immediatelyreach its full value because of the
inductive nature of the source.Considerthe situation shown in Fig. 5.76, where the
L
+
Figure 5.76 Origin ofcommutationdelay.
currentcommutatesfrom phase1 to phase2. The driving voltagesin these twophases

are shifted by 1200 :
(5.54)
(5.55)
At time zero the two driving voltagesare the same,thus the line-to-line voltageis zero,
which correspondsto the free-firing point. For a firing-delay anglea, thyristor 2 is fired
at lJJot = a. This is the moment the current through thyristor I startsto rise and the
currentthrough thyristor 2 startsto decay.The changein currentis describedthrough
the following differential equation (note that both thyristors conduct, thus the two
phasesare shorted):
di, di 2
Vt(t) - L
di + L di = V2(t) (5.56)
with L the sourceinductance.We can assumethe armaturecurrent Ide to be constant;

thus the changesin i} and i 2 compensateeachother:
di 1 + di2
dt dt
=0 (5.57)
after which i 2 can be obtainedfrom the differential equation:
di2 J3v sin(wot) (5.58)

di= 2L
with the following solution:
;2(t) = ~~ [cos(a) - cos(eoot)],

a
t>-
Wo
(5.59)
Commutation is complete and thyristor 1 ceases to conduct when i2(t) = Ide.

Commutationtakeslonger for smaller valuesof V, thus during voltage sags,and for
a firing-delay anglea closerto 1800 , thus for the drive beingin regenerativemode.The
maximumcurrent the supply voltage is able to cummutateis found from (5.59) as
J3v
I max = 2eoo (l + cosa) (5.60)
L
If this is lessthan the actual armaturecurrent, a commutationfailure occurs:both

thyristors will continueto conduct,leading to aphase-to-phase fault. This will cause
blowing of fuses ordamageof the thyristors.The risk ofcommutationfailure isfurther
increased by the increased armaturecurrentduring and after the sag.
A negativephase-angle j ump reduces theactualfiring angle, thus lowering the risk
of commutationfailure. A positive phase-anglejump makes acommutationfailure
more likely. Unbalancedfaults cause acombinationof positive and negative phase-
anglejumps, thus increasingthe risk in at least one phase.
5.4.8 Overview of Mitigation Methods for DC Drives
Making de drivestolerant againstvoltage sags is more complicatedthan for ac

drives. Threepotentialsolutions,to be discussed below, are
addingcapacitanceto the
armaturewinding, improvedcontrol system, andself-commutatingrectifiers.
5.4.6.1ArmatureCapacitance. Installing capacitanceto the armaturewinding,

on dc side of thethree-phaserectifier, makesthat the armaturevoltage no longer
drops instantaneouslyupon sag initiation. Insteadthe armaturevoltage decays in a
similar way to the field voltage. Toobtain a large timeconstantfor the decay of the
armaturevoltage requires a large c apacitorfor the armaturewinding. Note that the
power taken by thearmaturewinding is much largerthan the power taken by the
field winding. For three-phaseunbalancedsags it may be sufficient to keep up the
voltage during one half-cycle.
Keeping up thearmaturevoltage will still not solve theproblemof missing pulses
due to phase-anglejumps and commutationfailures. Another disadvantageof any
amountof armaturecapacitanceis that it makes the drive react slower to the control
system.Changesin motor speed areobtainedthrough changes in firing angle. The
armaturecapacitanceslows down the response of the armaturecurrent and torque
on a change in firing angle. When the driveapplicationrequires fast changes torque
in
and speed, thea rmaturecapacitanceshould be small.
5.4.6.2 Improved ControlSystem. Any control system for a de driveultimately

controls the firing angleof a controlled rectifier. This may be thearmaturerectifier,
the field rectifier, orboth. Due to thenatureof a thyristor rectifier it is unlikely that
the control system will have anopen-loop time constantless than two cycles. We
saw beforethat the drop in armaturecurrent and torque takes place much faster
than this. It is thus not possible toprevent the transient in armaturecurrent and
torque.
Two straightforwardquantitiesto becontrolledare armaturevoltage andmotor
speed.Controlling the armaturevoltage enables the use of a simplecontroller with a
small open-looptime constant.For the controller to work, sufficientmargin must be
a rmaturevoltage back to1000/0. If sags down to
available in the rectifier to bring the
50% magnitudehave to bemitigated, the normal operatingvoltage on de sideof the
rectifier shouldnot exceed50°A, of maximum. The result is t hat only half of the control
rangeof the rectifier can be used for speed
control. The otherhalf is needed for voltage-
sagmitigation.
Speedcontrol is thecommonly-usedmethodof control for de drives. The voltage
sag will cause adrop in speed. The speed controllerdetects this and reduces the firing
angle tocompensate.If the firing angle is zero thecontrollercan no longer increase the
speed. Speed control will not mitigate thetransientsin torque and current but it may
reduce the variations in speed.
A disadvantageof both control techniques isthat they will lead to a severe
transient inarmaturecurrent and torque upon voltage recovery.
5.4.6.3 Improved Rectifiers. The control of the drive may be significantly im-
proved by using a self-commutating rectifier. These rectifiers enable control of the
output voltage on a sub-cycle timescale. This will preverit the drop in armature
voltage and thus the severe drop in torque. Using advancedcontrol techniquesit
additional enery storagewhich is only madeavailable
may also be possible to install
during a reduction in the supply voltage.
By using self-commutating rectifiers it may also possibleto
be usea sophisticated
control systemthat detects and mitigates phase-anglejumps. With such a control
system, the reference signal should no longerobtainedfrom
be a phase-lockedloop
but from the measured supply voltage through a suitabledigital filter.
5.4.6.4 Other Solutions. Other solutionsinclude a more critical setting of the

undervoltageand overcurrentprotection; the useof componentswith higher over-
current tolerance; and disabling the firing of the
t hyristors to prevent tripping on
overcurrent.All these solutions are only feasible when the load can tolerate rather
large variationsin speed.
5.5 OTHER SENSITIVE LOAD
5.5.1 Directly Fed Induction Motors
Despite the growth in the number of adjustable-speeddrives, the majority of

induction motors are still directly fed; i.e., them otor terminals are connectedto the
constantfrequency,constantvoltage, supply. It will beclear that speedcontrol of the
motor is not possible. Directly fedinduction motors are rather insensitiveto voltage
sags,althoughproblems could occur when too manymotorsare fedfrom the samebus.
The drop in terminal voltage will cause d a rop in torquefor an induction motor.
Due to this drop in torquethe motor will slow down until it reachesa new operating
point. If the terminal voltage drops too much the load torque will be higher than the
pull-out torque and themotor will continue to slow down. An induction motor is
typically operatedat half its pull-out torque. As thepull-out torque is proportional
to the square of the voltage, a voltagedrop to 70% or less will not lead to a new stable
operatingpoint for the induction motor. The d rop in speed isseldoma seriousconcern
for directly fed induction motors. These kind motorsare
of usedfor processesthat are
not very sensitive to speed variations; and variation
the in speedis seldommore than
10% • The effect of voltage sags on induction motors has already been discussedin
Section 5.3 under the assumption that both motor and load torqueremainconstant.In
most practical cases the load torque decreases and motor
the torqueincreaseswhen the
motor slows down. The actual drop in speed will thus be lessthan indicated.
Although the inductionmotor is normally ratherinsensitiveto voltagesags,there
are a few phenomena t hat could lead to process i nterruption due to a sag.
oscillationsat sagcommencementand when

• Deep sags lead to severe torque
the voltage recovers. These could leaddamageto
to the motor and to process
Section 5.5 • Other Sensitive Load 319
interruptions.The recoverytorquebecomes more severe when the internal flux

is out of phasewith the supply voltage, thus when the sag is associated with a
phase-anglejump.
• At sagcommencementthe magneticfield will be driven out of the airgap. The
associatedtransientcauses anadditionaldrop in speed for deep sags. During
this period the motor contributesto the short-circuit current and somewhat
mitigatesthe sag. This effect has been discussed in Section 4.8.
• When the voltage recovers, the airgapfield has to be built up again. In weaker
systems this can last up to 100ms, during which the motor continuesto slow
down. This could become a problem in systems where them otor load has
grown over the years. Where in the past a voltage sag would notproblem,
be a
now "suddenly"the process can no longer withstandthe speeddrop due to a
sag. As deep sags are rare it can take a long time before such problem
a is
discovered.
• Whenthe voltage recovers, the motor takes a high inrushcurrent:first to build
up the airgap field (the electricalinrush), next to reaccelerate the
motor (the
mechanicalinrush). This inrush can cause apost-faultsag with adurationof
one second or more, and lead trippingto of undervoltageand overcurrent
relays. Again thisproblem is more severe for a weak supply, and can thus
become aproblemwhen theamountof motor load increases.
• For unbalancedsags themotor is subjected to a positive sequence as well as to
a negative-sequence voltage at the terminals. The negative-sequence voltage
causes atorqueripple and a large negative-sequence current.
5.5.2 Directly Fed Synchronous Motors
A synchronousmotor has similar problemswith voltage sags as an induction

motor: overcurrents,torque oscillations, and drop in speed. But asynchronous
motor can actuallylosesynchronismwith the supply. Aninductionmotor is very likely
able to reaccelerateagain after the fault: it might take too long for the process, the
currentmight be too high for themotor (or its protection),or the supply might be too
weak, but at least it is intheorypossible. When asynchronousmotorloses synchronism
it has to bestoppedand the load has to be removed before it canbroughtback
be to
nominal speed again.
The lossof synchronismof a synchronousmotor is ruled by theequationfor the
transportof power P from the supply to the motor:
p = V.vupEsin </J (5.61)

X
with v'vup the supply voltage,E the back-EMFin the motor, </J the angle between the
back-EMF and the supply voltage, andX the reactance between the supply and the
synchronousmotor (this includes the leakage reactanceof the motor and the source
reactanceof the supply). Thisrelationis shown in Fig. 5.77.For a givenmotor load the
operatingpoint will be such that the powertaken by the load equals the power trans-
ported to the motor. This point is indicatedin Fig. 5.77 as"normal operatingpoint."
When the voltagedrops,e.g.,duringa sag, the powertransportedto themotor becomes
smaller than the power taken by the load. As a result the m otor slows down, which
meansthat the angle</J increases. The angle will settle down at a newoperatingpoint,
Pre-sag power
During-sag
power
0.8 Normal
::s operating
0..
.8 point
~ 0.6
~ Operatingpoint
0
~ with reduced
0.4 voltage
0.2
0
0 50 100 150 200 Figure5.77 Powertransferto a synchronous
Rotor angle in degrees motor as a function of the rotor angle.
indicated by "operatingpoint with reducedvoltage," where again the power to the

motor and the powertaken by the load are in balance.
It follows from Fig. 5.77that for deep sags there is no longer a stable
operating
point. In that case therotor angle will continueto increase until the supply voltage
recovers.If the angle has increased too much motor the loses synchronism.Looking at
Fig. 5.78 we see twooperatingpoints: the normaloperatingpoint, labeled as"stable"
and a secondpoint labeled as"instable."In the latterpoint, bothpower flows are again
equal so themotor would be able tooperateat constantspeed. But any small deviation
will make that the motor drifts away from thisoperatingpoint: either to the left (when
it will end up in the stableoperatingpoint) or to the right (when it will lose synchron-
ism). The motor losessynchronismthe moment its rotor angle exceeds this instable
operatingpoint.
There is a second curve plotted in Fig. 5.78, which indicates the power transfer
during the sag. In this case there is no stable operatingpoint during the sag and the
motor will continueto slow down until the voltage recovers. At thatmomentthemotor
Operatingangle Critical angle

I I
I I
I
I
I
I
I
0.8 I
::s I
0.. I
c::
'ii 0.6
~
Q.c
0.4
0.2
0
0 50 100 150 200 Figure5.78 Powertransferin normal
Rotor angle in degrees
situationand for a deep sag.
will start to accelerate again but as it still rotates slower than the airgap field (thus
slower than the frequency of the supply voltage) rotor its angle will continue to
increase. The maximumrotor angle is reached the moment the motor speed comes
back to nominal. As long as this angle is smaller than the angle for the instable
operatingpoint, themotor does not lose synchronism. The figure shows the maximum
angle at the end of the sag which does not lead to an instable situation; this angle is
indicated as"critical angle." According to the so-called"equal-area-criterion"the two
shadedpartsin the figure are equal in area [207].
The highest possiblesteady-staterotor angle equals 90 °-this occurs when the
motor load equals the maximum power which can transportedto
be the motor. If the
motor load is onlyhalf this maximum value, a drop in voltage to 50% will bring the
operatingpoint back to the top of the sine wave again. This 50% is, however, not the
deepest sag the m otor can withstand for a long time. The drop in voltage causes the
motor to slow down, thus when the r otor angle reaches 90° it does not stop but will
continue to increase until the voltage recovers. The deepest long-durationsag can be
found from Fig. 5.79. Again theequal-areacriteria tells usthat the two shadedparts
have the same area .
Operating angle
I
I
I
I
1
I
I
0.8 I
:s I
0.
<: ,
I
't 0.6
~
0
I:l-o
0.4
0.2
Figure 5.79 Powertransferin normal 0

0 50 100 150 200
situationand for the deepest
long-duration
Rotor angle in degrees
sag.
5.5.3 Contaetora
Contactorsare a very common way of connecting motor load to the supply. The
supply voltage is used to power an electromagnetwhich keeps thecontactin place.
When the supply voltage fails the contactopens, preventing them otor from suddenly
restartingwhen the supply voltage comes back. This works fine for long interruptions
where the unexpected starting of motors can be verydangerous.But contactorsalso
drop out for voltage sags and short interruptionswhere such a behavior is not always
acceptable. Test results forcontactorsare presented in[34]. The measuredvoltage
tolerance curve for a
contactoris shown in Fig. 5.80. We see that the
contactortolerates
any voltage sag down to a bout70%. When the sag magnitudeis below 70% for longer
than a few cycles, thecontactordrops out. We also see theremarkableeffect that the
voltage tolerance becomes better for deeper sags: a zero voltage toleratedfor
can be 3.5
cycles but a 50% voltage only for one cycle. This effectprobablydue
is to the experi-
mental setup. Sags were generated by switching between normal
a supply and the out-
0.8
a
.8 0.6
]
.~
«S 0.4
~
0.2
246 8 Figure 5.80Voltage-tolerancecurve for a

Duration in cycles contactor.(Data obtainedfrom [34].)
put of a variable-outputtransformer.It is not the voltagebut the currentthrough the

coil that causes the force keeping the contactorclosed. Themomentthe currentdrops
below acertainvalue thecontactorwill startto drop out. For lower voltages thecurrent
path through the transformeris smaller, thus there is less resistanceto damp the
current. As the current dampsmore slowly for smaller voltages, the c ontactorwill
not drop out as fast as for medium voltages. This shows that for contactorsthe supply
characteristicscan significantly influence the voltagetolerance.
The factthat it is the currentand not the voltagethatdeterminesthe droppingout
of the contactorfollows also from thedependenceof the voltagetoleranceon thepoint-
on-wave of sag commencement.The contactorof Fig. 5.80 toleratesa 3.4 cycle sag
startingat voltage zero, but only a 0.5 cycle sag startingat voltagemaximum. As the
contactorcoil is mainly inductivethe currenthas amaximumat voltagezero andis zero
at voltage maximum.
The influenceof the point-on-waveof sagcommencementhas beenfurther stu-
died by Turner and Collins [38],reporting a voltage toleranceof 30 ms for sag com-
mencements within 30° of the voltage zero crossing, reducing to less
than 8 ms for sags
commencingat voltagemaximum.
Note that all this refers to so-called ac contactors.An alternativeis to use de
contactorswhich are fed from aseparatedc system with their ownbattery backup.
Thesecontactorsdo normally not drop out during voltage sags.However,they require
a separatede system and analternativeprotection againstunexpectedrestart of the
motor.
5.5.4 Lighting
Most lampsjust flicker when a voltage dip occurs.Somebodyusing the lamp will
probably notice it, but it may not .beconsideredas somethingserious. It isdifferent
when the lamp completely extinguishes and takes several minutesto recover. In indus-
trial environments,in places where a large numberof people aregathered,or with street
lighting, this can lead todangeroussituations.
Dorr et a1. [36] havestudiedthe voltagetoleranceof high-pressuresodiumlamps.
Voltage sags can extinguish the lamp, which must cool down for one to several minutes
beforerestarting.The voltage-tolerancecurves for three lamps are shown in Fig. 5.81.
For voltages below50% the lampsalreadyextinguishfor a sagof lessthan two cycles.
0.8
[
.s 0.6
~
.~ 0.4
~
0.2
Figure 5.81 Voltage toleranceof high-

pressuresodium lamps. (Data obtainedfrom 5 10 15 20
Dorr et al. [36].) Duration in cycles
The lampstook aboutoneminuteto restrike, andanotherthree minutes before the full

light intensity was reached again. The voltage tolerance
of the lamp isfurther depen-
dent on the age. When lamps age they need a larger voltage to operate; they will thus
extinguishalreadyfor a lower drop in voltage. The minimum voltage for longer sags
varied from 450/0 for new lamps to850/0 for lamps at the end of their useful life.
Voltage Sags-
Stochastic Assessment
In this chapterwe discussmethodsto describe, measure, and predictthe severityof the

voltagesag problem: how many times per year will the equipmenttrip. Thereare two
methodsavailablethat quantify the severityof the problem: powerquality monitoring
and stochasticprediction. Power quality monitoring gives mainly information about
commonevents.For lesscommoneventsstochasticpredictionis more suitable. In this
chapterboth are discussed in detail.
After explainingthe need forstochasticassessment, the variousways of present-
ing the voltagesagperformanceof the supply are discussed. The chaptercontinueswith
some aspectsof voltage sagmonitoring, including the resultsof a number of large
surveys.Finally, two methodsfor stochasticprediction of voltage sags are discussed,
togetherwith a few examples. The methodof fault positionsis suitablefor implementa-
tion in computersoftwareand is thepreferredtool for studies in meshed transmission
systems.For radial distribution systems andhandcalculations,the methodof critical
distancesis more suitable.
8.1 COMPATIBILITY BETWEBN EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLY
Stochasticassessment of voltage sags is needed to find out

whethera pieceof equipment
is compatiblewith the supply. A studyof the worst-casescenariois not feasible as the
.worst-casevoltage disturbanceis a very longinterruption. In some cases, a kind of
"likely-worst-case-scenario"is chosen, e.g., a fault close to the
equipmentterminals,
clearedby the primary protection,not leading to aninterruption.But that will not give
any informationaboutthe likelihood of an equipmenttrip. To obtaininformation like
that, a "stochasticcompatibility assessment"
is required. Such a study typically consists
of three steps:
1. Obtain system performance.Information must beobtained on the system

performancefor the specific supply point: the expectednumber of voltage
sags with different characteristics.There arevarious ways to obtain this
325
326 Chapter6 • VoltageSags-Stochastic
Assessment
information:contactingthe utility, monitoringthe supplyfor severalmonths

or years, or doing astochasticpredictionstudy. Both voltagesagmonitoring
and stochasticprediction are discussed in detail in this chapter.Note that
contactingthe utility only shifts theproblem, as also the utility needs to
perform either monitoring or a stochasticpredictionstudy.
2. Obtain equipment voltage tolerance. Information has to beobtainedon the
behaviorof the pieceof equipmentfor variousvoltagesags. Thisinformation
can beobtainedfrom theequipmentmanufacturer,by doing equipmenttests,
or simply by taking typical values for thevoltagetolerance.This part of the
compatibility assessment is discussed in detail inC hapter5.
3. Determine expected impact. If the two types of information are availablein
an appropriateformat, it is possible toestimatehow often the pieceof equip-
mentis expected to trip per year, and what the (e.g., financial)impactof that
will be. Based on theoutcomeof this study onecandecide toopt for a better
supply, for better equipmentor to remain satisfied with thesituation. An
essentialcondition for this step isthat systemperformanceand equipment
voltage toleranceare presentedin a suitableformat. Some possibleformats
are discussed in Section 6.2.
An exampleof a stochasticcompatibility assessment is given, based on Fig. 6.1.

The aim of the study is to comparetwo supply alternativesand two equipmenttoler-
ances. The twosupply alternativesare indicated in Fig. 6.1 through the expected
numberof sags as afunction of the sag severity:supply I is indicatedthrougha solid
line; supply II through a dashedline. We further assume the following costs to be
associatedwith the two supply alternativesand the two devices (inarbitrary units):
supply I 200 units/year

supply II 500 units/year
device A 100units/year
device B 200 units/year
We also assumethat the costsof an equipmenttrip are to units.
160
140
ft 120
~
8. 100
fI)
bO
~
fI) 80
~
...
0
U 60
\
\
-a
\
\
\
i 40 \
,,
Figure 6.1 Comparisonof two supply
20 ,
I
- - __: _-_-__
-_-_-_-__
-_-_-_-__
-_-_- J alternatives(solid curve: supply I, dashed
o '-----'---"---'------'----'--~-~-.-j curve: supplyII) and twoequipment
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 A,
tolerances (solid vertical line: device
Severityof thesag dashedline: device B).
Section 6.1 • Compatibility BetweenEquipmentand Supply 327
From Fig. 6.1, one canreadthe numberof spurioustrips per year,for eachof the
four designoptions, at the intersectionbetweenthe supply curve and the device (ver-
tical) line. For device AandsupplyI we find 72.6spuriousequipmenttrips peryear,etc.
The resultsare shown in Table 6.1.
TABLE 6.1 Numberof SpuriousTrips per Year forFour

Design Alternatives
Supply I Supply II
Device A 72.6 29.1

Device B 14.6 7.9
Knowing the numberof trips per year, theannualcostsof eachof the four design
options,andthe costsper spurioustrip, it is easy tocalculatethe total annualcosts.For
the combinationof device A and supply I thesecostsare
72.6 x 10 + 100+ 200 = 1026units/year
The resultsfor the four designoptionsareshownin Table6.2. From this tableit follows
that the combinationof supply I and device B has thelowest annualcosts.
TABLE 6.2 Total Costs per Year forF our Design

Alternatives
Supply I Supply II
Device A 1026 891

Device B 546 779
Note the stochasticcharacterof the assessment. An expectedvalue (the expected

numberof equipmenttrips per year multiplied by the cost of one equipmenttrip) is
addedto a deterministicvalue (the annualcost of supply and device). Assumethat the
voltagetolerancefor a device is thesameunderall circumstances;the voltagetolerance
is thusa deterministicquantity. But the numberof sags willvary from yearto year. We
further assumethe occurrenceof a sag to beindependento f the occurrenceof other
sags. Inthat case thenumberof sags inany given year follows a Poissondistribution.
Let N be thenumberof sags inany given year and JL the expectednumberof sags (as
indicatedin Table 6.1). The probability that N = n for a Poissondistribution is found
from
J1,n
Pr{N = n} = e-/L- (6.1)
n!
For the four design alternativesin Table 6.1 this distribution has been plotted in Fig.
6.2. It follows from the figure, for example,that the number of trips of design BII
(supply II in combinationwith device B)varies between2 and 18, and for design BI
between7 and26. It is thusnot surethat in a given year,designBII gives lesstrips than
design BI.
From the probability density function for the number of trips (Fig. 6.2) the
probability densityfunction for the total costsper year can be calculated,resultingin
Assessment
0.15 BII
0.1
g
~
.,J:)
~
e
0.05 AI
Figure6.2 Probabilitydensityfunction of the

20 40 60 80 100 numberof sags per year for four design
Numberof sags in a given year alternatives.
0.15 "BII
0.1
g
~
£
0.05
400 600 800 1000 1200 Figure6.3 Probabilitydensityfunction of the

Total costs in a given year costsper year forfour design alternatives.
Fig. 6.3. This figure showsthat design BI is clearlybetterthan any of the otherdesign
options.
6.2 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS: VOLTAGE SAG COORDINATION CHART
In this section we discuss numberof

a ways to presentthe supplyperformance.The
discussionconcentrateson the presentationof results obtainedfrom power quality
monitoring.The sametechniquecan beappliedto the resultsof a stochasticassessment
study.
8.2.1 The Scatter Diagram
Every power quality monitor will at least givemagnitudeand duration as an

output for a sag. When the supply monitoredfor
is a certainperiod of time, anumber
of sags will berecorded.Each sag can becharacterizedby a magnitudeand aduration
and be plotted as one point in the magnitude-durationplane. An example of the
resulting scatterdiagramis shown in Fig. 6.4. Thescatterdiagramis obtainedfrom
Section 6.2 • Presentationof Results: Voltage Sag
CoordinationChart 329
1---------------------,
0.9
0.8
••
!
r, ..
aO.7 •
.~ 0.6
~ 0.5
.~ 0.4
~ 0.3
0.2
0.1
Figure 6.4 Seatterdiagramobtainedby one °0 5 10 15 20 2S 30 35 40 45

year of monitoring at an industrial site. Duration in cycles
Voltage swells
Lower thresholdfor swells
Upper threshold for sags
Sags due to motor starting
Voltage sags due

to short circuits
Short interru tions

Figure 6.5 Scatterdiagramas obtainedfrom
a large power quality survey. Duration
one yearof monitoringat anindustrialsite [155]. For a large powerquality survey, the
scatterdiagramsof all the sites can be combined. A stylized versionof the resulting
scatterdiagram is shown in Fig. 6.5. In this figure not only voltage sags, but also
interruptionsand voltage swells are
indicated.
In Fig. 6.5 we see anumberof heavily populatedregions:
• Voltage sags due tos hort circuits, with durationsup to a fewhundredmilli-

secondsand magnitudesfrom 50% upwards.Deeper and longer sags are pre-
sent but rare.
• Voltage sags due tom otorstarting,with durationsof a few seconds and longer,
and magnitudesfrom 800~ upwards.
• Short interruptionsdue to fast reclosing, with voltage magnitudezero and
durationsfrom about 10 cyclesonward.
• Voltage swells with similardurationsas sags due to s hortcircuits, but magni-
tudes up to1200/0.
Next to these denselypopulatedareas there arescattered,long, deep sags, likely due to

the errorsmade inrecordingdurationof sags with a long,post-faultsag. These long,
deep sagsconsistof a short,deep sag followed by a long, shallow sag. This points to one
Assessment
of the shortcomingsof the commonly used method of sag characterization:the lowest

rms value as sag magnitudeand thenumberof cycles below thethresholdas the sag
duration.
No reliableinformationhas been publisheda boutthe numberof sags with a large
non-rectangularpart. It is mentionedin [156] that about 100/0 of sags in the U.S.
distribution systems arenon-rectangular.Another indication that this effect is not
very severe is the factthat the duration of most sagscorrespondsto typical fault-
clearing times in the system.
8.2.2 The Sag Density Table
The scatterdiagramis very useful to give aqualitativeimpressionof the supply

performance,but for aquantitativeassessment otherways ofpresentationare needed.
A straightforwardway of quantifying the number of sags isthrough a table with
magnitudeand duration ranges. This is done in Table 6.3 for data obtainedfrom a
large powerquality survey[20]. Each element in the table gives the numberof events
with magnitudeand duration within a certain range; e.g., magnitudebetween 40 and
50% and durationbetween400 and 600 ms. Each element gives the density of sags in
that magnitudeand durationrange; hence the term "sagdensitytable" or "sagdensity
function." A combinationof magnituderange anddurationrange is called a"magni-
tude-durationbin."
The sag density function is typically presented as a bar chart. This is done in Fig.
6.6 for the data shown in Table 6.1. The length of each barproportional
is to the
numberof sags in thecorrespondingrange. From the barchart it is easier to get an
impressionof the distribution of the sagcharacteristics,but for numerical values the
table is more useful. In this case we see from Fig.6.6 that the majority of sags has a
magnitudeabove800/0 and adurationless than200ms. There is also caoncentrationof
short interruptionswith durationsof 800 ms and over.
In Fig. 6.6 all magnituderanges areof equal size, so are all duration ranges. In
most cases the ranges will be of different size. There are moreofsags
shortdurationand
high magnitudethan sags elsewhere in the magnitude-durationplane. Therefore,the
resolution is chosen higher forshorter duration sags and for shallow sags. Several
examples of the density function inbar-chartform are shown in Section 6.3.
TABLE 6.3 Exampleof SagDensity Table: Numberof Sags per Year
Magnitude 0-200 ms 200-400ms 400-600ms 600-800ms > 800 ms
80-90% 18.0 2.8 1.2 0.5 2.1

70-80°./c, 7.7 0.7 0.4 0.2 0.5
60-70% 3.9 0.6 0.2 0.1 0.2
50-600/0 2.3 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.1
40-50% l,4 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1
30-40% 1.0 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.1
20-30% 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0
10-20°./c, 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1
0-10% 1.0 0.3 0.1 0.0 2.1

Section 6.2 • Presentationof Results : Voltage Sag
C oordinationChart 331
18
16
14
~
..,...c,
;>.. 12
'" 10
bIl
....1J!
0
..,...
.c
8
§ 6
Z
4
2
0
> 0.8s
Figure 6.6 Two-dimensional bar chart of the sag density function shown in Table
6.3.
8.2.3 The Cumulative Table
Of interest to thecustomeris not so much thenumberof voltage sags in a given

magnitudeand duration range, but the number of times that a certainpiece of equip-
ment will trip due to a sag.It therefore makes sense to show the
numberof sags worse
than a givenmagnitudeand duration. For this a so-called"cumulative sag table" is
calculated. ElementM D of the cumulativesag table is defined as follows:
(6.2)
withfmd elementmd of the density table : the

numberof sags in thedurationranged and
the magnituderangem; and with FMD elementMD of the cumulativetable: thenumber
of sags withdurationlonger thanD and magnitudelessthan M. Durationsare summed
from the value upward because a longer sag is more severe; magnitudesare summed
from the value down to zero because a lower magnitudeindicates a more severe sag.
This is a direct consequence of the definition
of sagmagnitude,where a higher magni-
tude indicates a less severe event.
The cumulative tableobtainedfrom the density table inTable 6.3 is shown in
Table 6.4. The table shows, e.g.,
that the rms voltage drops below 60% for longer than
200 ms, on average 4.5 times per year. If the equipmentcan only tolerate a sag
Assessment
TABLE 6.4 Example ofCumulativeSagTable, Numberof Sags per Year
Magnitude 0 200ms 400 ms 600 ms 800 ms
90% 49.9 13.9 8.4 6.1 5.2

80% 25.4 7.4 4.7 3.6 3.1
70% 15.8 5.5 3.6 2.9 2.6
60% 10.9 4.5 3.1 2.6 2.4
50% 8.0 3.8 2.9 2.5 2.3
40% 6.2 3.4 2.7 2.3 2.3
30% 4.9 3.1 2.6 2.3 2.2
20% 4.2 2.8 2.4 2.2 2.2
10% 3.5 2.5 2.2 2.1 2.1
Source: Data obtainedfrom Table 6.3.
below 60% for 200 ms, it will trip on average 4.5 times per year.
From such a table the
number ofequipmenttrips per year can be obtainedalmost directly.
6.2.4 The Voltage Sag Coordination Chart
Table 6.4 is shown as a bar

chart in Fig. 6.7. The values in the cumulative table
belong to acontinuousmonotonefunction: the values increase toward the left-rear
cornerin Fig. 6.7. The values shown Table6.4
in can thus be seen as a two-dimensional
function of numberof sags versusmagnitudeand duration. Mathematicallyspeaking,
50
45
40
~ 35
&30 ~fJ.ril~~~~~
~~ 90%
80%
~ 25
'"
'- 70%
o
~ 20 60%
.0
~ 15
50% . ,&0(,
40% <$''bo~"
10 llc
30% e.,'bo
5
o
Figure 6.7 Barchart of the cumulativevoltage sag table shown in

Table 6.4.
CoordinationChart 333
25 ~~-----l~"-'£'-+-------:~~-----t-------;- 80%
J-,C--~rJ----+---7"G.-_---+-----+-------t-70%
a--.,t;-----~------+-----+-------t-60% 4)
]
J----~t.--_+_------+-----+_----___t_ 50% .~
8
~-~---+-------+-----+-------t-40% l
5 sags/year
I - - - - - - - + - - - - - - - - + - - - - - - f - - - - - - - - t - 20%
1--------+-------+------+------.....-,- 10%
Os 0.2 s 0.4 s 0.6 s 0.8 s
Sag duration
Figure 6.8 Contourchart of the cumulativesag function, based on Table

6.4.
this function is defined for the whole

magnitude-durationplane. Whenobtainedfrom
power quality monitoring the function is not continuous.Stochasticpredictiontechni-
ques will normally also not lead to acontinuousfunction. Whether the function is
continuousor not, acommonway of presentinga two-dimensionalfunction isthrough
a contour chart. This was done byConrad for the two-dimensionalcumulative sag
function, resulting in Fig. 6.8[20].
The contourchartis recommendedas a"voltagesagcoordinationchart" in IEEE
Standard493 [21] and in IEEE Standard1346[22]. In a voltage sagcoordinationchart
thecontourchartof the supply iscombinedwith the equipmentvoltage-tolerancecurve
to estimate thenumberof times theequipmentwill trip. Figure 6.8 has been reproduced
in Fig. 6.9 including twoequipmentvoltage-tolerancecurves. Both curves are rectan-
gular; i.e., theequipmenttrips when the voltage drops below certain a voltage for
longer than a givenduration. Device A trips when the voltagedrops below 65% of
nominal for longer than200 ms. According to the definition given before, the number
of voltage sags below65% for longer than 200 ms is equal to the element of the
cumulative table for 65%, 200 ms. The values in the cumulative sag table are the
underlying function of the contour chart in Figs. 6.8 and 6.9. In short, the number
of spurioustrips is equal to thefunction value at the kneeof the voltage-tolerance
curve,indicatedas a circle in Fig. 6.9.F or device A thispoint is located exactly on the
five sags per yearcontour.Thus, device A will trip five times per year.For device B, the
knee is located between the 15 and 20 sags per yearcontours.Now we use the knowl-
edgethat the underlyingfunction is continuousand monotone.The numberof trips will
thus be between15 and 20 per year; usinginterpolationgives anestimatedvalue of 16
trips per year.
For a non-rectangularequipmentvoltage-tolerancecurve, as shown in Fig. 6.10,
the procedurebecomessomewhatmore complicated.Considerthis device as consisting
of two components,each with arectangular.voltage-tolerancecurve.
• ComponentA trips when the voltagedropsbelow 50% for longerthan 100ms;

accordingto the contourchart this happenssix times per year.
Assessment
17"~"7""""':::r-::;lI..-,.-,..,r----~-~-------r------__ 90%
25 r-:7'--......,.llIIIIIIf----..,......... DeviceB .....-----_r80%

-~--
20
t7----t'7l'----tr-.--.."e-----+------4-------I-70%
15
DeviceA
10 60% ~
t----t----:r---tr-.--------+------+-------4-50% .~
8
~
t--""7'"t----t-------+-------+-------I-40% U)
5 t-----t-----Ir.--------+------+------4- 30%
t----t----tr-.--------+------+-------I- 20%
t-----t----1I----------+------f-------+. 100/0
08 0.2 s 0.48 0.68 0.88
Sag duration
Figure 6.9 Voltage sag coordinationchart, reproducedfrom Fig. 6.8, with two
equipmentvoltage-tolerancecurves.
~.....,.._~7"_::l~--,.,r-----~---y------~-----~ 90%
........,.:....----~..-------+------+------~60% -8
10 a
r---:-i==:::;~~~-------t------;-------;- 50% .~
e
J---....,.r..t-----4I---------f.-------t------_+_ 40% tf
en
51o------II-------4I---------f.-------t--------t- 30%
J------tl------II---------+-------+--------t- 20%
t------tI...------I'-------4-------+----------- 10%
Os 0.28 0.4 s 0.6s 0.88
Sag duration
Figure 6.10 Voltage sag coordinationchart, reproducedfrom Fig. 6.8, with non-
rectangularequipmentvoltage-tolerancecurve.
• ComponentB trips when the voltagedropsbelow 85% for longerthan200 ms,

which happens12 times per year.
Adding these twonumbers(6 + 12 = 18) would count double those voltage sags for
which both componentstrip. Both componentstrip when thevoltagedropsbelow 50%
for longer than 200 ms;aboutfour times per year. Thiscorrespondsto point C in the
chart. The numberof equipmenttrips is thus equal to
FA + En - Fe = 6 + 12- 4 = 14 (6.3)
Section 6.2 • Presentationof Results : Voltage SagC oordination Chart 335
Note that assuming arectangularequipmentvoltage-tolerancecurve (100 rns, 85%)

would have resulted in the incorrect value of 20 trips per year.
By using thisprocedure,the voltage sagcoordinationchartprovidesfor a simple
and straightforwardmethodto predict thenumberof equipmenttrips.
8.2.5 Example of the Use of the Voltage Sag Coordination Chart
The dataobtainedfrom a large survey [68] has been usedplot to the sag density
bar chart shown in Fig. 6.11. The survey measured the quality of the voltage at the
terminals of low-voltageequipment(at the wall outlet) at many sites across the United
States andCanada. Figure 6.11 can thus be interpretedas the average voltage quality
experienced by low-voltage equipment.
From Fig. 6.11, a voltage sagcoordinationcharthas beenobtained,shown in Fig.
6.12. Four equipmentvoltage tolerances are indicatedby the points A, B, C, and D.
The meaningof these will be explained next.
Supposethat a computermanufacturerconsiders differentoptionsfor the power
supply of personalcomputers. The choice is between two different de/deconverters,
with minimum operatingvoltages of 100V and 78 V, and between two capacitorsizes,
leading to 5% and 1% de voltage ripple. Using (5.6) we can calculate the voltage
toleranceof the four designoptions. For a minimum operatingvoltage of 100V and
a de voltage rippleof 5% we find a voltage tolerance of 84% (100 V) and 1.5 cycles, etc.
The results are shown in column 4 of Table 6.5. The voltage tolerancefor the four
options(A , B, C, and D) is indicated by the four dots in Fig. 6.12.
From this voltage sag
70
60
[ 50
.,...
Co
'"
OIl 40
~
e-
.,...o
.r> 30
e
z'"
20
10
6-10 c 20 c-
0.5s
Sag duration
Figure 6.11 Sag density for the average low-voltage supply in the United
Statesand
Canada. (Data obtainedfrom Dorr [681.)
Assessment
TABLE 6.5 Comparisonof Four Design Optionsfor the PowerSupplyof a

PersonalC omputer
Minimum Operating EstimatedTrip

Option Voltage de Ripple Voltage Tolerance Frequency
A IOOV 5% 84%, 1.5 cycles IOO/year

B IOOV 1% 84°tlo, 8 cycles 50/year
C 78 V 5°tlo 65%, 3 cycles 25/year
D 78 V 10/0 650/0, 15 cycles 20/year
10 sagsperyear
104V
A ~ t:::::::; -- )
-- -::::: -
/---
......... ::-- V..-
~
lOOV
90
- r-'WB
~~ ~ ~
I-'
~
---
:l
- -- - ~ ~ .."I (5
60
40
10-
-------/
V
~
.--/
l-/V
J
)
II
96V
90V
>
.8
]
30
I..- /
J
84V
78V
'f
C~
f.-- /D f
(/)
-~ 60V
20 -
, 10V
1 c 2 c 3 c 4 c 5 c 6 c 10 c 20 c 0.5 sis 2 s 5 s lOs 30 s 60 s 120 s
Sag duration in cycles (c) and seconds (s)
Figure 6.12 Voltage sagc oordinationchart for the averagelow-voltagesupplyin

the United Statesand Canada.(Obtainedfrom the sagdensitychart
in Fig. 6.11.)
coordination chart the trip frequency can easily be

estimated,resulting in the last
column of Table 6.5.
8.2.8 Non-Rectangular Sags
Characterizingvoltage sagsthrough their magnitudeand duration assumes a

static load, a static system, and no changes in the fault. In reality
both the load and
the system are dynamic and the fault can develop, e.g., from a single-phase to.. a three
phase fault.Simulationsand measurements have shownthat inductionmotor load can
lead to longpost-faultvoltage sags. A few examples of non-rectangularvoltage sags
were shown inChapter4: Figs. 4.47,4.48,and 4.130.
There are two ways o f presentingnon-rectangularsags intwo-dimensionalcharts
like Figs. 6.8 and 6.12.
1. Define themagnitudeas the minimum rms voltage during the disturbance

and thedurationas the timeduring which the rms voltage is below a thresh ..
old, typically 90% of nominal voltage. Thismethodis used in most power
quality monitors. The consequenceof this is that non-rectangularsags are
characterizedas more severe t han they actually are. Alternativesare to use
the average or the rms of the one-cycle rms values latter
(the is a measure of
the energy remainingduring the sag).
2. Characterizethe voltagequality by the numberof times the voltage drops

below a given value for longer thana given time. This again results ingraph
a
like Fig. 6.8, but nowwithout the need tocharacterizesags individually. Such
a methodwas firstproposedin [17] and used in [18],andbecamepartof IEEE
Std. 493 [21]. A similarmethodis proposedin [156] for inclusion incontracts
between utility andcustomers.The argumentfor the latter proposalbeing
that utilities shouldnot be overlypunishedfor non-rectangularsags.
To explain the secondmethod,the cumulativetable will be introducedin a different

way. We define each element ascountercountingthe
a numberof sags worsethan the
magnitudeand duration belonging to this element. Each sag that occurs increases the
value ofpartof the elements by one. The elements whose value is increased are those for
which the sag is more severethanthe element. Inotherwords, those elements less severe
than the sag; in the table, the elements above the sag. This is shown in Fig. 6.13 for a
rectangularsag.
Figure 6.14 again shows the grid o f points correspondingto the cumulativesag
function. But this time anon-rectangularsag is shown. Theprocedureis exactly the
same as before: "The function valueshouldbe increasedby one for all points above the
sag."
® ® ® X X X X
® ® ® X X X X
Q9 ® ® X X X X
X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X
Figure 6.13 Updateof cumulativetable for

rectangularsag. Duration
® ® ® ® ® Ix X
® ® ® X X X X
® ® ® X X X X
® ® X X X X X
® ® X X X X X
X X X X X X X
Figure 6.14 Updateof cumulativetable for

non-rectangularsag. Duration
Assessment
Using this methodit is possible toquantify the quality of the supply including
non-rectangularsags. But thismethodcannotbe used tocharacterizeindividual sags.
Note that this is oftennot a seriousconcernwhen one isinterestedin merelyquantify-
ing the supply performance.
Some sags will still escape
quantification,as shown in Fig. 6.15. A possible choice
here is tomeasurethe time the sag is in each magnituderange in the table, and then
increase thepoints to the left of the table inthat magnituderange. This would lead to
an equivalentsag asindicatedin Fig. 6.15. Themethodproposedin [156] treatsthese
"very non-rectangularsags" in a similar way. To understandthe limitation of the
method in Figs. 6.13, 6.14, and 6.15 the term " rectangularvoltage-tolerancecurve"
is introduced. A piece of equipmenthas a rectangularvoltage-tolerancecurve if its
tripping is determinedby one magnitude and one duration. Thus, the equipment
trips when thevoltage drops below a certain magnitudefor longer than a certain
duration. The actual shapeof the rms voltage versus time has no influence on the
equipmentbehavior. Examplesof such equipmentare undervoltagerelays (e.g., used
to protect induction motors) and mostnon-controlledrectifiers. Alsocomputersand
otherconsumerelectronicsequipmentfit in this category. Manyadjustable-speed drives
trip due to anundervoltage-timerelay at the dc bus or on the ac terminals. Also those
can beconsideredas having a rectangularvoltage-tolerancecurve.
For equipmentwith a rectangularvoltage-tolerancecurve this method directly
gives the expectednumber of spurious trips. For non-rectangularvoltage-tolerance
curves themethod no longer works.That might appeara seriousdisadvantageuntil
one realizesthat a non-rectangularvoltage-tolerancecurve will normally be obtained
for rectangularsags.Applying it directly to non-rectangularsags isproneto uncertain-
ties anyway, nomatter which definition of magnitudeand duration is used. When
assessing the influence of non-rectangularsags on a piece ofequipmentit is recom-
mended to use a r ectangularapproximationof the voltage-tolerancecurve unless more
detailedinformation on its behaviorundernon-rectangularsags is available.
Q9 @ @ @ @ @I X
Q9 @ Q9 @ X X X
Q9 ® @ ® X X X
@ X X X X X X
@ X X X X X X
-
X X X X X X X
Figure 6.15 Problemsin updatingthe
cumulativetable for a verynon-rectangular
Duration sag.
8.2.7 Other Sag Characteristics
In the previouspart of this section, we onlyconsideredmagnitudeand durationof

the sags. We sawbefore that the equipmentbehaviormay also be affected by o ther
characteristics:phase-anglejump, three-phaseunbalance,point-on-waveof sag initia-
tion. Below, somesuggestionsare given for thepresentationof the results when these
additional characteristics need to be

incorporated.Note that, unlike magnitude and
duration, no monitoring data are available on phase-angle jump, three-phase un-
balance, and point-on-wave of sag initiation. This makes that some of the suggestions
remainrather theoretical, without the chance to apply them to actual
data.
6.2.7.1 Three-Phase Unbalance. We saw in Section 4.4 that three-phase un-

balanced sags come in a number of types. The fundamental types were referred to as
A, C, and D. The concept of voltage sag coordinationchart can be extended to
three-phase unbalance by creating one chart for each type, as shown in Fig. 6.16. A
contour chart is created for the number of sags more severe than a given magnitude
and duration, for each type. Also the equipment voltage-tolerance curve is obtained
for each type. In exactly the same way as before, the number of equipment trips can
be found for each type; in this example:N A , Nc, and ND' The total number of equip-
ment trips N is the sum of these three values:
(6.4)
The method can be extended toward other types. The main problem remains to obtain
the type of sag frommonitoringdata. A technique for this has been proposed in
[203],
[204] which requires the sampled waveforms.
6.2.7.2 Phase-Angle Jumps.Including phase-angle jumps in the compatibility

assessment for single-phase equipment creates a three-dimensional problem. The
three dimensions are magnitude,duration, and phase
-anglejump. Next to this there
are twoadditionalcomplications:
Type A
Duration
_.. Tn'~~
Duration
._. _....!~e _~. "_ . . .__..._..
Figure 6.16 Useof the voltagesag

coordinationchart when three-phase
unbalanceneeds to beconsidered. Duration
-StochasticAssessment
• Phase-anglejumps can beboth positive and negative, with the majority of

values likely to be foundaroundzero phase-angle j ump. Using a cumulative
function requires thesplitting up of the three-dimensionalspace in two half-
spaces: one for positive
phase-anglejump, one for negativephase-anglejump.
Note that equipmentbehaviormay be completelydifferent for positive and for
negative phase-angle jump.
• An increasingphase-anglejump (in absolutevalue) not necessarily leads to a
more severe event for the
equipment.With both magnitudeand durationit was
possible to indicate adirection in which the event becomes more severe
(decreasingmagnitudeand increasingduration). For phase-anglejumps this
is not possible.
Especially thelatter complicationmakes athree-dimensionalversion of the voltage sag

coordinationchartnot feasible. A possible solutionis to split thephase-angle j ump axis
in a numberof ranges, e.g.,[-60°, - 30°], [-30°, - 10°], [_10°, + 10°], [+10°, + 30°],
[+30 °, + 60°]. For each range then umberof equipmenttrips isdeterminedlike before.
The total numberof equipmenttrips is the sum of the values obtainedfor each rangeof
phase-angle j ump. A plot of magnitudeversusphase-angle j ump for single-phaseequip-
ment was shown in Fig. 4.108. Splitting the phase-anglejump axis in a number of
ranges showsthat not all charts will contain the whole rangeof magnitudevalues.
Only in the rangearound zero phase-anglejump do we expectmagnitudevalues
between zero and100%. The range[+30 °, + 60°] may only contain magnitudevalues
around 50% of nominal. An alternativeis to split the duration axis in a numberof
ranges. In astochasticprediction study this could correspondto the typical fault-
clearing time in differentparts of the system, e.g., atdifferent voltage levels.For
eachduration range, a plot ofmagnitudeversusphase-anglejump results, similar to
the oneplotted in Fig. 4.108. Within this plot, anequipmentvoltage-tolerancecurve
can be drawn . Ahypotheticalexample is shown in Fig. 6.17. Note that this curve has a
different shape than the voltage-tolerancecurve in themagnitude-durationplane.Note
further that it is no longer possible to use cumulativefunction
a for the number of
events like in the voltage sag coordinationchart. Insteada density function must be
used, and thenumberof eventsoutsideof the voltage-tolerancecurve added.
For three-phaseequipmentthe problem becomes slightly less complicated.Using
characteristicmagnitudeand phase-anglejump results in negative phase -angle jump
values only. But a larger (negative) phase-anglejump could still be a less severe event
for the equipment.Presentingequipmentand supplyperformancestill requiressplitting
up thephase-anglejump axis or thedurationaxis.
Trip No trip
0.
.[
ll)
1ib 0° t - - - - - --+-- - - - - <:f)-- --

~
ll)
Magnitude
;{l
..c
c..
Figure 6.17Hypotheticalexample of the
voltage-tolerance curve for
magnitudeagainst
phase-anglejump. The sagdurationis
consideredconstant.
6.2.7.3 Point-on-Wave. Point-on-wavecharacteristicsmay be easier to include

in the compatibility assessmentthan phase-anglejumps, because thepoint-on-wave
of sag initiation is likely to be independento f the other characteristics.F or here we
will assumethat this is the case. Analysis o f monitoring data is needed to check this
assumption.
As the point-on-waveof saginitiation is independentof the sagmagnitudeand
duration, there is no need for athree-dimensionaltreatment.Next to the standard
contourchart of magnitudeversusduration,a one-dimensionalp lot is needed for the
point-on-wave.A hypotheticalexample is shown in Fig. 6.18. Note that only values
0
between zero and 90 are shown;o thervalues can betranslatedinto a value in this range.
For a number of values avoltage-tolerancecurve needs to beobtained and
plotted in the standardvoltage sagcoordinationchart; see Fig. 6.19. The resulting
number of equipmenttrips N; from each voltage-tolerancecurve is weightedby the
fraction of sags~; with a point-on-wavevalue equal toi, and addedto get thetotal
numberof equipmenttrips N:
(6.5)
In the example shown in Figs. 6.18 and 6.19, this

total numberof equipmenttrips is
obtainedfrom
N = ~oNo + ~30N30 + ~6oN60 + ~90N90 (6.6)

fraction of sags with a given
point-on-wave 30° 60° 90°
value. Point-on-wave
0°
No ~ N
30
30°
N60
60°
N90
90°

voltage-tolerancecurves for differentpoint-
on-wave of saginitiation. Duration
Assessment
6.3 POWER QUALITY MONITORING
A common way of obtaining an estimatefor the performanceof the supply is by

recording the disturbanceevents. For interruptionsof the supply this can be done
manuallyas describedin Chapter2. For voltage sags andother short-durationevents
an automaticrecording method is needed. A so-called power quality monitor is an
appropriatetool for that, although modern protective relays canperform the same
function. Powerquality monitors come in various types and for a range of prices. A
further discussionabout them isbeyondthe scope of this book.
For each event themonitor recordsa magnitudeand aduration plus possibly a
few othercharacteristicsand often also acertainnumberof samplesof raw data: time
domainas well as rms values. This could result in enormousamountof
an data,but in
the end onlymagnitudeand durationof individual events are used for quantifying the
performanceof the supply.
Two typesof power quality monitoring need to bedistinguished:
• monitoringthe supplyat a (large)numberof positionsat the same time, aimed
at estimatingan "averagepower quality": a so-called powerquality survey.
• monitoringthe supplyat one site, aimed at
estimatingthe powerquality at that
specific site.
Both will be discussed inmore detail below.
8.3.1 Power Qualltv Survey.
Large power quality surveys have been performedin severalcountries.Typically

ten to ahundredmonitorsare installedat one or two voltage levels spread over a whole
country or the serviceterritory of a utility. Because not allsubstationsand feeders can
bemonitored,a selection has to be made. The selection shouldbe suchthat the average
power quality, as measured,is also representativefor the substationsand feedersnot
monitored.Making such a fullyrepresentativechoice is very difficult ifnot impossible.
Sites come indifferent types,but it is hard to decide which sites are
different from a sag
viewpoint without first doing the survey. Afurther analysis ofdata from the current
generationof surveys will teach us more about the differences between sites. This
knowledge can be used for choosingsites infuture surveys.
Some aspectsof power quality surveys and the way in which the data can be
processed,are discussed below by using datafrom four surveys:
• The CEA survey.A three-yearsurvey performedby the CanadianElectrical

Association (CEA). A total of 550 sites wasmonitored for 25 days each.
Residential,commercial, and industrial sites weremonitored at their 120V
or 347 V serviceentrancepanels.Approximately10% of the sites had metering
on primary side of the servicetransformerto provide an indication of the
power quality characteristicsof the utility's distribution system[54], [65], [66].
• The NPL survey. A five-year surveyperformedby NationalPowerLaboratory
(NPL). At 130 siteswithin the continentalUS and Canada,single-phase line-
to-neutral data were connectedat the standardwall receptacle. The survey
resulted in atotal of 1200monitor monthsof data[54], [68], [69].
• The EPRIsurvey. A survey performedby the Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI) between June 1993 and September1995. Monitoring took place in
Section 6.3 • PowerQuality Monitoring 343
distribution substationsand on distribution feeders at voltages from 4.16 to

34.5 kV. Monitoring at 277 sites resulted in
5691 monitor monthsof data. In
mostcases threemonitorswere installed for each randomlyselected feeder: one
at thesubstationand two atrandomlyselected places along the feeder[54], [70].
• The EFI survey. The Norwegian Electric Power ResearchInstitute (EFI,
recently renamed"SINTEF Energy Research")has measuredvoltage sags
and other voltage disturbancesat over 400 sites in Norway. The majority
(379) of the sites were at low-voltage (230 and 400V), 39 of them were at
[67].
distribution voltages, and the rest at various voltage levels
The resultsof these surveys will be presented and discussed in the following
paragraphs.For more details about the surveys refer to the various paperscited.
These are by far the only surveys, but they were the ones for which detailed results
were available. With the exceptionof the EFI survey all the resultspresentedbelow
Dorr [54] contains
werepublishedin the internationalliterature.Especially the paper by
very usefulinformation. The amountof results published, even in reports,is still very
limited. There must still be gigabytesof very interestingmonitoring data stored at
utilities all over the world, waiting to be processed.numberof
A observationscan be
made from thevarious surveys, someof which are mentionedbelow. To explain or
check all this,further analysis of thedatais needed.
6.3.1.1 MagnitudeVersus Duration: CEA Survey. The cumulative number of

sags per year, as o btainedfrom the CEA survey is shown in Tables 6.6 and6.7 for
primary as well assecondaryside of the servicetransformer.Bar charts of the sag
density function are shown in Figs. 6.20 and 6.22. A voltage sag
coordinationchart
for the secondaryside datais shown in Fig. 6.21.
TABLE 6.6 CumulativeVoltage Sag Table for CEA SecondarySide Data: Numberof Sags perYear
Duration
Magnitude I cycle 6 cycles 10 cycles 20 cycles 0.5 sec 1 sec 2 sec

90% 98.0 84.0 84.0 67.3 63.8 35.8 6.6
80% 19.2 9.2 9.2 5.5 5.0 3.2 2.3
70% 14.4 5.7 5.7 4.4 4.2 3.1 2.3
500/0 10.5 3.5 3.5 3.2 3.2 2.8 2.2
10% 6.5 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.6 2.1
Source: Data obtainedfrom Dorr et al. [54].
TABLE 6.7 CumulativeVoltage Sag Table for CEA Primary Side Data: Numberof Sags perYear
Duration
Magnitude I cycle 6 cycles 10 cycles 20 cycles 0.5 sec I sec 2 sec
90% 20.3 11.2 10.8 5.5 5.2 1.9 1.3

80% 12.0 5.8 5.4 3.2 3.1 0.9 0.7
700~ 9.4 3.6 3.3 2.0 1.9 0.7 0.7
500/0 4.8 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.1 0.7 0.7
10% 3.1 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.1 0.7 0.7

-StochasticAssessment
30.0
25.0
:a
...;"., 20.0
"e,
'"
OJ)
.....0~ 15.0
...
'"
1
Z
10.0
5.0
50-70%.,J§'
10-50% ~'Ir~
0-10%
Duration in seconds
Figure 6.20 Sagdensityfunction for CEA secondaryside data,correspondingto

Table 6.6.
80 50 20 10 sags/year
~
::::--:::
::::::::::
--- /'i/ Wi 90%
I-----
80%
/ 70% t
/ 50%
~
10%
17 ms lOOms 167 ms 333 ms 0.5 s I s 2s 10 s
Duration
Figure 6.21 Voltage sag coordinationchart for CEA secondaryside data,

correspondingto Table 6.6.
We seethat the numberof sags onsecondaryside is significantly highert han the

numberof sags onprimary side.Partof the secondaryside sagsoriginatesat secondary
side, i.e., within thecustomerpremises. The largenumber of long shallow sags at
secondaryside can be explained as motor starting on secondaryside. As we saw in
Section 4.9, these sags are not
noticeable(i.e., magnitudeabove90%) on primary side
of the transformer.
30
25
Duration in seconds
Figure 6.22 Sag dens ity of

primary side CEA data,correspondingto Table 6.7.
Anotherinterestingobservationis the largenumberof deepshortsags (0-100 ms,

0-50%). The numberis less onsecondaryside, but still significant. Acomparisonwith
othersurveys showsthat this is a typical feature of the
C EA survey.Furtheranalysisof
the data is needed to explain this.
With any interpretationof the CEA primary side data one should also consider
the uncertaintyin the results. Asmentionedabove, about 10% of the 550 sites was
located onprimary side of adistribution transformer. As each site wasmonitoredfor
only 25 days, this resulted in only 3.7
monitoring-yearsof data.The uncertaintyin sag
of two for each of the bins in the sag density table . In the
frequency is at least a factor
CEA secondarysidedatathe uncertaintyis smaller as theamountof datais equivalent
to 38 monitor years.
6.3.1.2 MagnitudeVersus Duration: NPL Survey. The number of sags per

year, asobtainedfrom the NPL survey, is shown incumulative form in Tables 6.8
and 6.9. Table 6.8 shows the original data, where eachindividual event iscounted,
even if they are due to the same reclosure cycle. In Table 6.9 5-minute
a filter is ap-
plied: all events within 5 minutes are countedas one event: the one with the worst
magnitudebeing the onecounted.The sag densities are shown in Figs. 6.23 and 6.24
without and with filter, respectively. A voltage sagcoordinationchart for the filtered
data is shown in Fig. 6.25.
ComparingFigs. 6.23 and 6.24, we see that there is somereductionin the number
of shortinterruptions(voltage below 10%) as alreadydiscussed inChapter3. The most
serious reduction is the number of long, shallow sags, the ones attributed to load
switching. Apparentlyload switching sags come in clusters , with on average about 15
events within 5 minutes. This clearlydistortsthe quality of supply picture asdrawn by
346 Chapter 6 • Voltage Sags-Stochast
ic Assessment
TABLE 6.8 Cumul ative Voltage Sag Table for

NPL Data Without Filter:
Numberof Sags per Yea r
Duration
Magnitude 1 cycle 6 cycles 10 cycles 20 cycles 0.5 sec I sec 2 sec 10 sec
87% 351.0 259.8 211.9 157.9 134.0 108.2 90.3 13.7

80% 59.5 32.3 23.7 19.0 16.2 13.1 10.4 5.8
70% 31.4 23.2 19.4 17.1 15.2 12.7 10.3 5.8
50% 20.9 18.3 16.8 15.4 14.1 12.2 10.2 5.8
10% 15.5 15.2 14.9 14.1 13.2 11.8 9.9 5.7
Source :Data obtained from Dorr et al. [54).
TABLE 6.9 CumulativeVoltage SagTable for NPL Data with 5-minute

Filter : Numberof Sags per Year
Duration
Magnitude I cycle 6 cycles 10 cycles 20 cycles 0.5 sec I sec 2 sec 10 sec
87% 126.4 56.8 36.4 27.0 23.0 18.1 14.5 5.2

80% 44.8 23.7 17.0 13.9 12.2 10.0 8.0 4.3
70% 23.1 17.3 14.5 12.8 11.5 9.7 7.9 4.3
50% 15.9 14.1 12.9 11.8 10.6 9.4 7.8 4.3
10% 12.2 12.0 11.7 11.0 10.2 9.0 7.5 4.2
Source:Data obtained from Dorr et al. [54).
80
70
... 60
"'"
...>-
'0." 50
'"
....0~ 40
l>
e:s
30
Z
20
10 50-70% ..,s>"O'lJ
10-50% ~'!1q
0-10%
o f NPL data,no filter, corresponding to Table 6.8.

FIgure 6.23 Sag density
Secti on 6.3 • PowerQuality Monitoring 347
80
70
.,
Ii!
>.
60
.,... 50
.,
Co
bO
.,
'" 40
'-
0
...
~ 30
~
Z
20
10
o f NPL data, 5-minute filter, correspondingto Table 6.9.

Figure 6.24 Sag dens ity
20
10
sags/year
F-."""""'=-r"""t--,,...,:==-t----j----+-----ji"""""---t----'-----'---j 80%
f--.,-:==-t--- - f - - - - + -- -+----f-1f-- - - + - - - - j 70% 1

~
::8
f - - - - f - - - - f - - - - +---+--+--1f----+- - - - j 50%
L-_ _ --! --'- -1- ...e..-.'--_ _ !--_ _-+ -' 10%

17 ms 100 ms 167 ms 333 ms 0.5 s 1s 2s 10 s
Duration
Figure 6.25 NPL data: voltage sagcoordination chart, 5-minute filter,

corresponding to Table 6.9.
the survey.F urtherinvestigation of the datais needed to find out whether most
starting
events areclusteredor whetherit is all due to a smallnumberof sites. Acomparison
between theNPL dataand the CEAdatashows a much larger numberof events for the
former . The most likelyexplanationis the much lower lightning activity inCanadaas
comparedto the United States .
Assessmen1
6.3.1.3 MagnitudeVersusDuration: EPRI Survey. The cumulative number of

sags per year, as o btainedfrom the EPRI survey, is shown in Tables 6.10 and 6.11.
Table 6.11 gives the results forsubstations,while Table 6.10 isobtainedfrom mea-
surementsalong feeders.For both tables a5-minutefilter was applied. The sag den-
sity function is shown in Figs. 6.26 and 6.28.Figures 6.27 and 6.29 give the
correspondingvoltagesagcoordinationcharts.
dataand thesubstationdataare small: in total
The differences between the feeder
only seven events per year, whichabout
is 10% (this is the value in theupper-leftcorner
of the tables).The seven-eventdifference is found in two areas in the magnitude-dura-
tion plane:
• Eventsup to 10 cycles withmagnitudesbelow 700/0. Here we find 13.6 events

for the feeders,b ut only 8.3 for thesubstation.
• Interruptionsof 1 second and longer: 3.4 events for the
substation,5.1 for the
feeder.
Where thetotal numberof events isremarkablysimilar, the relative difference in the

numberof severe events is significant.Table6.12comparesthe numberof events below
certain voltage levels, including events recordedat low voltage (NPL survey). Only
events with aduration lessthan 20 cycles(about 300ms)are 'included in thecompar-
ison: i.e.mainly events due toshort circuits. Looking at Table 6.12 we see moreinter..
ruptions and deep sags on the feeder comparedto
as the substation.The increased
TABLE 6.10 CumulativeVoltage Sag Table for EPRI FeederData

with 5-minute Filter: Numberof Sags perYear
Duration
90% 77.7 31.2 19.7 13.5 10.7 7.4 5.4 1.8

80% 36.3 17.4 12.4 9.3 7.9 6.4 4.9 1.7
70% 23.9 13.1 10.3 8.3 7.2 6.2 4.8 1.7
50% 14.6 9.5 8.4 7.5 6.6 5.9 4.6 1.7
10% 8.1 6.5 6.4 6.2 5.6 5.1 4.0 1.7
Source: Data obtainedfrom Dorr et at. [54].
TABLE 6.11 CumulativeVoltage Sag Table for EPRI SubstationData

with 5-minute Filter: Numberof Sagsper Year
Duration
90% 70.8 28.1 17.4 11.4 8.6 5.4 3.7 1.5

80% 29.1 14.7 10.1 7.1 5.6 4.3 3.2 1.4
70% 16.1 9.8 7.8 6.0 4.9 4.0 3.0 1.4
50% 7.9 6.6 6.1 5.3 4.4 3.8 2.9 1.4
100/0 5.4 5.2 5.1 4.7 3.9 3.4 2.5 1.4

Section 6.3 • Power QualityMonitoring 349
30
25
:a
Q)
...>.
Q)
20
.,
0.
bll
.,
~
....0 15
...
Q)
.&J
§ 10
Z
Figure 6.26 EPRI feeder data : sag density function , correspond ing to Table 6.10.
50 20 10 5 sags/year
rrT"rrrTrTTTr---r- ...,,-- - , - , - -- - - ,r-r- - - ,--....::....--n------,- 90%
~"....r£"....r£'_A----r'=-+--T+------1I-----+----(t-------j - 80%
]
f--+--A---+~--+-----I----t-----j'+---+ 70% . ~
~
:::E
~--_A---+---+-----I----t--+-+---+ 50%
L -_ _ ~ ......L -l--_ _ ----' -+-L__ _--'-_ _-----l 10%

17 ms 100 ms 167ms 333 ms 0.5 s 1s 2s 10 s
Duration
Figure 6.27 EPRI feeder da ta: voltage sag coordination chart

correspond
, ing to
Table 6.10.
numberof interruptionsis understandable : someinterruptionsonly affect part of the

feeder; the closer to theequipment,the higher thenumber of interruptionssimply
because the patht hat can be interrupted is longer.
For the increase in thenumberof
deepshort sags there is no readyexplanation.Three possibleexplanations,which will
probablyall somewhatcontribute, but for which more investigations are needed to give
a definiteexplanationare:
350 Chapter6 • Voltage Sags- Stochastic Assessment
30
25
5
50-70% .J'¢)
o 10-50% ~i'
0-10%
Figure 6.28 EPRI substation data : sag density function

correspond
, ing to Table
6.1 1.
50 20 10 5 sags/year
r-r-r=-.l'~---+'~--+----+---r""---+----+----\· 80%
.g
a
h<:=:::..--.....,f=--- - + -- - + - - - - I - + - - - - + -- - - + - - - - \·70% '§,
os
~
1----- - - + - - - + - - - + - - + -- + - -- - + - - - - + - - - - \·50%
' - - - - -- - ' - -- ---+--""'' - - - - ' - - - - ' - - - - - - ' -- - - - ' - - - --'-.10%

17 ms 100ms 167 ms 333 ms 0.5 s 1s 2s 10 s
Duration
Figure 6.29 EPRI substation data : voltage sag coord ination

chart,corr esponding
to Table 6.11.
• Reclosing actions on the feeder beyond the point where the monitor is con-
nected. Themonitor on the feeder will record a deeper sag than the one in the
substation. This would explain the deepshort sags. As thedistribution trans-
former is often Dy-connected, deep sags due to single-phase faults will not
transfer fully to low voltage. This explains the smaller
numberof deep short
sags measured at low voltage (NPL survey).
TABLE 6.12 Numberof Events with aDurationLess than20 Cycles: NPL Survey (LV) andEPRI Survey (Feeder,
Substation)
Events per Year
Distribution
Voltage Range LV Feeder Substation
80-900AJ 68.5 37.2 37.4

70-800/0 20.6 11.4 12.0
50-70% 6.2 8.5 7.5
10-50% 2.9 5.8 1.9
0-10% 1.1 1.9 0.7
• The normal operatingvoltage at the feeder is lower. As the sagmagnitudeis

given as apercentageof the nominalvoltage, the sag willappeardeeper at the
feederthan at thesubstation.Giving the sagmagnitudeas apercentageof the
pre-event voltage wouldcompensatethis effect. This may explain the increase
in the numberof shallow sagsalong the feeder.
• Induction motor influence.Induction motorsslow down more for deeper sags
and thus reduce the positive sequence voltage.reductionin
A positive sequence
voltage would imply areduction(also) in the lowest phase voltage and thus a
reductionin sagmagnitude.
Comparinglow voltage andmedium voltage data we seethat the numberof shallow

sags is much higher at low voltage
thanat mediumvoltage, whereas the
numberof deep
sags is smaller at low voltage.
6.3.1.4 MagnitudeVersus Duration: EFI Survey. The cumulative voltage sag

tables, asobtained by the EFI survey, are shown in Tables 6.13 through 6.16. The
sag densityfunctions are presentedin Figs. 6.30through 6.33. Table 6.13 and Fig.
6.30 give the average results for the
low-voltage sites, Table 6.14 and Fig. 6.31 refer
to the distribution sites.
We seethat the averagedistribution site experiencessomewhatlesslonger-dura-
tion events but clearly more
s hort-durationevents. The increase numberof
in interrup-
tions for lower voltage levels isconsistentwith the findings of U.S. surveys. To
TABLE 6.13 CumulativeVoltage Sag Table for EFID ata, All Low-Voltage
Networks: Numberof Sags per Year
Duration (sec)
Magnitude 0.01 0.1 0.5 1.0 3.0 20.0
90% 74.7 36.5 18.5 12.1 8.6 6.8
700/0 26.3 11.9 8.2 7.5 6.8 5.9
40% 16.6 9.8 7.5 7.5 6.8 5.9
1% 9.3 8.2 7.5 7.5 6.8 5.9
Source: Data obtainedfrom Seljeseth[67].
Assessment
TABLE 6.14 CumulativeVoltage Sag Table for EFI Data, All Distribution
Networks: Numberof Sags perYear
Duration (sec)
Magnitude 0.01 0.1 0.5 1.0 3.0 20.0

90% 112.2 39.2 15.5 7.9 6.0 5.2
70% 40.5 16.9 11.4 6.6 6.0 5.2
40% 15.2 7.6 6.8 6.0 5.7 5.2
1% 7.2 5.7 5.7 5.7 5.7 5.2
Source: Data obtainedfrom Seljeseth [67].
TABLE 6.15 CumulativeVoltage Sag Table for EFI Data, 950/0 Percentile
for Low-Voltage Networks: Numberof Sags perYear
Duration (sec)
Magnitude 0.01 0.1 0.5 1.0 3.0 20.0

90% 315 128 47 20 11 II
70% 120 39 II 11 11 11
40% 66 25 11 11 11 11
10/0 25 11 11 11 11 11
Source: Data obtainedfrom Seljeseth [67).
TABLE 6.16 CumulativeVoltage Sag Table for EFI Data, 95% Percentile
for ·Distribution Networks: Numberof Sagsper Year
Duratjo~ (sec)
Magnitude 0.01 0.1 0.5 1.0 3.0 20.0

90% 388 159 57 20 12 12
70% 130 53 22 12 12 12
40% 45 21 12 12 12 12
1% 18 12 12 12 12 12
Source:Data obtainedfrom Seljeseth [67].
understandall effects, one needs tounderstandthe propagationof sags to lower voltage

levels, for which thestudy of more individual events is needed.
Tables 6.15 and 6.16 give the950/0 percentile of the sagdistribution over the
various sites. A stochasticdistribution function was createdfor the total numberof
sagsmeasuredat one single site. The 95% percentileof this distributionwas chosen as a
reference site. Then umberof sags at this site is thus exceeded by only of
5%the sites.
The 95% value was suggested in Chapter1 as a way ofcharacterizingthe electromag-
netic environment(the term used by thel Ee for the quality of the supply). Thus, we
could say that Table 6.15 characterizesthe electromagneticenvironment for the
Norwegianlow-voltagecustomer.
6.3.1.5 Variation in Time-LightningStrokes. A large fraction of the voltage

sags is due tolightning strokeson overheadlines. Two phenomenaplay a role here:
short circuits due to lightning strokesand triggering ofspark gaps due to lightning-
50
45
40
.,til 35
..
>.
.,
., 30
0.
OIl
., 25
....'"
~
..
0
., 20
§ 15
Z 70-90%
10
40-70% ~
5 ,s.'/!!
's
1-40% ~q
0 ~
e,'bo"Jo
Sag duration in seconds
Figure 6.30 Sagdensity for EFI low-voltagenetworks,correspondingto Table

6.13.
50
45
40
..~
>.
.,0.
35
30
.,
OIl
.,
....0'" 25
~
..., 20
§ 15
Z 70-90%
10
40-70% ~
5 .,s.'/!!
1-40% ~q
0 $'
e,'bo"Jo
Sag duration in seconds
Figure 6.31 Sagdensity for EFI distribution networks.correspondingto Table

6.14.
354 Chapter6 • Voltage Sags- Stochastic Assessment
160
140
120
:....
..
;...
.0.... 100
VI
bO
80
....'0"
VI
.D
..... 60
E
::l 70-90%
Z 40
40-70% ~
20 ~'tS
's
1-40% ~~
0 <$'
~"'~
Sag duration in seconds 20-180
Figure6.32 Sag density for 95% percentile of EF I low-voltage networks,

correspondingto Table6.15.
160
140
120
:.
...
.....
;...
0..
100
VI
bO
80
....'"0
VI
~
.. 60
§ 70-90%
Z 40
40-70% ~
20
.s>
1-40% ~~
0 <$'
~"'~
Sag duration in seconds 20-180
Figure 6.33 Sag density for 95% percentile of EFI distrib ution networks,
corresponding to Table 6.16.
Section 6.3 • Power Quality Mon
itoring 355
induced overvoltages. The effect of a lightning stroke is to induce a large overvoltage

on the line. If this voltage exceeds theinsulation withstand level it results in a short
circuit, otherwise the voltage peak will start to propagatethrough the system. If the
peak voltage is not high enough to cause a flashover on the line, it might still trigger
a spark gap or a (ZnO) varistor. A sparkgap mitigates the overvoltage by creating a
temporaryshort circuit, which in its turn causes a.sag of one or two cycles. A varis-
tor will only cap the overvoltage. Aconclusionfrom one of the first power quality
surveys[72] was that the number of voltagetransientsdid not increase in areas with
more lightning; instead the number of voltage sags increased.
For a few sites in the EPRI survey, the sag frequency comparedwith
was the
lightning flash density[70]. This comparisonshowedthat the correlationbetween sags
and lightning was much stronger than expected. Plotting the sag frequency against the
2
flash density (numbero f lightning flashes per km per year) for five sites resulted in
almost a straight line. This justifies the conclusionthat lightning is the main cause of
voltage sags in U.S.distribution systems.
As sags are correlated with lightning and lightning activity varies with time, we
expect the number of sags to vary with time. This is shown in Fig. 6.34 for the NPL
survey[68]. The sag frequency is at its maximum in summer, when also the lightning
activity is highest. This effect has been confirmedothercountries.
in Also the distribu-
tion of sagsthroughthe day follows the lightning activity, with its peak in the evening.
18
16
14
E 12
'"
>
....'"0 10
fl'"
OJ)
s:: 8 - -
'"g 6
'"
e,
.-
:?i;;~
f ";).
4 ff41 - f-- ,....--
~
2 - I!
..,
h ~
'- .~~ 1-
:~~
~'.!:.-"
:f\,'-!$1.
0
Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Month of the year
through the year .(Data obtainedfrom Dorr [68J.)

Figure 6.34 Variation of voltage sag frequency
6.3.1.6 Correcting for Short Monitoring Periods.The variation of the sag fre-
quency through the year indicates that the monitoring period should be at least I
year to get a good impression of the power quality at a certain site. As weather activ-
ity varies from year to year, it is even neededmonitor
to several years. In case a lim-
ited monitoring period is used, it is still possible to get a rough estimate of the
average number of sags over a longer period [49]. To do this, faultdata are needed
over themonitoring period as well as over a longer period of time.
Assessment
The basicassumptionbehindthe correctionmethodis that voltagesags are due to

short circuits: thus that the numberof sags isproportional to the numberof short-
circuit faults. In equationform this readsas
N sags Njaults
(6.7)
N sags= ~
faults
where N.r;ag.'l and Nfaults are thenumberof sagsand faults, respectively,recordedduring

the monitoring period, and Nsag.'l and Njaults the (average)number during a longer
period of time. The numberof sags over alonger period of time can thus beobtained
from
Njaults
N sags -- N sags xN- - (6.8)
faults
Ideally, one would like toknow the numberof faults in theareaof the system in which
the sagsoriginate. Often this information is not available: one is likely to only have
fault data over the whole servicearea of the utility. This method also neglects the
above-mentionedshort-durationsags due totriggering of overvoltagedevices and
sags due totransientfaults which are not recorded.
The correction method can beimproved if the sags can betraced back to the
voltage levels at which theyoriginated:
Fli)]
N
sags= L[
I
N(i) faults
sags X N(')
faults
(6.9)
with N.~2gs the numberof sagsduring the monitoring period originatingat voltage level
i, etc. In most cases it will
not bepossibleto traceback all sags. Only for a small
number
of sites thismethodmight be suitable.It has been used in [49] to q uantify the average
supply performancein Japan.
6.3.1.7 Variation in Space. The basic assumptionof a large power quality sur-
vey is that the averagepower quality, over a number of sites, givesinformation
aboutthe power quality for each individual site. Thus, if the conclusionof the survey
is that there are onaverage25 sagswithin a certain magnitudeand duration range,
this number should at least be anindication of the numberof sags at anindividual
site, in an individual year. Obtaining information about the differences between dif-
ferent sites is difficult;partly becausemainly the averageresults have been published;
partly because differences betweensites arenot always statistically significant after a
short monitoring period.
Someindication of the differencebetween sites iso btainedfrom the EFI survey.
The difference between the 95% site and the averageof all sites is very large, as can be
seen bycomparingTables6.13 and 6.15. At least5% of the sites haveaboutfour times
as many sags as theaverageof all sites. For those sites theaveragevalues donot give
much usefulinformation. The problem is that without a prior study it is difficult to
know whetherthe averagedataappliesto a certainsite. Furthersplitting up thedataset
in different types of sites, e.g., systems with mainly overheadlines and systems with
mainly undergroundcables, canreducethe spreadamongthe sites within onegroup.
But reducing thedataset will' also increasethe statisticalerror in the estimates.
Information on the spreadin power quality amongdifferent sites is also given in
[72]. Sags and someo ther voltage disturbanceswere measuredat 24 sites from May
1977through September1979,leading to a total of 270 monitor-monthsof data. The
TABLE 6.17 Distribution Over the Sitesof the Numberof Sagsand

Interruptions
Maximum Numberof Sags LongerThan the IndicatedDuration
Number of Sites I cycle 100ms 200 ms 0.5 sec I sec
10% II 6 3 2 0
250/0 17 9 5 3 2
50% 25 13 8 5 3
75% 36 19 12 8 5
900/0 51 26 17 12 8
total amountof dataof this survey is not very large, but the
monitor period at each site
is long enoughto make some comparisonbetween the different sites. Some of the
results are shown inT able 6.17. This table gives, for various minimum durations,the
maximum number of sags andinterruptionsfor a certain percentageof sites. As an
example:25°~ of the sites has fewerthan five events per year longer than 200 milli-
seconds. Also:80% of the sites has between 11 and 51 events per year longerthan one
cycle in duration,the remaining20% of sites are outsideof that range.For about half
of the sites themedianvalue is areasonableindicatorof the numberof sagsthat can be
expected. Asalreadymentionedbefore, it ishard to know if a site belongs to the 500/0
average sites or not,without monitoring the supply.
8.3.2 IndividualSites
Monitoring is not only usedfor large power quality surveys, it is also used for
assessing thepower quality of individual sites.For harmonicsand voltagetransients,
reliable results can beobtainedin a relativelyshortperiod of time. Someinterestingsite
surveys inCanadianrural industry have beenperformedby Koval [58]. One of the
conclusionsof his studieswas that a monitoring period of two weeks gives a good
impressionof the power quality at a site[59]. Again it needs. to be stressed that this
holds only for relativelyfrequentevents like voltagetransientsand motor startingsags
and for phenomenalike harmonicsand voltagefluctuation. Voltage sags andinterrup-
tions of interest for compatibility assessment have occurrence frequencies of once a
month or less.Much longer monitoring periods are needed for those events.
6.3.2.1 The Required Monitoring Period.To estimate how long the monitoring
period needs to be, we assume that the time-between-events exponentiallydistribu-
is
ted. This meansthat the probability of observing an event, in let's say the next min-
ute, is independentof the time elapsed since the last event. Thus, events occur
completelyindependentfrom each other.Under that condition the numberof events
capturedwithin a certain period is a stochasticvariable with a so-called Poisson dis-
tribution.
Let Jl be the expectednumberof events per year, then the observed numberof
eventsK, over amonitoringperiod of n years is a discrete stochasticvariablewith the
following distribution:
(6.10)
Assessment
This Poissondistribution has anexpectedvalue nil anda standarddeviation ..jifii. The

result of monitoringis an estimateof the expectednumberof events per year,obtained
as follows:
K
Ilest =- (6.11)
n
This estimatehas an expectedvalue JL (it is a true estimate)and a standarddeviation
~. For a largeenoughvalue of nil (i.e., for a sufficientnumberof observedevents)the
Poissondistributioncan be approximatedby a normaldistributionwith expectedvalue
J-L and standarddeviation ~. For a normal distribution with expectedvalue J-L and
standarddeviation (J the so-called95% confidenceinterval is betweenIl - 1.96(1 and
JL + 1.96(1,with (1 the standarddeviation.The relativeerror in the estimateof JL after n
samplesis thus,
1.96(1 1.96 2
-,;- = ..jifii ~ ,IN (6.12)
with N = nil the expectednumberof events inn years, i.e., in the wholeobservation
period. To limit the relativeerror to E the monitoringperiod n shouldfulfill the follow-
ing inequality:
2
--<E (6.13)
~
or
4
n > -2 (6.14)
J-LE
For an eventwith a frequencyof JL times per year, themonitoringperiod shouldbe at

least ~
/-U
yearsto obtain an accuracyE.
Table 6.18 gives theminimum monitoring period for various event frequencies
and accuracies.N ote that sag frequenciesare ultimately used topredictequipmenttrip
frequencies.It showsthat site monitoringcan only giveaccurateresultsfor very sensi-
tive equipment(high frequency of tripping events).When equipmentbecomesmore
compatiblewith the supply (and thus trips lessoften) site monitoringcan no longer be
used topredict the numberof trips.
As mentionedbefore, the approximationof a Poissondistribution by a normal
distributionholdsfor a sampleof large size.N othingwas saidaboutwhat this large size
is. A more accurateexpressionfor the uncertaintyis obtainedby using theso-called
Student'st-distribution. Using this distributiongivesanotherfactor in (6.12) insteadof
1.96.The deviationis small: for 10eventswe find afactor of 2.228, which is anincrease
of 14%; for five eventsthe value is 2.571.F or 16 events(50 % accuracyaccordingto the
TABLE 6.18 Minimum Monitoring Period Needed toObtain a Given

Accuracy
Event Frequency 50°At Accuracy 10% Accuracy 2% Accuracy
I per day 2 weeks I year 25 years

I per week 4 months 7 years 200 years
I per month I year 30 years 800 years
1 per year 16 years 400 years 10,000 years
Section 6.4 • TheMethod of Fault Positions 359
approximation)the Student'st-distributiongives anaccuracyof 53%. The effecto f this

on Table 6.18 is small.
6.3.2.2 More Uncertainties. The abovereasoningassumes astationarysystem

with exponentiallydistributed times between events, thus where eventsappearcom-
pletely at random. For a stationary system it is possible toobtain the event fre-
quency with anyrequiredaccuracy byapplying a long-enoughmonitoring period. In
the actual situation there are two more effects which makethat monitoring results
have a limited predictive value:
• A large fraction of voltage sags is due to bad weather: lightning, heavy wind,
snow, etc. The sag frequency thereforenot
is at all constantbut follows the
annual weatherpatterns.But the amountof weatheractivity also varies sig-
nificantly from year to year. Due to the relation betweenvoltage sags and
adverseweather,the sags come in clusters. To getcertain a accuracyin the
estimate,one needs to observe more than a minimum numberof clusters. It is
obviousthat this will increase therequiredmonitoring period. To get a long-
term average a long monitoringperiodis needed. Acorrectionmadeaccording
to (6.8) might increase the accuracy.
• Power systems themselves are not static but change continuouslyfrom year to
year. This especially holds fordistribution networks. The numberof feeders
connectedto a substation·can change; ora notherprotectiverelay is used. Also
componentfailure rates can change, e.g., due to aging; increasedloading of
components;different maintenancepolicies; or because the amountof squirrels
in the areasuddenlydecreases.
Despite thesedisadvantages,site monitoring can be very helpful in finding and

solving power quality problems,as some things are simply very hard to predict. In
addition, stochasticassessment requires certain
a level of understandingof voltage
disturbancesand their origin. Thisunderstandingcan only be achievedthroughmoni-
toring.
8.4 THE METHOD OF FAULT POSITIONS
8.4.1 Stochastic Prediction Methods
The great advantageof stochasticprediction as comparedto monitoring is that

the required accuracyis obtained right away. With stochasticprediction it is even
possible to assess the power quality of a systemthat does not yet exist; something
which is impossible to achieve by power quality monitoring.
Stochasticprediction methodsuse modeling techniquesto determineexpected
value, standarddeviation, etc., of a stochasticvariable. With' stochasticpredictions
one should not think of a prediction like a voltage sag down to35% will occur at
7:30 in the evening on July21. Instead,the kind of predictionsare more like in July
one canexpect10 sags below 70%,halfofwhich areexpectedto occur between5 and 9 in
the evening.
Stochasticpredictionmethodshave been used for many yearspredictfrequency
to
and duration of long interruptionsas discussed in detail in C hapter2. For shorter
duration events, the useof stochasticprediction techniquesis still very uncommon.
Assessment
Those events tend to have a higher occurrencefrequency, making monitoring more

feasible. Also the required electrical models have a higher complexity than for long
interruptions.A final explanationis that power quality is still very much anindustry-
driven area, whereas reliability evaluationis much more auniversity-drivensubject.
Stochasticpredictionmethodsare asaccurateas the model used and as accurate
as thedataused. The accuracy of the models can be influenced; the accuracyof the data
is often outsideour control. Any stochasticpredictionstudy in power systems requires
two kinds of data:power systemdata and componentreliability data. The main data
concern is thelatter one. Componentreliability data can only beobtainedthrough
observing thebehavior of the component.From a stochasticpoint of view this is
identical to the powerquality monitoring of one individual site we discussed earlier.
Componentreliability data has therefore the sameuncertaintiesas the outcomeof
power quality monitoring. One could now betempted to draw the conclusion that
we did not gain anythingby usingstochasticprediction.This conclusionis fortunately
not correct. Many utilities have records ofc omponentfailures over several decades.
Componentsdo not need to beconsideredseparatelybut can begroupedinto "sto-
chastically identical" types: like alldistribution transformers.This enormouslyreduces
the error in the componentfailure rate.
Someproblemsremain of course:maintenancemethodschange; the failure rate of
new componentsis hard to assess;c omponentloading patternscan change; even
weatherpatternsare prone to change. The same uncertaintiesare presentwith power
quality monitoring, but with stochasticassessment one is able somewhatassess
to the
influence of theseuncertainties.
8.4.2 Basics of the Method of Fault Positions
The method of fault positions is a straightforward method to determine the

expectednumberof sags. It wasproposedindependentlyby a numberof authorsbut
probablyfirst used byConrad[48] whose work has become part of IEEE Std-493 [8],
[21]. The methodis also used byEdF (Electricite deFrance)to estimatethe numberof
sags due to faults in their
distribution systems [60]. Themethodof fault positionswas
combinedwith Monte Carlo simulationby the authorin [61], [63], extendedwith non-
rectangularsags due tomotor re-accelerationin [18], [62] and extendedwith generator
outagesin [64]. At least onecommercialsoftwarepackageis availableusing themethod
of fault positions. Morepackageswill almostcertainlyfollow as themethodis compu-
tationally very simple,althoughit often requires excessivecalculationtime. The accu-
racy of the results can be increased increasingthe
by numberof fault positions.Non-
rectangularsags can betaken into account by using dynamic generatorand load
models; phase-angle j umps by working with complex impedancesand voltages; three-
phaseunbalanceby including single-phase andphase-to-phase faults.
6.4.2.1 Outlineof the Method. The method of fault positions proceeds, sche-
matically, as follows:
• Determinethe area of the system in which short circuits will be considered.

• Split this area into smallparts. Short circuits within one part should lead to
voltage sags with similarcharacteristics.Each smallpart is representedby one
fault position in an electriccircuit model of thepower system.
• For each faultposition, the short-circuitfrequency isdetermined.The short-

circuit frequency is thenumberof short-circuitfaults per year in the small
part
of the systemrepresentedby a fault position.
• By usingthe electric circuit modelo f the power system the sag characteristics
are calculatedfor each faultposition. Any power system model and any cal-
culationmethodcan be used. The choice will depend on the availability of tools
and on thecharacteristicswhich need to be calculated.
• The results from the two previous steps (sag characteristicsand frequency of
occurrence) arecombinedto obtainstochasticalinformationaboutthe number
of sags withcharacteristicswithin certainranges.
6.4.2.2 Hypothetical Example.Considera lOOkm line as shown in Fig. 6.35.

Short circuits in this part of the system arerepresentedthrougheight fault positions.
The choiceof the fault positionsdependson the sagcharacteristicswhich are of in-
terest. In this example we considermagnitudeand duration. Fault position I (repre-
sentingbusbarfaults in the localsubstation)and fault position 2 (faults close to the
local substation)will result in the same sag magnitude.But the fault-clearing time is
different, thereforetwo fault positions have been chosen. The fault positions along
the line (2, 3, 4, and 5) have similar fault-clearingtime but different sag magnitude.
Fault positions6, 7, and 8 result in the same sag magnitudebut different duration.
For each faultpositiona frequency, amagnitude,and adurationare determined,
as shown inTable6.19. Failure ratesof eight faults per 100kmof line per year and 10
faults per 100substationsper year have been used. It should be realized thatherenot all
fault positions along the linerepresentan equal fraction of the line: e.g., position 5
represents 25 km (between 5/8th and 7/8th of the line) but position 6 only 12.5km
(between 7 18th and 1).
The resulting sags (1 through8 in Table 6.19) are placed in bins or immediately in
a cumulative form.Table6.20 shows how the various sags fit in the bins. Filling in the
frequencies (failure rates) leads to Table 6.21 andcumulativeequivalentshown
its in
Table 6.22.Alternatively it is possible toupdatethe cumulative table after each fault
8
3 4 5 l
6 .-..---
Figure 6.35 Part of power system with fault
positions.
Load
TABLE 6.19 Fault Positions with ResuJtingSag Magnitude and Duration
Fault Position Frequency Magnitude Duration

I Busbar fault in local substation O.ljyr 0%
180 ms
2 Fault on a line close to local substation 4jyr 0% 80 ms
3 Fault at 25%. of the line 2/yr 320/0 90 ms
4 Fault at 50% of the line 2/yr 49% 105 ms
5 Fault at 75% of the line 2/yr 57% 110ms
6 Fault at 1000/0 of local line l/yr 64% 250 fiS
7 Fault at 0% of remote line 2/yr 64% 90 ms
8 Busbar fault in remote substation O.l/yr 64% 180ms
Assessment
TABLE 6.20 Fault Positions Sorted for Magnitude and

Duration Bins
0-100 ms 100-200 ms 200-300ms

60-80% 7 8 6
40-60% 4 and 5
20-40°A> 3
0-200/0 2
TABLE 6.21 Table with Event Frequencies for Example of Method

of Fault Positions
0-100 IDS 100-200 ms 200-300IDS

60-80% 2.0 0.1 1.0
40-60% 4.0
20-40% 2.0
0-20% 4.0 0.1
TABLE 6.22 Cumulative Table for Example of Method of Fault Positions
oIDS 100 ms 200 ms

800/0 13.2 5.2 1.0
600/0 10.1 4.1 0.0
40% 6.1 0.1 0.0
20o~ 4.1 0.1 0.0
position. As we have seen inSection6.2 this is neededanywaywhen non-rectangular

sags areconsidered.Pleasenote that this is acompletelyfictitious example.No calcula-
obtain the magnitudeand durationsin Table 6.19.
tion at all has been used to
6.4.3 Choosing the Fault Positions
The first step inapplying the methodof fault positionsis the choiceof the actual
fault positions. It will be obvious that to obtain more accurateresults, more fault
positions are needed.But a random choice of new fault positions will probably not
increasethe accuracy,only increasethe computationaleffort.
Threedecisionshave to bemadewhen choosingfault positions:
1. In whichpart of the power system do faults need to be applied? Only applying

faults to one feeder iscertainly not enough; applyingfaults to all feeders in
the wholecountryis certainlytoo much. Some kindof compromiseis needed.
This questionneeds to beaddressedfor each voltagelevel.
2. How muchdistancebetween fault positions is needed? Do we only need fault
positionsin the substationsor also eachkilometeralongthe lines?Again this
questionneeds to beaddressedfor eachvoltagelevel.
3. Which events need to be considered? For each fault position, different events
can beconsidered.One can decide to onlystudy three-phasefaults, only
single-phasefaults, or all types of faults. One can considerdifferent fault

impedances,d ifferent fault-clearingtimes, or different schedulingof genera-
tors, eachwith its own frequencyof occurrenceand resultingsag character-
istics.
Below are somesuggestionsfor the choice of the fault positions. A numberof those
suggestionsare borrowed from the method of critical distancesto be discussedin
Section 6.5. In this section only the results will be used; for more theoretical back-
ground one is advisedto read Section6.5 first.
The main criterion in choosingfault positionsis: a fault position should represent
short-circuit faults leading to sags with similar characteristics.
This criterion has been
applied in choosingthe fault positionsin Fig. 6.35 and Table 6.19.
6.4.3.1 DistancebetweenFault Positions. To understandhow the distancebe-

tween fault positions influencesthe result, considerthe sagmagnitudeas a function
of the distancebetweenthe fault and the substationfrom which the load is fed. The
sag magnitudeis plotted in Fig. 6.36. The shapeof the curve can be obtainedfrom
the equationsin Section 6.5. By choosing one fault position to representa certain
rangeof possiblefaults, we make the sag magnitudefor the whole rangeequal to the
sag magnitudefor that one position. The approximatedmagnitudeversusdistanceis
shownin Fig. 6.37. We seethat the error is largestwhen theexactcurve is at its stee-
pest, which is close to the load. Here we would need ahigher density of fault posi-
tions. For more remote faults, the curve becomesmore flat, and the error smaller.
Furtheraway from the load, a lower density of fault positionswould be acceptable.
To quantify this, considera radial systemasshownin Fig. 6.38. Aload is fed from
a substationwith a nominal (phase-to-phase)voltage V nom. The fault current for a
terminal fault on the indicatedfeederis [fault, thus the sourceimpedanceis
Vnom
Z s= (6.15)
v'3 x [fault
0.8
.e~ 0.6
Q
~
8 c=
0
fO.4
r/) ·3en
J:J
~
0.2 ]
.s
0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2
Distanceto the fault
Figure 6.36 Voltage as afunction of the distanceto the fault.

364 Chapter6 • Voltage Sags-Stochastic
Assessment
0.8
\
~
lO.6
~
: 0.4
en /'
0.2
../
..... .... ~Approximated voltage
........~ Actualvoltage
O...----I---+----t--~~---I----+-----I~---I
o 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2
Distanceto the fault
Figure 6.37Approximatedvoltage as a functionof the distanceto the fault.
Source
Feeder
Load
Figure 6.38 Faults ina radial system.
The feederhasan impedancez per unit length and the distancebetweenthe substation
and the fault is x, leading to a feederimpedanceof ZF = zx. The voltage at the sub-
stationduring the fault (as afraction of the pre-fault voltage)is found from
V - ZF _ xz (6 16)
sag - ZS+ZF - ~+xz ·
.../31/ou11
For a given sag magnitude Vsag, we can calculatethe distanceto the fault:
Vnom Vsag
x = X ------~ (6.17)
./3Z[/ault 1 - Vsag
Note that someapproximationsare madehere, which will be discussedin Section6.5.
Consideras an example a 34.5 kV system with 10kA availablefault currentand a
feederimpedanceof 0.3 O/km. This gives the following distances to the fault:
• Vsag = 10%: x = 750m

• Vsag = 20%: x = 1650m
• v,rag = 50%: x = 6.5 km
• Vsag=700;O:x=15km
• Vsag = 80%: x = 27 km
• Vrag = 90%: x = 60km
If we want to distinguish between a sag down 10% to and one down to 20%, we need
fault positionsat least every kilometer. But if thebordersof the bins in the sag density
table are at500~, 70%, 80%, and900~, fault positionsevery' 5 km are sufficient.Note
also that the required distance between fault positionsincreases very fast when moving
away from the load position. Thus, the required density of fault positionsdecreases fast
for increasing distance to the fault.
Equation (6.17) gives anindication of the distancebetween faultpositions for
linesoriginatingin thesubstationfrom which the load is fed.For otherlines, one or two
fault positions per line is normally enough, if thesubstationsare not too close. A
possible strategy is to first calculate the resulting magnitudefor
sag faults in the sub-
station and to insert fault positions in between when the resulting sagmagnitudefor
two neighboringsubstationsdiffers too much.
Choosingtwo fault positions per line instead o f one couldactually speed up the
calculationsif the fault positions are chosen at the beginningand end of the line. This
way, all tinesoriginating from the samesubstationneed only one voltagecalculation.
The situationbecomes morecomplicatedwhen networksare meshed across vol-
tage levels, like thetransmissionvoltage levels in theUnited Statesand in severalo ther
countries.Considera system like in Fig. 6.39. A safe strategyis to use multiple fault
positions on the indicated lines and only one or two fault positionson the other lines,
including 138kV, 230kV, and 345kV. Due to the multiple pathsfor the fault current
and the relatively largetransformerimpedances, faults at 138kV and higher will not
cause very deep sags; and the precise fault positionwill not have much influence on the
sagmagnitude.For 230kV and 345kV, one faultposition per substationis probably
still too much. The main problem is that no definite rules can be given for the required
numberof fault positions. In case computationtime is noconcern,and the selectionof
fault positionsis automatic,one might simply choose 10 or even more fault positions
for each line.
In the above, only the sag magnitudehas been used to determinethe numberof
fault positions.Apart from the sagmagnitude,the sagduration will also have to be
considered. The sag d uration depends on theprotectionused for thevarious feeders
and substationcomponents.It is especiallyimportant to considerparts of the system
where faults lead to longer fault-clearing time and thus to a longer sagduration.
Possible examples are busbars protectedby the backup protection of the infeeding
lines; faults toward the remote endof a transmissionline cleared by thedistance
protectionin its zone 2.
345kV
Figure 6.39Network meshed across voltage

levels, with suggested fault positions.
Assessment
6.4.3.2 Extentof the Fault Positions. In the precedingsection, the require-

ments for thedistancebetween faultpositions were discussed. The resulting recom-
mendationwas to use one or two faultpositionsper line for all but those lines which
are directly feeding the load.T he next question that comes up is: How far do we
have to go with this? Is it, e.g., needed considera
to 345 kV substationat 1000km
away?Probablynot, but howaboutone at 200 km?There are two possible ways for-
ward, both of which arenot really satisfying:
1. Use (6.17) toestimateat which distancea fault would lead to a sag down to
90%, or anyothervalue for the"mostshallow sagof interest."For transmis-
sion voltages this will give very large values (600 km for a 345 kV system with
10 kA availablefault current),which areprobablymuch higherthanactually
needed.
2. Startwith fault positionsin a restrictedarea, and look at the sagmagnitudes
for faults at theborderof this area.If thesemagnitudesare below900/0, the
area needs to be extended.If the system isavailablein the right format for a
suitablepower systemanalysispackage,this might still be the fastestmethod.
6.4.3.3 Failure of the Protection. Failure of the protection is of concern for

voltage sagcalculationsbecause it leads to laonger fault-clearing time, and thus a
longer sagduration. This longer sagduration, often significantly longer,could be im-
portant for the compatibility assessment.The equipmentmight toleratethe sag when
the primary protection clears the fault, but not when the backup protection has to
take over.
To include failureof the protection,two events have to be consideredfor each
fault position: onerepresentingclearing by the primary protection, the other fault
clearing by thebackup.The two events will typically be givendifferent fault frequen-
cies.Alternatively one can use a fixed failure rate
of the protectionand a fixed fault-
clearing time forboth the primary and the backupprotection.In that case the resulting
magnitudedistribution only needs to be shiftedtoward the relevantduration.
6.4.3.4 Multiple Events. The method of fault positions in its basic form only
considersshort-circuit faults in an otherwisenormal system. Multiple events like a
fault during the failure of anearbypower stationare normally not considered.To in-
clude these, faultcalculationsneed to beperformedfor the system with the power
station out of operation.The choice of fault positions becomes even more compli-
cated now. Only those faults need to be consideredfor which the outage of the
power station influences the sag.When an automaticmethod is used, it isprobably
simplest toconsiderall situations.The beststrategyappearsagain to' start with gen-
erator stationsnear the load,and move further away from the load until there is no
longer any significant influence on the sag
magnitude.Significant influence should be
defined as likely to affectbehaviorof equipment.
8.4.4 An Example of the Method of Fault Positions
In this section we discuss an

exampleof the useof the methodof fault positions.A
small system is used for this: thereasonbeing that the data was readilyavailableand
that the data processingwas limited sothat various options could be studied in a
relatively short time. A study in a U.S. transmissionsystem isdescribedin [8], and a

study in a large Europeantransmissionsystemin [71], [74].
6.4.4.1 The Reliability Test

System. The reliability test system(RTS) was pro-
posedby the IEEE subcommitteeon the applicationof probability methodsto com-
pare stochasticassessmenttechniquesfor generationand transmissionsystems [73].
The RTS has been used by Qader[64], [71] to demonstratethe method of fault posi-
tions. The reliability test system consists of 24 bussesconnectedby 38 lines and
cables, as shown in Fig. 6.40. Ten generatorsand one synchronouscondenserare
connectedat 138kV and at 230kV.
6.4.4.2 Voltages Due to One Fault.F igure 6.41 shows the effectof a fault half-
way between busses 2and 4 on the voltages throughout the system. Only bus 4
BUS 22
230kV
BUSt3
Trans. 4
BUS 10""'''''''''
138kV BUS 4
BUS 8
BUSS
BUst BUS2
Figure 6.40 Reliability test system.( Reproducedfrom Qader[71].)

Assessment
Figure 6.41 Voltage sags at

different busses due to a fault halfway between bus 2
and bus 4 in Fig. 6.40.(Reproducedfrom Qader [7IJ.)
shows avoltage drop below 50%, but the voltagedrops below 900/0 in a large part
of the 138kV system.Note that the voltagedrops to 280/0 at bus 4, but only to58%
at bus 2, while theshort-circuit fault is exactly in the middleof the line between bus
2 and bus 4. This difference is due to the generatorsat bus I and bus 2 keeping up
the voltage. Bus 4 is far away from any generatorstation, thus the voltagedrops to
a much lower value. The dense c oncentrationof generatorstationskeeps up the vol-
tage in most of the 230 kV system, thuspreventingmore serious voltagedrops. Also,
the relatively hightransformerimpedancemakesthat the voltagedrops at 230 kV le-
vel are small. This figure shows some well-known and trivial facts which are still
worth repeatinghere:
• The voltagedrop is highestnearthe fault positionand decreases when moving

further away from the fault.
• The voltagedrop diminishesquickly when movingtoward a generatorstation.
Section 6.4 • The Method ofFault Positions 369
• The voltage drop diminishes when moving acrosstransformertoward

a a
higher voltage level. This assumes
that more generation is connected to higher
voltagelevels.The high-voltage side of the
transformeris closer to the source,
so that the voltage drops less in magnitude.
6.4.4.3 Exposed Area.In Fig. 6.41 the fault position was fixed and voltage
sags were calculated for all busses. Figure 6.42 gives the reversed
situation: the vol-
tage magnitudeis calculated for one bus but for many fault positions. In this case,
the sagmagnitudeat bus 4 is calculated. Positions leading to equal magnitudes
sag
at bus 4 are connectedthrough "contour lines" in Fig. 6.42.Contourlines have been
plotted for sag magnitudes of30% , 50% , 60%, 70% , and 80% • The area in which
faults lead to a sag below a certain voltage is called the "exposed
area."The term ex-
posed area was originally linked to
equipmentbehavior. Suppose t hat the equipment
4. (Reproduced from Qader

Figure 6.41 Exposed area contours for bus [71].)
Assessment
trips when the voltagedrops below 600/0. In that case theequipmentis "exposed"to
all faults within the 60% contour in the figure; hence the term exposed .area. As
faults can only occur onprimary components(lines, cables,transformers,busses,
speakingnot an area, but acollection of points (the
etc.), the exposed area is strictly
substations)and curves (the lines and cables). But drawing a closedcontourhelps to
visualize the concept.Knowing which primary componentsare within the exposed
area can be morevaluable information than the actual number of sags. Suppose
there is anoverheadline across amountainprone to adverseweather,within the ex-
posed area. Then it might be worth to consideradditional protection measuresfor
this line, or to change the systemstructureso that this line no longer falls within the
exposed area, or to improve equipmentimmunity so that the exposedareano longer
con tains this line.
From Fig. 6.42 andother exposed areacontours,the following conclusionsare
drawn:
• The exposed area extends further toward large concentrationsof generation,

than toward partsof the systemwithout generation.
• The shape of the exposed area contour near transformerstationsdependson
the amount of generationpresent on theother side of the transformer.The
exposed area typically extends far into
higher-voltagenetworksbut rarely into
lower-voltagenetworks.If the fault takes place in a
lower-voltagenetwork the
voltage drop over thetransformerimpedancewill be large. This assumes t hat
the maingenerationis at a higher 'voltage level
than the fault. Consideringthe
simple network structuresin Chapter4 explains thisbehavior.
6.4.4.4 Sag Frequency.Thesecalculationscan beperformedfor all busses, re-

sulting in a setof exposed areacontoursfor each bus.Plotting them in one figure
would not result in somethingeasily interpretable.Instead Fig. 6.43 gives the ex-
pectednumberof sags to a. voltage below 80% for each bus. The average numberof
sags per bus is 6.85 per year; the various percentilesare given inTable 6.23. We see
that 80% of the busses has a sag frequency within 30% of the average sag frequency
for all busses. Notethat we assumedthe same fault rate (in faults per km per year).
for all lines. In reality some lines are more prone to faults than others, which can
give larger variationsin the sag frequency.
It is difficult to draw generalconclusionsaboutthe sag frequency, because each
system is different.From this and otherstudies, however, one might, draw the conclu-
sion that sag frequencies are lower towards large concentrationsof generationand
higher further away from thegeneratorstations.
TABLE 6.23 Percentiles of the Sag Frequency Distribution Over the

Busses in the Reliability Test System
Percentile Sag Frequency Percent of Average

90% 4.7 per year 700/0
75% 5.2 per year 75%
50% 6.8 per year 100%
25% 8.2 per year 120%
10% 9.0 per year 130%
138kV 8.58
6.81
7.14
4.72
Figure 6.43 Voltage sag frequencyfor all busses in the RTS:numberof sags
below 800/0. (Reproducedfrom Qader[71].)
6.4.4.5 Generator Scheduling.In the precedingstudy it was assumedthat all

generatorswere in operation.In reality this is an unlikelysituation.We sawthat gen-
erator stations have a significant influence on the voltages in the system during a
fault, and on the sag frequency. To quantify this influence, thecalculationsin the re-
liability test system have been repeatedfor the situation in which all 138kV substa-
tions are out of operation. The resulting sag frequency isshown in Fig. 6.44.
Comparingthis figure with Fig. 6.43 showsthat the sagfrequencyis increased at all
busses but most significantly at the 138kV busses. The sag frequency is very similar
for all 138kV busses. The reason that is faults in the 138kV system, and· nearby in
the 230kV system, makethat the voltage drops below 800/0 for all 138kV busses. If
the sag frequency is defined as the number of sags below65% the differences be-
tween the 138kV busses become larger, Table see 6.24.
As a next step it has been assumedthat the three 138kVgeneratorsare each out
of operationduring four months of the year, andthat there is nooverlap in these
periods; thus there are always two 138 kV generatorsin operation.For each of these
periods (i.e., for eachc ombinationof one generatorout and two in operation)the sag
frequency has been calculatedin exactly the same way as before. The results for the
Assessment
138kV 12.18
12.18
12.18 12.18
Figure 6.44 Voltage sag frequency(numberof sags per year) for all busses in the
reliability test system when the 138 kV
g eneratorsare out of operation.
(Reproducedfrom Qader[71].)
TABLE 6.24 Influenceof GeneratorSchedulingon the SagFrequencyin the Reliability Test System,Numberof
Sags perYear below 65%
138 kV Bus
Generator
Scheduling 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Generatorlout 2.80 2.77 3.24 3.65 3.42 3.16 0.80 1.47 2.65 3.38
Generator2 out 2.43 2.79 3.06 3.77 3.44 3.18 0.80 1.49 2.64 3.40
Generator7 out 1.54 1.40 3.06 2.81 3.20 3.18 4.42 4.42 3.11 3.44
Average 2.26 2.32 3.12 3.41 3.35 3.17 2.01 2.46 2.80 3.41
All generatorsin 1.34 1.40 2.85 2.19 2.16 2.60 0.80 1.34 2.59 2.81
All generatorsout 7.37 7.37 6.73 7.43 7.06 5.19 6.66 6.66 5.88 5.96
Section 6.5 • TheMethod of Critical Distances 373
138kV busses are shown in Table 6.24. The table shows numberof
the sags below65%
for all 138kV substations,for a number of generatorscheduling options. The sag
frequency for the three4-monthperiods mentioned, is given in the rows labeled "gen-
erator lout," "generator2 out," and "generator7 out." The numberof sags per year
has beencalculatedas the averageo f these three sag frequencies, and included in the
row labeled"average."For reference the sag frequency is also given for situation
the
when all generatorsare in operation("all generatorsin") and when all three 138kV
generatorsare out of operation("all generatorsout").
8.5 THE METHOD OF CRITICAL DISTANCES
The methodof critical distances doesnot calculate the voltage at a given fault
position,
but the fault position for a given voltage. By using some simple expressions, it is
possible to findout where in thenetwork a fault would lead to a voltage sag down
to a givenmagnitudevalue. Each fault closer to the load will cause a deeper sag. The
numberof sagsmore severethan this magnitudeis the numberof short-circuitfaults
closer to the loadthan the indicated positions.
We first describe the basic theory and give the outline
of the method. A simple
exampledemonstrateshow to apply the method. In the derivationof the basic expres-
sion, anumberof approximationshave been made. More exact expressions and expres-
sions for non-radial systems are derived next. Finally the resultsof the method are
comparedwith the resultsof the methodof fault positions.
8.5.1 Basic Theory
The method of critical distances is based on the voltage divider model for the
voltage sag, asintroducedin Fig. 4.14. Neglecting loadcurrentsand assuming the pre-
event voltage to be one, weobtainedfor the voltage at thepoint-of-commoncoupling
(pee)during the fault:
ZF
Vsag = ZF + Zs (6.18)
Zs the source impedance
where ZF is the impedancebetween the pee and the fault, and
at the pee. LetZF = z£, with z the feeder impedance per unit length and
£, the distance
between the peeand the fault. This results in the following expression for the sag
magnitude:
V:,ag = z£~ Zs (6.19)
The "critical distance"is introducedas follows: themagnitudeat the peedropsbelow a

critical voltage V whenever a fault occurs within the critical distance from the pee. An
expression for the critical distance
£'crit is easily beobtainedfrom (6.19):
Zs V
LCrit =---; x 1 _ V (6.20)
Here it isassumedthat both source and feeder impedance are purely reactive rather
(a
commonassumptionin power system analysis), or more general: that the angle in the
complex plane between these two impedances is zero.
Strictly speaking(6.20) only holds for a single-phase system.For three-phase
Zs and z the positive-
faults in a three-phasesystem, the expressions are valid if for
Assessment
sequenceimpedancesare used.For single-phasefaults the sum of positive-, negative- ,

and zero-sequenceimpedancesshould be used; forphase-to-phasefaults the sumof
positive and negativesequence.The voltage in the expressionsaboveis the phase-to-
neutral voltage in the faulted phasein case of a single-phasefault and thevoltage
between thefaulted phasesin case of a phase-to-phase fault. We will come back to
single-phasefaults and phase-to-phase faults below.
Equation(6.20) can be used to e stimatethe exposed area at every voltagelevel in
the supply to a sensitiveload. The exposedareacontainsall fault positionsthat lead to
a voltagesagcausinga spuriousequipmenttrip . The expectednumberof spurioustrips
is found by simply addingthe failure ratesof all equipmentwithin the exposed area.
Transformerimpedancesare a largepart of the sourceimpedanceat any point in
the system .Therefore,faults on thesecondaryside do not cause a deep sag on the
primary side. To estimatethe numberof sags below acertainmagnitudeit is sufficient
to add alllengthsof lines andcableswithin the critical distancefrom the pee. Thetotal
length of lines and cableswithin the exposedareais called the"exposedlength." The
resultingexposedlengthhas to bemultiplied by the failure rate peru nit lengthto obtain
the numberof sags per year.
8.5.2 Example-Three-Phase Faults
Considerthe II kV network in Fig. 6.45.The fault level at themain 11 kV bus is

151 MVA (sourceimpedance0.663 pu on a 100 MVA base), the feeder impedanceis
0.336 Q/km (0.278pu/km on the 100 MV A base).
The critical distancefor different critical voltages,calculatedfrom (6.20), is given
in Table 6.25.The next-to-lastcolumn (labeled"exposedlength") gives thetotal feeder
length within theexposedarea.Figure 6.45 gives thecontoursof the exposed area for
variouscritical voltages. Eachfault betweenthe main II kV bus (the pee) and the 50%
contourwill lead to a voltagesag at the pee with magnitudebelow
a 50%. All pointson
the 50%contourare at adistanceof 2.4 km (seeTable6.25)of the main II kV bus. The
last column in Table 6.25 gives theexpectednumberof equipmenttrips per year. A
value of 0.645 faults per km per year has been used .
II kV. 15 1 MVA
- - ---- - - - -- - 80%
-
.-..
__------- 90%
Figure 6.45 An II kV network used as an
example for the method of critical distances.
Section 6.5 • The Methodof Critical Distances 375
TABLE 6.25 Results of Method of Critical Distances, Three-Phase Faults
Critical Voltage Critical Distance Exposed Length Number of Trips per Year
90% 21.4 km 24.0 km 15.5
80% 9.6 km 21.6 km 13.9
700~ 5.6 km 16.8 km 10.8
60% 3.6 km 12.2 km 7.9
50% 2.4 km 8.6 km 5.5
40% 1.6km 5.4 km 3.5
300/0 1.0 km 3.0 km 1.9
200/0 0.6 km 1.8km 1.1
10% 0.3 km 0.9 km 0.6
8.5.3 Basic Theory: More Accurate Expressions
To obtain a more accurateexpression,we have toconsiderthat both the feeder

and the sourceimpedanceare complex.The basicexpressionis againobtainedfrom the
voltagedivider shownin Fig. 4.14,but with complexvoltageand impedances:
v= ZF (6.21)
ZS+ZF
where Zs = Rs + jXs is the sourceimpedanceat the pee,ZF = (r + jx)£' is the impe-
dancebetweenthe fault and the pee,.c is the distancebetweenthe fault and the pee,
z = r + jx is the feeder impedanceper unit length. The load currents have been
neglected; thepre-fault voltageat the peeequalsthe sourcevoltageequals 1000/0.
In Section4.5 expressionshave beenderivedfor the magnitudeV and the phase-
anglejump as afunction of the distancebetweenthe peeand the fault. Equation(4.87)
for the magnitudeof the voltagereadsas follows:
v = -1-~-A --;::;::===:::::::::::====
i 2A(l-COSa) (6.22)
- (1+Ai
with
A = ZF = Z X £,
(6.23)
Zs Zs
a the angle in thecomplex plane betweensourceand feeder impedance,the so-called
impedanceangle:
a = arctan(~~) - arctan(~) (6.24)
and Zs = IRs + jXsl, Z = Ir + jxl, V = IVI, etc.

To obtainan expressionfor the critical distance,A needs to besolvedfrom (6.22)
for known V. Therefore,this equationis rewritten into the second-orderp olynomial
equation
(6.25)
Assessment
The positivesolution of this equationcan bewritten as
(6.26)
Togetherwith (6.23) the desiredexpressionfor the critical distanceis obtained:

2
c . _Zs x_v_[vcosa+JI-V2 sin a ] (6.27)
crtt - Z 1- V V+ I
The first part of (6.27)
(6.28)
distanceobtained(6.20).For most applications(6.20) is

is the expression for the critical
sufficient, especially as thed ata are not alwaysavailable to calculatethe impedance
angle. To assess the error made by using theapproximatedexpression the critical
distance has been calculatedfor different valuesof a.
Figure6.46 gives the critical length as function
a of the critical voltage for 11kV
overheadlines. A sourceimpedanceof 0.663 pu and a feeder impedanceof 0.278pu/km
have been used. Note that these are the same values as used in the previous example
(Fig. 6.45). We seethat the error only becomes significant for large impedanceangles
(more than 30°). In that case moreaccurateexpressionsshould be used. In the next
section a simple butaccurateapproximationfor the critical distanceis derived.
25r - - - - - - - r - - - - - - , . - - - - - , - - - - - - - , . - - - ,
Figure 6.46 Critical distanceas afunction of

the critical voltagefor impedanceangle 00
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 (solid line), -300 (dashedline), -600 (dash-
Critical voltage in pu dot line).
8.5.4 An Intermediate Expression
In the previous sections an exact and approximateexpression

an for the critical
distance have been derived: (6.27) and (6.20), respectively. The difference between these
two expressions is the
factor betweensquarebracketsin the right-handside of (6.27):
k= Vcoscx+Jl- V2 sin 2 cx (6.29)

1+ V
50 r - - - - - . , . . - - - - - . . , . - - - - - . - - - - - , - - - - ,
40
d
~ 30
&
.5
~ 20
Jj ~.
/'
10
Figure 6.47 Error madein the simplified

expressionof critical distance;impedance
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
angle: -200 (solid line), -400 (dashedline),
Critical voltage in pu
and -600 (dash-dotline).
The more thisfactor deviates from one, the larger theerrormadeby using the simplified
expression (6.20). This e rror has beencalculatedas (1 - k) * 100% and plotted in Fig.
6.47 for three valueso f the impedanceangle. The simplified expression (6.20) overesti-
mates the criticaldistance(and thus thenumberof sags) as is also shown in Fig. 6.46.
The error is, however, small in most cases, with the exception of systems with large
impedance angles like undergroundcables indistributionsystems. A first-order correc-
tion to the simplified expression (6.20) can obtainedby
be approximating(6.29)around
V=O:
(6.30)
k ~ 1 - V(l - cosa) (6.31)

The error made by usingapproximation(6.31) is shown in Fig. 6.48 for different
impedanceangles. Theerror made never exceeds a few percent.
An importantconclusionfrom Fig. 6.48 isthat the following expression gives the
critical distance in systems with a large
impedanceangle:
L,crit
z,
=--;- x
V
I _ V (I - V(l - cosa)} (6.32)
0 -.......::----
I
-0.5 l
,
, ,
-1 , ,
, ,
5 -15
\
\
,
U .
,,
[
.S -2 \
,
... ,
,
~ -2.5 \
~ \
,
I
-3 \
\ I
,
I
-3.5 I
Figure 6.48 Error madeby usinga first-order /
approximationfor the critical distance;

-4
impedanceangle: - 20° (solid line), -400 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
(dashedline), and -600 (dash-dotline). Critical voltage in pu
Assessment
6.5.5 Three-Phase Unbalance
The abovereasoningapplies to three-phasefaults only. For unbalancedfaults

(single-phase,phase-to-phase)the method needsadjustment.Most of the discussion
below follows directly from thetreatmentof three-phaseunbalancedsags in Section 4.4.
6.5.5.1 Phase-to-PhaseFaults. Phase-to-phase faults lead to sagso f type C or

type D, with a characteristicmagnitudeequal to the initial(phase-to-phase) voltage
at the point-of-commoncoupling. Themethodof critical distances applies to the vol-
tage at the pcc and can thus be used without modification for phase-to-phase faults.
The impedancevalues to be used are the average of positive- and negative-sequence
values. As these are normally about equal, the positive-sequence impedancecan be
usedjust like for three-phasefaults. In termsof characteristicmagnitude:the critical
distancefor phase-to-phase faults equals the critical distance for
three-phasefaults.
In case the voltage at the
equipmentterminals is of interest (e.g., for single-phase
equipment),the strategyis to translatethis voltage back tocharacteristicmagnitude
and apply the equationsfor the critical distance to thecharacteristicmagnitude.Of
importancehere is todeterminewhether a fault at acertainvoltage level leads to a type
C or type D sag.
Supposethat the fault leads to a type C sag. In t
that case of the single-phase
j will see a sag between
equipmentwill not see any sag at all, where 50% and 100%. Let
Veq be the sagmagnitudeat theequipmentterminals andVchar the characteristicmag-
nitude of the three-phaseunbalancedsag. These twomagnitudesrelate accordingto
Veq = ~ j I + 3V;har (6.33)
This expressionis obtainedfrom Fig. 4.90 when neglecting the characteristicphase-

anglejump (l/J = 0). Including phase-anglejumpsis possible, but would result in
r ather
complicatedexpressions.
The characteristicmagnitudecan beobtainedfrom the magnitudeat the equip-
ment terminalsby using
Vchar = J~ V;q - ~ (6.34)
1,
For Veq < there are no sags. 1
For < Veq < 1, (6.20) can be used to calculate the
critical distance,with V = Vchar• The resulting sag frequency should be multiplied~by
to accountfor the fact that one in three faults does not lead to a sag at equipment
the
terminals. For a type D sagof magnitude Vcha" one phase has m a agnitudeof Vchar
also. The expression for the critical distance can be applied directly, but the resulting
sag frequency needs to be multiplied by!. The two other phasesdrop to
Veq = ~ j n: + 3 (6.35)
For Veq < !"f3 this gives nocontribution.For!"f3 < Veq < 1, the critical distance can
be calculatedby using
(6.36)
and the resulting sag frequency should be multiplied j.byNote that the two sag
frequencies for the type D sag
should be added.
6.5.5.2 Example: Phase-to-Phase Faults.Consider the same system as in the

examplefor three-phasefaults. We areinterestedin the numberof spurioustrips for
phase-to-phase(delta) connectedsingle-phaseload at 660V. A Dy-connectedllkV/
660V transformeris used.The sag type at theequipmentterminals is determinedas
follows:
• The phase-to-phase fault leads to athree-phaseunbalancedsag of type C for

star-connectedload at 11 kV. .
• For delta-connectedload at 11 kV the sag isof type D.
• For delta-connectedload at 660V it is of type C.
Thecalculationof the trip frequencyas afunction of the equipmentvoltagetoleranceis

summarizedin Table 6.26. It proceedsas follows:
• For a given critical voltage at the equipmentterminals Veq, the critical char-
acteristicmagnitude Vchar is calculatedby using
(6.37)
The resultis shownin the secondcolumnof Table6.26. For Veq < 0.5 thevalue
underthe squareroot is negative, whichmeansthat even for aterminal fault
(distancezero), thevoltageat the equipmentterminalsis higher than the cri-
tical voltage. The contribution to the exposedlength is thus zero, hence the
zeros in the first few rowsof the table.
• From the critical characteristicmagnitude,the critical distanceis calculatedin
the standardway, by using
z,
Vcru=-x---
v-; (6.38)
z 1 - Vchar
with Zs = 0.661 pu and z= 0.278pu/km, The resultingcritical distanceis given

in the third column of Table 6.26.
TABLE 6.26 Method of Critical Distances-Phase-to-Phase

Faults,Type C Sags
Sag Magnitudeat Characteristic Critical Distance ExposedLength Trip Frequency

EquipmentTerminals Magnitude (km) (km) (per year)
0 0 0 0 0
0.1 0 0 0 0
0.2 0 0 0 0
0.3 0 0 0 0
0.4 0 0 0 0
0.5 0 0 0 0
0.6 0.38 1.5 5.0 2.1
0.7 0.57 3.2 11.4 4.9
0.8 0.72 6.1 18.2 7.8
0.9 0.86 14.7 24 10.3
Assessment
• From the critical distance, the exposed lengthcalculatedfor

is the 11kV dis-
tribution system in Fig. 6.45. The
methodused for this is the same as shown in
Fig. 6.45 for three-phasefaults.
• Knowing the exposed length it is possible calculatethe
to trip frequency. Here
it is assumedthat the numberof phase-to-phasefaults is equal to thenumberof
three-phase faults: 0.645 per km per year. This is not a realistic
assumption,but
it enables an easiercomparisonof the influenceof the different typesof fault.
Because the voltage is only down on two phases for a type C sag, this fault
frequency has to be multiplied byj to get the trip frequency. Thelatteris given
in the last rowof the table.
Consider, as a second example, that the low-voltage load isconnectedin star (thus
phase-to-neutralsingle-phase load). The three-phaseunbalancedsag will beof type D,
with one deep sag and two shallow sags atequipmentterminals.
the Acalculationof the
trip frequency using themethodof critical distancesis summarizedin Table6.27. Only
critical voltages between80% and 960/0 are shown in the table. The calculationfor
other voltage values proceeds in a similar way.
• Like for delta-connectedload, thecalculationstartswith the choiceof a critical

voltage at theequipmentterminals. Next,separatecalculationsare needed for
the deep sag and for the shallow sag.
• The calculationsfor the deep sag (labeled "lowest voltage" in Table 6.27) are
almost identical to thecalculationsfor a three-phasefault. The magnitudeof
the deep sag at theequipmentterminals is equal to thecharacteristicmagni-
tude, sothat the standardequationfor the critical distancecan be used. The
only difference isthat the fault frequency needs to be divided by three to
accommodatefor the fact that only one in three voltages shows a deep sag.
Thus, from the viewpointo f single-phaseequipment:only one in three faults
leads to a deep sag. Critical distance, exposed length, and trip frequency for the
deep sag are given in columns 2, 3, and of4Table 6.27.Note that the exposed
length and the trip frequency no longer increase for critical voltages above
84%. This is because the exposed area alreadyincludes the whole lengthof
the 11 kV feeders.
TABLE 6.27 Method of Critical Distances-Phase-to-Phase

Faults,Type D Sags
Lowest Voltage HighestVoltage
Magnitude
Equipment Critical Exposed Trip Characteristic Critical Exposed Trip Total Trip
Terminals Distance Length Frequency Magnitude Distance Length FrequencyFrequency
(pu) (km) (km) (per year) (pu) (km) (km) (per year) (per year)
0.80 9.5 21.5 4.6 0 0 0 0 4.6

0.82 10.9 22.9 4.9 0 0 0 0 4.9
0.84 12.5 24 5.2 0 0 0 0 5.2
0.86 14.7 24 5.2 0 0 0 0 5.2
0.88 17.5 24 5.2 0.31 1.1 3.4 1.5 6.7
0.90 21.5 24 5.2 0.49 2.3 8.2 3.5 8.7
0.92 27.4 24 5.2 0.62 3.9 12.8 5.5 10.7
0.94 37.4 24 5.2 0.73 6.4 18.4 7.9 13.1
0.96 57.2 24 5.2 0.83 11.6 23.6 10.1 15.3
• The calculationsfor the shallow sag proceed fairly similar to the calculations
for thedelta-connected load. As a first step the critical voltage at the equipment
terminals istranslatedinto a criticalcharacteristicmagnitude,using the follow-
ing expression:
(6.39)
resulting in the values incolumn 5. For Veq < 0.866 thecharacteristicmagni-

tude is set to zero. The shallow sag at equipmentterminals
the never becomes
lower than this value.Calculationof critical distance, exposed length, and trip
frequency proceeds like before. For the trip frequency, the fault frequency
1
needs to be multiplied bybecause only two of the three phases show a shallow
sag. The results for the shallow sag are summarized in columns through8.
5
• Finally the total trip frequency is the sum
o f the trip frequency due to deep sags
and the trip frequency due to shallow sags. The total trip frequency is given in
the last column.
6.5.5.3 Single-PhaseFaults-Solidly Grounded Systems.Single-phase faults

lead to sagsof type B, C, or D' at theequipmentterminals. Thetranslationfrom
equipmentterminal voltages to the voltage to be used in the expressions for the criti-
cal distance depends on the typeof sag.
A type B sag only occurs in case ofequipmentconnected in star and the single-
phase fault at the same voltage level as equipment(or
the at a higher level with only
YnYn transformersbetween the fault and the equipment). For a type B sag the terminal
voltage can be directly used in the expressions for the critical distance. As only one
by! for single-
.phase drops in voltage, the resulting sag frequency should be multiplied
phase equipment.F or the impedances the sum of positive-, negative-, and zero-
sequence values should be used.
Sags of type C or type D occur in all other cases.For these thecharacteristic
magnitude deviates from the initial voltage (the voltage in the faulted phase at the pee).
For solidly groundeddistribution systems (where positive- and zero-sequence source
impedances are equal), the following relation between characteristicmagnitude Vchar
and initial magnitudeVinit has been derived (4.109):
1 2
Vchar = 3" + 3v.; (6.40)
Knowing the characteristic magnitude of the three-phase unbalanced sag, and

!< Vchar < 1, the initial voltage isobtainedfrom
3 1
V init = 2 V char - 2 (6.41)
The characteristicmagnitudeneeds to betranslatedto an initial magnitude,by using

(6.41). In case themagnitudeat the equipmentterminals is ofimportance,a second
translationhas to be made: from
magnitudeat theequipmentterminals tocharacteristic
magnitude. Thistranslationproceeds in exactly the same way as phase-to-phase
for
faults.
6.5.5.4 Example: Single-Phase Faults in a Solidly

GroundedSystem. When con-
sidering single-phase faults, we need to include the zero-sequence impedance of
source and feeder.For a solidly groundeddistribution system we can assume
that
Assessment
positive- and zero-sequencesourceimpedanceare equal. But this cannotbe assumed

for the feeder impedances.From Table 4.4 we get 1.135pu/km for the zero-sequence
feeder impedance,and 0.278pu/km for the positive-sequenceimpedance.In the cal-
culations we use the sum of positive-, negative-,and zero-sequenceimpedancelead-
ing to Zs = 1.989pufor the sourceand z = 1.691pu/km for the feeder.
The calculationof the critical distancefor single-phase'faults from a given critical
characteristicmagnitudeis summarizedin Table 6.28.
• The first step is the translation from the characteristicvoltage to the initial
voltage,for which expression(6.41) is used.The characteristicmagnitudecan-
not be lessthan0.33 pu, hencethe zerosin the tablesfor lower valuesthanthis.
• From the critical initial voltage,the critical distancecan be calculatedby using
the standardexpression
r Zs Vinit
J-crit = - X (6.42)
z 1 - Vinit
with Zs = 1.989puand z = 1.691pu/km,

• From the critical distance,the exposedlength and the trip frequencycan be
calculatedlike before. For single-phasefaults againa fault frequencyof 0.645
faults per km per year has beenused.
TABLE 6.28 Method of Critical Distances-Single-Phase

Faults,Solidly Grounded
System
Characteristic Initial Magnitude Critical Distance ExposedLength Trip Frequency

Magnitude(pu) (pu) (km) (km) (per year)
o o o o o
0.1 o o o o
0.2 o o o o
0.3 o o o o
0.4 0.10 0.1 0.3 0.2
0.5 0.25 0.4 1.2 0.8
0.6 0.40 0.8 2.4 1.5
0.7 0.55 1.4 4.6 3.0
0.8 0.70 2.7 9.8 6.3
0.9 0.85 6.6 18.6 12.0
6.5.5.5 Single-Phase
Faults-GeneralSolutions. In resistance-groundedd istri-
bution systems,the assumptionthat positive- and zero-sequencei mpedanceare equal
no longer holds. The assumptionis also not valid when line impedancesare a large
part of the sourceimpedance.This is the casein the 400kV supply in Fig. 4.21, as
was shown in Fig. 4.105. To obtain a more general expressionfor the critical dis-
tance, we can use the phase-to-neutralv oltage in the faulted phase according to
(4.40):
V-I - 3Zs 1 (6.43)

an - (2Z F t + Z£o) + (2ZS1 + Zso)
The phase-to-neutral voltagesin the non-faultedphasesarenot affectedby single-phase
faults. We canthus treatthe phase-to-neutralvoltagesthe sameas the phase-to-ground
voltages in a solidlygroundedsystem. Thecharacteristicmagnitudeis related to the

(initial) phase-to-neutralvoltage as follows:
I 2
Vchar = 3" + '3 Van (6.44)
With this knowledgeit is possible totranslatesagmagnitudesat the equipmentterm-

inals to characteristicmagnitudesand to phase-to-neutralvoltages. It is possible to
translatephase-to-neutralvoltages tophase-to-groundvoltages, but one canalterna-
tively derive anexpressionfor the critical distancefor phase-to-neutralvoltages. For
this weintroducepositive- and zero-sequence feeder impedanceper unit length,Zl and
zo, respectively, and thedistanceto the fault L. Expression (6.43)changesinto
V - 1- 32s1 (6.45)
an - (2z) + zo)£ + (2ZS1 + Zso)
The distanceto the fault £erit can beobtainedfor a given (critical) phase-to-neutral
voltage Van:
Lcrit = (ZSI - Zso) + Van(2ZS1 + Zso) (6.46)

(2z1 + zo)(1 - Van)
For ZSI = Zso weobtainthe expression used for solidly groundeddistributionsystems.

Note that normally ZSI < Zso so that the critical distancecan become negative for
small valuesof Van' Even for aterminal fault the phase-to-neutralvoltageis not zero.
Any critical voltagelessthan this minimum value will give a negative criticaldistance.
This has no physicalmeaning,and for calculating the exposed length (and sag fre-
quency) a criticaldistanceof zero should be used.Alternatively one cancalculatethe
critical distancedirectly from thecharacteristicmagnitude.For this we useVchar = VI
+ V2 togetherwith (4.29) and (4.30) which give the positive- andnegative-sequence
voltages at thepeedue to a single-phase fault. Using the same notationas before, we
get the followingexpressionfor the characteristicmagnitudeas a function of the dis-
tance to the fault:
v _ Z£+ZSO (6.47)
char - z£ + Zs
with Zs = 2Zs1+ Zso and z = 2z1+ Z00 Solving the criticaldistancegives

z,
Vchar
£crit=-x---
Zso
(6.48)
Z 1 - Vehar z(l - Vchar)
6.5.5.6 Example: Single-Phase Faults in Resistance-Grounded System. In a re-

sistance-grounded system we can no longer assume that positive- andzero-sequence
sourceimpedanceare equal.From Table 4.3 we get for thezero-sequence sourceim-
pedancea value of Zso = 8.172 pu. Thecalculationresults aresummarizedin Table
6.29. The results are only shown for critical voltages between 86% and 98%. For
smaller valuesof the critical voltage, the trip frequency is zero.Single-phasefaults in
resistance-grounded systems typically lead to very shallow sags. The criticaldistance
is calculateddirectly from the critical characteristicmagnitudeby using (6.48) with
Zs = 9.494pu, Zso = 8.172pu, and z= 1.691 pu/krn, Calculation of exposed area
and trip frequencyproceedslike before.
Assessment
TABLE 6.29 Method of Critical Distances-Single-Phase

Faults, Resistance-Grounded
System
CharacteristicMagnitude Critical Distance ExposedLength Trip Frequency

(pu) (km) (km) (per year)
0.86 0 0 0
0.88 0.9 2.7 1.7
0.90 2.2 7.8 5.0
0.92 4.2 13.3 8.9
0.94 7.4 19.4 12.5
0.96 13.9 24 15.5
0.98 33.5 24 15.5
8.5.8 Generator Stations
In Section 4.2.4 expression (4.16) was derived

describingthe effectof a generator
on the sagmagnitude.The equivalentcircuit used toobtain this is shown in Fig.4.24.
The expression has the following form:
24
(1 - Vsag) =2 Z (1 - Vpcc) (6.49)
3 + 4
To obtain the voltage at the pee we have to realizethat all load currentshave been
neglected here.There are no pre-fault power flows, andboth generatorsin Fig. 4.24
outputvoltage, sothat they canbe replaced by onesourcein the
have exactly the same
equivalent scheme. The following expression for the voltage obtained
is from this
scheme:
2
V 2 (6.50)
pee = Z3 + ZIII(2 3 + Z4)
where ZAI/ZB = f~l is the parallelconnectionof ZA and ZB' Combining(6.49) and

(6.50) gives thefoll~wi~g expression for theduring-sagvoltageexperiencedby the load
v - 1- Z1Z 4 (6.51)
sag - 2 2(Z I + 2 3 + 2 4) + ZI(Z3 + 2 4)
distance,we substitute2 2 = Z X L. The critical
To obtain an expression for the critical
distanceis obtainedby solving v,rag = Vcrit toward £. The resultingexpressionis
Lail =21 { 24 X Vcrit _ 23 } (6.52)

Z 2 1+ 2 3 + 24 1 - Vcrit 2 1+ 23 + 24
The critical distancein (6.52)is not thedistancebetween the faulta nd the load, but the
distancebetween the fault and the main supply point.
8.5.7 Phase-Angle Jumps
As we have seen inC hapter5, someequipmentis sensitive to thejump in phase

angle between the pre-sag voltage and during-sagvoltage.
the Inthat case it is reason-
able to find an expression for the critical
distanceas afunction of the "critical phase-
anglejump." In otherwords, at whichdistancedoes a fault lead to a sag with a phase-
angle jump equal to a given value? Too btain such an expression we start with the
expressionfor the phase-anglejump as afunction of the distanceto the fault: (4.84) in

Section 4.5.
).. + coso
cos</J = --;======= (6.53)
Jl
+)..2 + 2Acosa
where a is the angle in thecomplexplanebetweenthe feederandthe sourceimpedance

and A the ratio betweentheir absolutevalues:
ZL
A=- (6.54)
Zs
To obtain an expressionfor the critical distance,we need to solve xfrom (6.53) for
given phase-anglejump f/J. Taking the squareof both sides of (6.53) and using sin2 =
1 - cos2 gives thefollowing second-orderalgebraicequationfor A:
2
A
2
+ 2Acosa+ 1 = -sin2a- (6.55)
sin f/J
This can be solved by using thestandardexpressionfor the roots of a second-order
polynomial, or by further rewriting the expression.In any way it will lead to the
following (positive) root:
sin a
A.=---cosa (6.56)
tanf/J
Combining(6.56) with (6.54) gives thefollowing expressionfor the critical distancefor
a critical phase-anglejump cP:
Leril = -z, {Sina

-----:i: - cosa } (6.57)
z tan 'P
8.5.8 Parallel Feeder.
Voltage sags onparallel feedersand other loops have beendiscussedin Section

4.2.4. Therewe sawthat most faults on parallel feederstoward the load, lead to deep
sags. It is anacceptableapproximationto makethe sagmagnitudezerofor all faults on
the parallel feeders. In caseof long feeders(feederimpedancemore than two or three
times the sourceimpedance)some additional calculation is needed.It is possibleto
derive anexpressionfor the critical distancefor parallel feeders from (4.18)but that
expressionwould be too complicatedto beof any use.Insteada simplified calculationis
proposed.
The voltage profile along the feedercan be approximatedas a (second-order)
parabola:
v.rag ~ 4Vmaxp(1 - p) (6.58)
with p indicating the position of the fault along the feeder, 0~ p :5 1, and Vmax the
maximumsagvoltagedue to afault anywhereon the feeder.T hereis no simpleexpres-
sion for Vmax; it needs to beobtainedgraphicallyfrom Fig. 4.34 or Fig. 4.35.W hen the
maximumvalue isknown, the "critical fraction" is readily obtained:
I _ Veril
Peril ~ I - (6.59)
Vmax'
] 1400 3000 ' s 1600
x ~ 1400
= 1200 ~ 2500 .S 1200
:B 1000 t 2000 fa 1000
j 800 ] 1500 ] 800
"'0 600 "'0 JX
&
~
400 &
~ 1000 ~600
&400 ~x
J
~ 200 _. ~x..~-;...x ~. 500 ~ 200 *_*__X#..
00 20
x....-=~x-~
40
.
60 80
J 100
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 °0 20 40 60
Sagmagnitudein percent
80 100
Sagmagnitudein percent Sagmagnitudein percent
3000~--------------. ] 1400 ] 2500

2
~ 2500 = 1200 .S 2000
* ~ 1000
!2000
1500
h -=i
j 1500
io 800 .£
11000 r:
h - 600
~ -g 1000
CIJ
~/z
1
o h ~ 400
Q.
e
~ 500 ~ 200
~ 500 ,",z-r-*""I
~
ttl oI ,~,
i I I I
o0 20 XC==40 60 8'0 1
00 o 20 40 60 80 100 00 20 40 60 80 100
Sagmagnitudein percent Sagmagnitudein percent Sagmagnitudein percent
B 1200 a 800
z
~ 700 o
.s 1000 .5 600
fo 800 i 500
]600 .!400
"d
~ 400 ] 300
200
" " ;,;z. 8. 200
! &1 100
0 -'II'-Z-;r 00
0 20 40 60 80 100 20 40 60 80 100
Sagmagnitudein percent Sagmagnitudein percent
Figure 6.49 Exposedlength for nine 400 kV substations:c omparisonbetweenthe methodof fault positions(crosses)and the methodof critical distances(diamonds).
The contribution of the feeder to the exposed length equals the critical fraction times
the feeder length.F or Veri' > Vmax the whole feedercontributesto the exposed length.
8.5.9 Comparison with the Method of Fault Positions
The transmissionsystem study performed by Qader [71], [74] resulted in the

number of sags as afunction of magnitudefor all substationsin the U.K. 400-kV
transmissionsystem. Themethod of fault positions was used for this study. For a
numberof substationsthose results have been comparedwith the resultsobtainedby
using themethodof critical distances. The critical distance was calculated as a function
of the sagmagnitudeV by using theapproximatedexpression
z, V
£crit = ~ 1 _ V (6.60)
where Zs is the sourceimpedanceand z the feeder impedance per unit length. All the
lines originating at the substationare assumed infinitely long; the exposed length is
simply the criticaldistancetimes thenumberof lines.
The sourceimpedanceZs is calculated by assuming t hat all lines contribute
equally to theshort-circuitcurrent for a busbarfault. During a fault on oneof these
lines, only (N - 1) out of N lines contribute to the short-circuit current. Thus, the
sourceimpedancein p.u. equals
z, = -.!!.-.- Sbase (6.61)

N - I Sjault
with N the numberof linesoriginatingat thesubstation,Sba.vethe base power, and

S/auft
the short-circuitpower for asubstationfault. The exposed length is found from
2 ~
r r
'-exp = N x '-erit = NN_ I --z 1 _V V
Slaul, (6 2)
.6
The exposed length for the nine substationsis shown in Fig. 6.49, where the crosses
indicate the resultsof the method of fault positions. There are obviously differences
between the resultsof the twomethods,with the method of fault positions viewed as the
most accurateone. But for themethodof fault positions a largepart of the national
grid needs to be modeled. All thedata needed for the method of critical distances is,
from equation(6.62):
• numberof lines originating from the substation;

• fault level of the substation;and
• feederimpedanceper unit length.
All this datacan beobtainedwithout much difficulty.

Another interestingobservationfrom (6.62) concerns thevariation in sag fre-
quency among different substations.The main variation can be brought back to
fault level,numberof lines originating at thesubstation,and fault frequency.
Mitigation of
Interruptions and
Voltage Sags
This chaptergives an overviewof methodsto mitigate voltagesags andinterruptions.

After a general discussiono f the variousforms of mitigation, we concentrateon power
system design and on mitigation equipmentto be installed between thepower system
and the sensitiveequipment.Especially thelatter is underfast developmentsince a few
years. Anattemptis made to give aneutraloverview of the variousoptions,knowing
that new developmentsare veryhard to predict. Powersystem design is a m ore tradi-
tional area,althoughnew developmentsin power electronicsare also expected to have
an impact here.
7.1 OVERVIEW OF MITIGATION METHODS
7.1.1 From Fault to Trip
In the previous chapterswe discussed voltagemagnitudeevents (voltage sags,

shortinterruptions,and longinterruptions)in considerabledetail: their origin,methods
of characterization,monitoring and prediction,and their effects onequipment.In this
chapterwe look at existing and future ways of mitigating voltagemagnitudeevents. To
understandthe variouswaysof mitigation, the mechanismleading to anequipmenttrip
needs to beunderstood.Figure 7.1 shows how ashort circuit leads to anequipment
trip. The equipmenttrip is what makes the event problem;if
a there were noequipment
trips, there would not be any voltage quality problem. The underlying event of the
equipmenttrip is a short-circuit fault: a low-impedanceconnectionbetween two or
more phases, or between one or more phases ground. and At the fault position the
voltage drops to a low value. The effecto f the short circuit at other positionsin the
system is an event of caertain magnitudeand duration at the interface between the
equipmentand the power system. The short-circuitfault will always cause avoltagesag
for somecustomers.If the fault takes place in a radial part of the system, theprotection
intervention clearing the fault will also lead to an interruption. If there is sufficient
redundancypresent, theshort circuit will only lead to a voltage sag. If theresulting
event exceeds caertain severity, it will cause anequipmenttrip. Admittedly, not only
389
390 Chapter7 • Mitigation of Interruptionsand Voltage Sags
Reduce number
of faults
Improve system
design
Mitigate
disturbance
Improve
equipment
Figure 7.1 The voltagequality problemand
ways of mitigation.
shortcircuits lead toequipmenttrips, but also events likecapacitorswitching or voltage

sags due tomotor starting. But the largemajority of equipmenttrips will be due to
short-circuit faults. Most of the reasoningto follow also applies to anyother event
potentially leading to anequipmenttrip.
Figure 7.1 enables us todistinguishbetween thevariousmitigation methods:
• reducing thenumberof short-circuitfaults.

• reducing thefault-clearingtime.
• changingthe system suchthat short-circuitfaults result in less severe events at
the equipmentterminalsor at thecustomerinterface.
• connectingmitigation equipment between the sensitiveequipmentand the
supply.
• improving the immunity of the equipment.
These four types ofmitigation are discussed briefly next. Power system design and
mitigation equipmentat the system-equipmentinterfaceare discussed in detail in the
remainderof this chapter.Power engineers have always usedcombinationof
a these
mitigation methodsto ensurea reliableoperationof equipment.Classically the empha-
sis has been on reducing the number of interruptions, while recently emphasishas
shifted toward mitigating voltagesags.
7.1.2 Reducing the Number of Faults
Reducingthe numberof short-circuitfaults in a systemnot only reduces the sag

frequency but also the frequency of sustainedinterruptions.This is thus a very effective
way of improvingthe quality of supplyand manycustomerssuggest this as the obvious
solution when a voltage sag or short interruptionproblemoccurs. Unfortunately,the
solution is rarely that simple. A short circuit not only leads to a voltage sag or inter-
ruption at thecustomerinterfacebut may also causedamageto utility equipmentand
plant. Thereforemost utilities will alreadyhave reduced the fault frequency as far as
economically feasible. Inindividual cases therecould still be room for improvement,
e.g., when themajority of trips is due to faults on one or two distribution lines. Some
examples of faultmitigation are:
Section 7.1 • Overview of Mitigation Methods 391
• Replaceoverheadlines byundergroundcables. A largefraction of short-circuit

faults is due to adverseweatheror other external influences.U nderground
cables are much less affected externalphenomena
by (with the obvious excep-
tion of excavation).The fault rate on anundergroundcable is anorder of
magnitudelessthan for an overheadline. The effect is a bigreductionin the
number of voltage sags andinterruptions. A disadvantageof underground
cables isthat the repair time is much longer.
• Use covered wires foroverheadline. A recentdevelopmentis the construction
of overheadlines with insulatedwires. Normally the wires of anoverheadline
are bareconductors.With covered wires, theconductorsare covered with a
thin layer of insulatingmaterial.Even thoughthe layer is not a fullinsulation,
it has proven to be efficient inreducingthe fault rate ofoverheadlines [208],
[212]. Also other types ofconductorsmay reduce the fault rate [213].
• Implementa strict policyof tree trimming.Contactbetween treebranchesand
wires can be animportantcauseof short-circuitfaults, especiallyduring heavy
loadingof the line. Due to theheatingof the wires their sag increases, making
contactwith trees more likely.N ote that this is also the timeduring which the
consequences of a short circuit are most severe.
• Install additional shielding wires.Installation of one or two shielding wires
reduces the riskof a fault due to lightning. The shielding wires are located
such that severelightning strokesare most likely to hit a shielding wire. A
lightning stroke to a shielding wire isnormally conductedto earththrougha
tower.
• Increasethe insulation level. This generally reduces the risk short-circuit
of
faults. Note that many short circuits are due toovervoltagesor due to a
deteriorationof the insulation.
• Increasemaintenanceand inspectionfrequencies. This again generally reduces
the risk of faults. If themajority of faults are due to adverse weather, as is often
the case, the effect of increasedmaintenanceand inspectionis limited.
One has to keep in mind, however,that these measures may be very expensive that
and
its costs have to be weighted
againstthe consequencesof the equipmenttrips.
7.1.3 Reducing the Fault-Clearing Time
Reducingthe fault-clearingtime does not reduce the numberof events but only
their severity. It does not doanything to reduce thenumberor duration of interrup-
tions. Thedurationof an interruptionis determinedby the speed with which the supply
is restored.Fasterfault-clearingdoes also not affect the numberof voltage sags but it
can significantly limit the sagduration.
The ultimate reductionin fault-clearingtime is achieved by using current-limiting
fuses [6],[7]. Current-limitingfuses are able to clear a fault within one half-cycle,that
so
the durationof a voltage sag will rarely exceed one cycle.If we further realizethat fuses
have an extremely small chanceof fail-to-trip, we have what looks like theultimate
solution. The recentlyintroducedstatic circuit breaker[171], [175] also gives a fault-
clearing time within one half-cycle; but it is obviously much more expensive than a
current-limiting fuse. No information is availableaboutthe probability of fail-to-trip.
Additionally several types offault-currentlimiters have beenproposedwhich not so
much clear the fault, but significantly reduce the fault-currentmagnitudewithin one or
two cycles.
One importantrestrictionof all these devices is t hat they can only be used for low-
and medium-voltagesystems. Themaximumoperatingvoltage is a few tenso f kilovolts.
Staticcircuit breakersshow thepotentialto be able tooperateat higher voltage levels in
the future.
But thefault-clearingtime isnot only the time needed to open the breakerbut also
the time needed for the p rotectionto make a decision. Here we need considertwo
to
significantly different types of distribution networks,both shown in Fig. 7.2.
The topdrawingin Fig. 7.2 shows a system with one circuit breakerprotectingthe
whole feeder.The protectionrelay with thebreakerhas acertaincurrentsetting. This
setting is suchthat it will be exceeded for any fault on the feeder, but not exceeded for
any fault elsewhere in the system nor for any loadingsituation.The momentthe current
value exceeds thesetting (thus for any fault on the feeder) the relay instantaneously
gives a trip signal to thebreaker. Upon receptionof this signal, thebreakeropens
within a few cycles. Typicalfault-clearingtimes in these systems are around 100 milli-
seconds. To limit thenumberof long interruptionsfor the customers,reclosing is used
in combination with (slow) expulsion fuses in the laterals or incombination with
interruptorsalong the feeder. This typeof protectionis commonly used inoverhead
systems.Reducingthe fault-clearing time mainly requires a fasterbreaker.The static
circuit breakeror severalof the othercurrentlimiters would be goodoptionsfor these
systems. Acurrent-limitingfuse to protectthe whole feeder is notsuitableas it makes
fast reclosingmore complicated.Current-limiting fuses can also not be used for the
protection of the laterals because they wouldstart arcing before the mainbreaker
opens. Using a fasterclearing with the main breakerenables fasterclearing in the
lateralsas well.
The network in the bottom drawing of Fig. 7.2 consistsof a numberof distribu-
tion substationsin cascade. To achieve selectivity, time-grading of the overcurrent
relays is used. The relays furthest away from the source tripinstantaneouslyon over-
current.When moving closer to the source, the tripping delay increases each time with
typically 500 ms. In theexamplein Fig. 7.2 the delay times would be 1000ms, 500 ms,
and zero(from left to right). Close to the source, fault-clearing times can be up to
several seconds. These kind of systems are typically used underground
in networksand
in industrial distribution systems.
pr~
Figure 7.2Distribution system with one
circuit breakerprotectingthe whole feeder
(top) and with anumberof substations
. .overcient (bottom).
Section 7.1 • Overviewof Mitigation Methods 393
The fault-clearingtime can be reduced by using inverse-time overcurrentrelays.

For inverse-timeovercurrentrelays, the delay time decreases for increasingfault cur-
rent. But even with these schemes, fault-clearingtimes above one second are possible.
The varioustechniquesfor reducingthe fault-clearingtime without loosing selectivity
are discussed invariouspublicationson power systemprotection,e.g., [176] and[10].
To achieve a seriousreduction in fault-clearing time one needs to reduce the
grading margin, therebyallowing a certain loss of selectivity. The relay setting rules
described in mostpublicationsare based onpreventingincorrecttrips. Futureprotec-
tion settings need to be based onmaximumfault-clearingtime.
a A methodof translat-
ing a voltage-tolerancecurve into atime-currentcurve is described in[167]. The latter
curve can be used in c ombinationwith relay curves toobtain the varioussettings. The
opening timeof the downstreambreakeris an importantterm in theexpressionfor the
gradingmargin. By using fasterbreakers,or evenstatic circuit breakers,the grading
margin can be significantly reduced, thus leading to a significant reduction in fault-
clearing time. Theimpactof staticcircuit breakersmight be bigger in these systems than
in the ones with onebreakerprotectingthe whole feeder.
In transmissionsystems thefault-clearingtime is often determinedby transient-
stability constraints.These constraintsare much more strictt han the thermal con-
straintsin distribution systems,requiring shorterfault-clearingtimes, rarely exceeding
200ms. This also makes t hat further reductionof the fault-clearingtime becomes much
more difficult. Someremainingoptions for the reductionof the fault-clearingtime in
transmissionsystems are:
breakerscould beof help. This againnot only limits

• In some cases faster circuit
the fault-clearingtime directly but it also limits thegradingmarginfor distance
protection. One should realize howeverthat faster circuit breakerscould be
very expensive.
• A certain reductionin grading margin is probably possible. This willnot so
much reduce thefault-clearingtime in normal situations,but in case the pro-
tection failsand a backuprelay has to intervene. When reducingthe grading
margin oneshouldrealizethat lossof selectivity isunacceptablein most trans-
mission systems as it leads to the loss of twomorecomponents
or at the same
time.
• Fasterbackupprotectionis one of the few effective meanso f reducing fault-
clearing time intransmissionsystems. Possible optionsare to useintertripping
for distanceprotection,and breaker-failureprotection.
7.1.4 Changing the Power System
By implementingchangesin the supply system, the severityof the event can be

reduced. Here again the costs can become very high, especially transmissionand
for
subtransmissionvoltage levels. The mainmitigation methodagainstinterruptionsis the
installationof redundantcomponents.
Some examples of mitigation methodsespecially directedtowardvoltage sags are:
• Install a generatornearthe sensitive load. The

generatorswill keep the voltage
up during a sag due to aremotefault. The reductionin voltagedrop is equal to
the percentagecontributionof the generatorstationto the faultcurrent.In case
a combined-heat-and-power station is planned, it is worth to consider the

position of its electricalconnectionto the supply.
• Split busses orsubstationsin the supplypathto limit the numberof feeders in
the exposed area.
• Install current-limiting coils at strategicplaces in the system to increase the
"electricaldistance"to the fault. Oneshouldrealizethat this canmakethe sag
worse for other customers.
• Feed the bus with the sensitive equipmentfrom two or more substations.A
voltage sag in onesubstationwill be mitigated by the infeed from theother
substations.The moreindependentthe substationsare themorethe mitigation
effect. The bestmitigation effect is by feeding from twodifferent transmission
substations.Introducing the second infeed increases the numberof sags, but
reduces their severity.
The numberof short interruptionscan bepreventedby connectinglesscustomersto

one recloser (thus, byinstalling more reclosers), or bygetting rid of the reclosure
schemealtogether.Short as well as longinterruptions are considerablyreduced in
frequency byinstalling additional redundancyin the system. The costs for this are
only justified for large industrial and commercialcustomers.Intermediatesolutions
reduce theduration of (long) interruptionsby having a levelo f redundancyavailable
within a certain time. The relations betweenpower system design,interruptions,and
voltage sags are discussed in detail in Sections 7.2 and 7.3.former
The mainly considers
methodsof reducing thedurationof an interruption,where thelatterdiscussesrelations
between sag frequency and system design.
7.1.5 Installing Mitigation Equipment
The mostcommonlyappliedmethodof mitigation is theinstallationof additional

equipmentat the system-equipmentinterface. Recentdevelopmentspoint toward a
continuedinterest in this wayof mitigation. The popularity of mitigation equipment
is explained by it being the only place where the
customerhascontrolover thesituation.
Both changes in the supply as well improvementof
as the equipmentare often com-
pletely outsideof the control of the end-user.
Some examples ofmitigation equipmentare:
• Uninterruptiblepower supplies (UPSs) are extremelypopularfor computers:

personalcomputers,central servers, andprocess-controlequipment.For the
latter equipmentthe costs of a UPS are negligible
comparedto the total costs.
• Motor-generatorsets are oftendepictedas noisyand as needingmuch main-
tenance. But inindustrial environmentsnoisy equipmentand maintenanceon
rotating machines arerathernormal. Large batteryblocks alsorequiremain-
tenance, expertise on which is much less available.
• Voltage sourceconverters (VSCs) generatea sinusoidal voltage with the
required magnitudeand phase, by switching a de voltage inparticularway
a
over the three phases. This voltage source can be used
mitigatevoltage
to sags
and interruptions.
Mitigation equipmentis discussed in detail in Section 7.4.

Section 7.1 • Overviewof Mitigation Methods 395
7.1.8 Improving Equipment Immunity
Improvementof equipmentimmunity is probably the most effectivesolution

against equipmenttrips due to voltage sags. But it is often
not suitable as a short-
time solution. A customeroften only findsout about equipmentimmunity after the
equipmenthas been installed.
For consumerelectronics it is veryhardfor a customerto
find out about immunity of the equipmentas he is not in directc ontact with the
manufacturer.Even mostadjustable-speed drives have become off-the-shelfequipment
where thecustomerhas no influence on the specifications. Only large
industrial equip-
ment is custom-madefor a certain application, which enables theincorporationof
voltage-tolerancerequirements.
Severalimprovementoptions have been discussed in detail Chapter5.
in Some
specificsolutionstoward improved equipmentare:
• The immunity of consumerelectronics,computers,and controlequipment(i.e.,

single-phase low-powerequipment)can be significantlyimproved by connect-
ing more capacitanceto the internal de bus. This will increase the maximum
sagdurationwhich can betolerated.
• Single-phase low-powerequipmentcan also beimproved by using a more
sophisticatedde/de converter: one which is able to operate over a wider
range ofinput voltages. This will reduce the minimum voltage for which the
equipmentis able tooperateproperly.
• The main source ofconcernare adjustable-speed drives. We sawthat ac drives
can be made totoleratesags due to single-phase and phase-to-phase faults by
adding capacitanceto the de bus. To achieve toleranceagainst sags due to
three-phasefaults, seriousimprovementsin the inverteror rectifier are needed.
• Improving the immunity of de adjustable-speed drives is very difficult because
the armaturecurrent, and thus thetorque, drops very fast. Themitigation
methodwill be very muchdependenton restrictionsimposed by theapplication
of the drive.
• Apart from improving (power) electronicequipmentlike drives and process-
control computersa thorough inspection of theimmunity of all contactors,
relays, sensors, etc., can also significantly
improve the processridethrough.
• When newequipmentis installed, information about its immunity should be
obtained from the manufacturer beforehand. Where possible,immunity
requirementsshould be included in theequipmentspecification.
For short interruptions,equipmentimmunity is very hard to achieve; for long inter-

ruptions it is impossible to achieve. The
equipmentshould in so far be immune to
interruptions, that no damageis caused and nodangeroussituation arises. This is
especiallyimportantwhen consideringa completeinstallation.
7.1.7 Different Events and Mitigation Methods
Figure 7.3 shows themagnitudeand duration of voltage sags andinterruptions

For differenteventsdifferent mitigation strategies
resulting from various system events.
apply.
100%
800/0
]
.~
~
~
Local
50% MVnetworks
Interruptions
0% - - - - - -....- - - - - -.....- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.1 s 1s
Duration
Figure 7.3 Overviewof sags andinterruptions.
• Sags due toshort-circuitfaults in thetransmissionand subtransmissionsystem

are characterizedby a short duration, typically up to lOOms. These sags are
very hard to mitigate at the source and also improvementsin the system are
seldom feasible. The only way of mitigating these sags is by
improvementof the
equipmentor, where thisturnsout to be unfeasible,installingmitigation equip-
ment. For low-powerequipmenta UPS is astraightforwardsolution; for high-
power equipmentand for completeinstallationsseveralcompetingtools are
emerging.
• As we saw in Section 7.1.3, the duration of sags due todistribution system
faults dependson the typeof protectionused,rangingfrom lessthana cycle for
current-limiting fuses up to several seconds for overcurrentrelays in under-
ground or industrial distribution systems. The long sag duration makesthat
equipmentcan also trip due to faults on distribution feeders fed fromanother
HV/MV substation.For deep long-duration sags,equipmentimprovement
becomes more difficulta nd systemimprovementeasier. Thelatter could well
become thepreferredsolution, althougha critical assessment of the various
options is certainly needed.Reducingthe fault-clearing time and alternative
designconfigurationsshould be considered.
• Sags due to faults inremotedistributionsystems and sags due motorstarting
to
should not lead to equipmenttripping for sags down to85%. If there are
problemsthe equipmentneeds to be improved. Ifequipmenttrips occur for
long-durationsags in the70%-80% magnituderange, improvementsin the
system have to be consideredas anoption.
• For interruptions,especially the longer ones, improving the equipmentimmu-
nity is no longer feasible. System
improvementsor a UPS incombinationwith
an emergencygeneratorare possiblesolutions here. Somealternativesare
presentedin Sections 7.2 and 7.3.
Section 7.2 • Power System
D esign-Redundancy
ThroughSwitching 397
7.2 POWER SYSTEM DESIGN-REDUNDANCY THROUGH SWITCHING
This and the next section discuss someof the relationsbetweenstructureandoperation

of power systemsand the numberof voltage sags andinterruptions.The reductionof
interruptionfrequency is animportantpart of distributionsystem design and as such it
is treatedin detail in a numberof books and in many papers.Often cited books on
distribution system design are"Electricity Distribution Network Design" by Lakervi
and Holmes [114] and "Electric Power Distribution SystemEngineering" by Gonen
[164]. Other publicationstreatingthis subject inpart are [23], [115], [116], [165], [209],
[214]. Many case studies have appearedover the years in conferences and transactions
of the IEEE Industry ApplicationsSociety and to a lesser degree in the publicationsof
the PowerEngineeringSociety andof the Institute of Electrical Engineers.
7.2.1 Types of Redundancy
The structureof the distribution system has a big influence on the numberand
durationof the interruptionsexperienced by thecustomer.The influence of thetrans-
mission system ismuch smaller becauseof the high redundancyused. Interruptions
originating in the distribution system affect lesscustomersat a time, but any given
customerhas a muchhigherchanceof experiencing adistribution-originatedinterrup-
tion than a transmission-originated one. The largeimpact of interruptionsoriginating
in the transmissionsystemmakesthat they shouldbe avoided atalmostany cost. Hence
the high reliability of transmissionsystems.
Number and duration of interruptionsis determinedby the amount of redun-
dancy presentand the speed with which the redundancycan be made available. Table
7.1 gives some types of redundancyand thecorrespondingdurationof the interruption.
Whetherthe supply to a certainload is redundantdepends on the time scale at which
one islooking. In otherwords, on themaximuminterruptiondurationwhich the load
cantolerate.
When apowersystemcomponent,e.g., atransformer,fails it needs to berepaired
or its function takenover byanothercomponentbefore the supply can be restored.In
casethereis no redundanttransformeravailable, the faultedtransformerneeds to be
repairedor a spareone has to beb roughtin. The repairor replacementprocess can take
severalhours or, especially withpower transformers,even days up to weeks. Repair
times of up to onemonth have beenreported.
TABLE 7.1 Various Types of Redundancyin Power System Design
Duration of Interruption Typical Applications
No redundancy Hours throughdays Low voltage in rural areas

Redundancythroughswitching
- Local manualswitching 1 hour and more Low voltage anddistribution
- Remotemanualswitching 5 to 20minutes Industrial systems,
future public distribution
- Automatic switching I to 60 seconds Industrial systems
- Solid stateswitching I cycle and less Futureindustrial systems
Redundancythrough parallel Voltage sag only Transmissionsystems,
operation industrial systems
In most cases the supply is n ot restored through repair or replacementbut by

switching from the faulted supply to backupsupply.
a The speed with which this takes
place dependson the type of switching used. The various types will be discussed in
detail in theremainderof this section.
A smoothtransitionwithout any interruptiontakes place when two c omponents
are operatedin parallel. This will however notmitigate the voltage sag due to the fault
which often precedes the interruption.Various optionsand their effect on voltage sags
are discussed in Section 7.3.
7.2.2 Automatic Recloslng
Automatic reclosing was discussed in detail Chapter3.

in Automatic reclosing
after a short-circuitfault reduces thenumberof long interruptionsby changingthem
into short interruptions.Permanentfaults still lead to longinterruptions,but on over-
head distribution lines this is lessthan 25% of the total numberof interruptions.We
saw in Chapter3 that the disadvantageof the commonly usedmethod of automatic
reclosing isthat more customersare affected by a fault. A long i nterruptionfor part of
a feeder ischangedinto a shortinterruptionfor the whole feeder. This is not inherentto
automatic reclosing, but to themethod of fuse saving used. If all fuses would be
replaced by reclosers, the numberof shortinterruptionswould be significantly reduced.
A customerwould only experience ashort interruption for what would have been a
long interruptionwithout reclosing. This wouldof course make the supply more expen-
sive, which is not alwaysacceptablefor remote rural areas.
7.2.3 Normally Open Points
The simplest radial system possible is shown in Fig. 7.4: number

a of feeders
originate from a distribution substation.When a fault occurs on one o f the feeders,
the fuse will clear it, leading to an
interruptionfor all customersfed from this feeder.
The supply can only berestoredafter the faultedcomponenthas ·beenrepaired or
replaced. Such systems can be found rural in low-voltage anddistribution systems
with overheadfeeders.Protection is through fuses in thelow-voltage substations.
Repair of a faulted feeder (orreplacemento f a blown fuse) can take several hours,
repair or replacemento f a transformerseveral days. As the feeders are overheadthey
are prone to weather influences;stormsare especiallynotoriousfor it can take days
before all feeders have been repaired.
A commonlyusedmethodto reduce thedurationof an interruptionis to install a
normally open switch, often called"tie switch." An example is shown in Fig. 7.5.
Lateral
Figure 7.4 Power systemwithout

redundancy.
D esign-Redundancy
33/11 kV
n/o switch
----: ~
0/0 ntc¥nto
11kvt400~
Figure 7.5 Distribution system with

redundancy through manual switching.
The system is stilloperatedradially; this prevents the fault level from getting too
high and enables the use of (cheap)overcurrentprotection.If a fault occurs it is cleared
by a circuitbreakerin the substation.The faulted section is removed, thenormallyopen
switch is closed, and the supply can restored.The
be varioussteps in therestorationof
the supply are shown in Fig. 7.6.
(a) Normaloperation Nonnallyopen

I point
T$ $ $/' $ $
(b) Fault clearing
(c) Interruption
---r- Interruptionfor
these customers ____T
(d) Isolatingthe fault
---r-
n---~$ $
(e) Restoringthe supply
Figure 7.6 Restoration procedure in a
distribution system with normally open
points. (a) Normal operation, (b) fault
clearing, (c) interruption, (d) isolating the
fault, (e) restoring the supply.
In normal operation(a) the feeder isoperatedradially. A normally open switch is

located between this feeder and anotherfeeder,preferablyfed from anothersubstation.
When a fault occurs (b) the breakerprotectingthe feeder opens leading to an interrup-
tion for all customersfed from this feeder (c).After the fault is located, it is isolated
from the healthypartsof the feeder (d) and the supply to these healthy partsis restored
by closing the circuitbreakerand thenormally open switch (e).Repairof the feeder
only startsafter the supply has been restored. .
This procedurelimits the durationof an interruptionto typically one or two hours
in case the switching is done locally (i.e.,
somebodyhas to go to the switches to open or
close them). If faultlocation and switching is done remotely (e.g., in a regional
control
center) the supply can berestoredin several minutes.Locatingthe fault may take longer
than theactualswitching. Especially in case of protectionor signaling failure, locating
the fault can take a long time.Various techniques are in use for identifying the faulted
section of the feeder. More precise faultlocation,needed for repair, can be done after-
wards.
The type of operationshown in Figs. 7.5 and 7.6 is very commonly used in
undergroundlow-voltage and medium-voltagedistribution systems. Therepair of
undergroundcables can take several days that so system operationlike in Fig. 7.4
becomes totallyunacceptable.Similar restorationtechniquesare in use for medium-
voltage overheaddistribution, especially in the moreurbanpartsof the network. The
high costs for signalingequipmentand communicationlinks make remote switching
only suitable for higher voltagesandin industrialdistributionsystems. Whencustomer
demands forshorterdurationsof interruptionscontinueto increase, remote signaling
and switching will find its way into publicdistribution systems as well.
The additional costs for the system in Fig. 7.5 are not only switching, signaling
and communicationequipment.The feeder has to be dimensionedsuch that it can
handle the extra load. Also the voltage drop over the, nowpotentially twice as long,
feeder should not exceed the margins. Roughlyspeakingthe feeder can only feed half as
much load. This will increase the n umberof substationsand thus increase the costs.
7.2.4 Load Transfer
A commonly used and very effective way of mitigating interruptionsis transfer-

ring the load from theinterruptedsupply to ahealthysupply. Load transferdoes not
affect thenumberof interruptions,but it can significantly reduce thed uration of an
interruption. Load transfercan bedone automaticallyor manually; automatictrans-
fer is faster and therefore more effective in reducing interruption
the duration. An
example of manual switching was discussed before. Here we will concentrateon
automatictransfer of load, although the proposedschemes are equally suitable for
manualtransfer.
7.2.4.1 Maximum Transfer Time. An importantcriterion in the designof any

transfer scheme is themaximum interruption duration that can betolerated by the
equipment.The transfershould take place within this time, otherwise the load would
trip anyway. In anindustrialenvironmentthe rule for themaximum transfertime is
relatively simple: theshort interruptionof the voltageshould not lead to aninterrup-
tion of plant operation.An example is apapermill, where the interruption should
not lead totripping of the papermachine. Below acertain interruptionduration the
machine will not trip, for interruptionslasting longer it will trip. The choice is not
always that straightforward,e.g., with lighting of public buildings. A general rule is
D esign-Redundancy
that one should in all cases choose taransfer time such that the transfer does not
lead to unacceptableconsequences.W hat should be considered as unacceptableis
simply part of the decision process. In practice the loadof a power system is not
constant,and decisionsabouttransfertime may have to be revised several years later
because more sensitive equipmentis being used, as, e.g., described[163].
in
7.2.4.2 Mechanical LoadTransfer. Most transfer schemes use a mechanical

switch or circuit breakerto transferfrom one supplypoint to another.A typical con-
figuration as used inindustrial distribution systems is shown in Fig. 7.7. Two trans-
formers eachsupply part of the load. If oneof them fails, thenormally open switch
is closed and thetotal load is fed from onetransformer.Each transformershould be
able to supply thetotal load or a load shedding scheme should be in place. When a
short circuit occurs close to thetransfer switch, it is essentialt hat the load is not
transferred before the fault has been cleared: a so-called "break-before-make"
scheme. A"make-before-break"scheme would spread the fault to the healthy supply
leading to possibleintervention by the protectionin both feeders. In case one trans-
former is taken out of operation for maintenance,a (manual) make-before-break
scheme can be used. This reduces the risk of a interruptiondue
long to failure of the
transfer switch. During the parallel operation,a short circuit could lead to serious
switchgeardamage.
The advantagesof this schemecomparedto parallel operationare that the pro-
tection is simpler andthat the fault currentis lower. As long as the load can
toleratethe
shortinterruptionduring load transfer,the reliability of the supply is similar tothat of
parallel operation.As we saw in Section 2.8, load interruptionsfor a transferscheme
are mainly due to failureof the transferswitch and due to any kind of common-mode
effect in the two supplies. In an industrial environment,maintenanceand excavation
activities could seriously effect the supply reliability.
66 kV substation
Figure 7.7 Industrial power system with

redundancythroughautomaticswitching. Variousindustrialload
7.2.4.3 Transfer of Motor Load. A problem with automaticswitching is the

presenceof large numbersof induction motors in most industrial systems. When the
supply is interrupted,the remaining airgap flux generates a voltage over themotor
terminals. This voltage decays inmagnitudeand in frequency. The switching has to
take placeeither very fast (before themotor voltage has shifted much in phase com-
paredto the system voltage) or very slow (after the motor voltage has become zero).
As the first option is expensive, the second onenormally
is used.
The airgap field in a induction motor decayswith a certaintime constantwhich

varies from less than one cycle for small motors up to about 100 ms for large motors.
The time constantwith which the motor slows down is much larger: typically between
one and five seconds.
The momentthe motor is reconnected,the sourcevoltagewill normally not be in
phasewith the motor voltage. In case they are in opposite phasea large current will
flow. This currentcan be morethantwice thestartingcurrentof the motor. It caneasily
damagethe motor or lead to tripping of the motor by the overcurrentprotection.
The inducedvoltage has the following form:
E = isinro! (7.1)
with co the angularspeedof the motor, which decaysexponentially:
(J) = Wo(1 - e-f.;) (7.2)
and E dependenton the frequency and the exponentially decaying rotor current.
Assume for simplicity that the magnitudeof the induced voltage remains constant
and considera linear decayin motor speed:
(J) ~ (J)O(1 - L) (7.3)
This gives for the voltage at the motor terminals:
E(t) = Sin(Wo(1 - L)r) = sin(Wot _ ~~2) (7.4)
The secondterm underthe sinefunction is the phasedifferencebetweenthe supplyand

the induced voltage. As long as this phasedifference is less than 60°, the voltage
difference betweenthe sourceand the motor is less than 1 pu. A phasedifference of
60° (1) is reachedfor
~ (7.5)
t=y6KJ
For a mechanicaltime constantT:m = 1 secand a frequencyof 10 = 50 Hz an angular
differenceof 60° is reachedafter 58 ms. In thecalculationit is assumedthat the motor
has not slowed down during the fault. If this is also considered,the value of 60° is
reachedfaster.Only very fast transferschemesareableto switch within this shorttime.
A secondchanceat closing the transferswitch is when the angulardifferenceis about
360° (i.e., sourceand motor are in phaseagain). This takesplacefor
& (7.6)
t=Yh
which is 140IDS in the aboveexample.Theseso-calledsynchronoustransferschemesare
very expensiveand may still leadtotransfertimes above 100 ms. In most cases asyn-
chronoustransfer is used where the transfer switch is only closed after the induced
voltagehassufficiently decayed,leadingto transfertimes aroundonesecondor longer.
For synchronousmachinesthe airgapfield decayswith the sametime 'constantas
the motor speed,so that the terminal voltagemay be presentfor severalseconds.In a
systemwith a large fraction of synchronousmotor load, synchronoustransferbecomes
D esign-Redundancy
more attractive. Note that asynchronoustransferwill always lead to lossof the syn-
chronousmotor load.
7.2.4.4 Primary and Secondary Selective Supplies. Figures 7.8 and 7.9 show
two ways of providing a medium-voltagecustomerwith a reliable supply. In a pri-
mary selective system (Fig. 7.8) the transfer takes place on theprimary side of the
transformer.A secondaryselective system (Fig. 7.9) is more expensive but there is a
much reduced chance of very long interruptionsdue to transformerfailure. A numer-
ical analysisof such atransferscheme is given in Section 2.8.
The actual transferis identical to thetransferin the industrial supply shown in
Fig. 7.7: the load istransferredfrom the faulted to thehealthyfeeder as soon as possible
after fault clearing. With aprimary selective supply amake-before-break scheme would
directly connecttwo feeders. It is unlikelythat the utility allows this. Thetransfertakes
place behind atransformerwith the secondaryselective supply. The possible conse-
quencesof a make-before-breakscheme are less severe for the utility.
With the design ofprimary and secondaryselective supplies, it is again very
important to determinethe tolerance of the load to s hort interruptions.The choice
for a certaintype of transferscheme should depend on this tolerance.
Medium-voltage Medium-voltage
substation1 substation2
. -Automatic
transfer
switch
Industrial
Figure 7.8 Primary selective supply. customer
Medium-voltage Medium-voltage
substation1 substation2
Figure 7.9 Secondaryselective supply.

7.2.4.5 Static Transfer Switches.Static transfer switches have been used

already for several years inlow-voltage applications,e.g., in uninterruptablepower
supplies to be discussed in Section 7.4. Currently, static transfer switches are also
available for medium voltages [166], [171], [173]. Astatic transfer switch consistsof
two pairs of anti-parallelthyristors as shown in Fig. 7.10.During normal operation,
thyristor pair I is continuouslyfired, and thus conductingthe load current. Thyristor
pair II is not fired. In termsof switches,thyristor pair I behaves like a closed switch,
pair II like an open switch.
When adisturbanceis detectedon thenormalsupply,the firing of thyristor pair I
is disabled and the firingo f thyristor pair II enabled.The effectof this is that the load
currentcommutatesto the backupsupply within half a cycleof detectingthe distur-
bance.Actual transfertimes are lessthan 4ms [166]. The three small figures show the
voltages in a stylized way. In reality voltagesare sinusoidal,but the principle remains
the same.P oint A experiences adrop in voltage due to a sag or interruptionat time I.
This drop in voltage is alsoexperiencedby the load at point C. We assumethat the
backupsupply does not experience this. At time 2, the disturbanceis detected,the firing
of thyristor pair I is disabled,andthe firing of thyristorpair II enabled.At that moment
the commutationof the current from the normal supply to the backupsupply starts.
During commutationthe voltage atpoints A, B, and C is equal asboth thyristor pairs
are conducting.This voltage issomewherein between the twosupplyvoltages. At time
3 the commutationis complete(the thyristor currentin pair I extinguisheson the first
zero crossingafter the firing beingdisabled)and thevoltageat BandC comes back to
its normal value. Note that the current through the thyristors never exceeds the load
current,also not for a fault close to thestatic switch.
A static transfer switch can be used in any o f the transfer schemes discussed
before: industrial distribution, primary selective,secondaryselective. The speed with
which the transfer takes place makes .the distinction betweensynchronizedand non-
synchronizedtransferno longer relevant. Load transfer by a static transferswitch is
always synchronized.
To ensure very fasttransfer,any voltage sag orinterruptionin the normal supply
shouldbedetectedvery fast. Thecommutationof the currentfrom onethyristorpair to
the other takes lessthan half a cycle sothat we need adisturbancedetectionwhich is
equally fast. Static transfer schemes can use the missing voltage or a half-cycle rms
value to detect a sag or interruption. For the missingvoltage detectionscheme, the
Normal Backup
supply supply
II
~'----Ct---+---fc~ Dc
bL=
B
1 23
Figure 7.10 Constructionand principle of

123 operationof a static transferswitch.
D esign-Redundancy
ThroughParallelOperation 405
actual voltage iscomparedon a sample-by-samplebasis with theoutput voltage of a

phase-locked-loop(PLL). When the deviation becomes too large for too long, the
transferis initiated. With the rms scheme,transferis initiated when the rms voltage
drops below acertain threshold. The latter scheme is slower as it will lead to an
additional half-cycle delay, but it has a smaller chanceincorrect
of transfer.
A transferscheme using a static transferswitch enables thed urationof a voltage
sag to be limited tohalf a cycle by switching to thebackupsupply when a sag occurs in
the normalsupply. For sensitive load, astatictransferswitch might bepreferableabove
parallel operation.Voltage sagsoriginating in the transmissionsystemcannotbe miti-
gated by such atransfer scheme as the voltage sag is likely to be presentboth in
supplies; but for sags originating in the distribution system the statictransferscheme
is very effective. The mainlimitations are theunknownreliability of the transferswitch
and the degree in which the two sources independent.
are
The notch due to loadtransfercould be aconcern,especially for the load on the
healthy feeder. Whencomparingstatic transfer with parallel operation,a notch of
millisecond duration replaces the voltage sags of several cyclesduration. When com-
paringwith the mechanicaltransferscheme, thenotchin the backupsupply constitutes
a deteriorationof the voltagequality, albeit not a severedeterioration.Some utilities do
not allow parallel operation of feeders, requiring a so-called"break-before-make"
transfer scheme. Thestatic transfer switch as described here is essentially"make- a
before-break"scheme. It isimpossibleto predicthow strict utilities will apply this rule
on a sub-cycle timescale. As an alternativeone could enable firing ofthyristor pair II
only after the current through pair I has extinguished. Such b areak-before-make
scheme willobviously make the transferslower and couldactually make the voltage
transientin the healthy supplymore severe.
A final potential problem with static transferis that the normal supply and the
healthy supply are not exactly in phase. The phase-angledifference could lead to a small
0
phase-anglejump at the loadterminals.Values up to 6 have beenreported.As long as
there are nostandardson equipmenttoleranceto phase-angle jumps,it is hardto assess
the impact of this. The successful use of medium-voltagestatic transferswitches on a
numberof sitesindicatesthat the equipmentis able totoleratethe transient.
7.3 POWI!R SYSTEM DI!SIGN-REDUNDANCY THROUGH

PARALLI!L OPERATION
7.3.1 Parallel and Loop Systems
Figure 7.11 shows a publicdistribution network with a higher nominal voltage

than the one in Fig. 7.5. It serves more customersso it is worth to invest more in
reliability. Partof the system is stillo peratedin a radial way withnormally open points.
These are serving less densely populatedareas, and areas with less industrial activity.
The majority of the 33 kV system isoperatedwith parallel feeders. Bothpathscarry
part of the load. If onepathfails, the otherpathtakes over the supply instantaneously.
Also the 33/1I kV transformerand the 33 kV substationbus areoperatedin parallel.
The rating of eachcomponentis such that the load can be fully supplied if one com-
ponentfails.
We see in Fig. 7.11 two types of parallel operation:two feeders in parallel and a
loop system. Inboth cases there is single redundancy.The loop system is significantly
cheaper, especially in case of transformerconnections.But the voltagecontrol of loop
systems is more difficult, and the various loads are moreprone to disturbing each
33 kV
loop
6.6kV
llkV
Another33kV
network
~----t Figure 7.11Distribution network with
n/o redundancythroughparallel operation.
other'ssupply. Loop systems arethereforelesspopularin industrial systems,although

somesmallerloops (three or four busses) are used to limit numberof
the transformers.
7.3.1.1 Design Criteria for Parallel and Loop Systems.The design of parallel
and loop systems is based on the so-called (n - 1) criterion, which statesthat the
system consisting of n componentsshould be able to operate with only (n - 1)
componentsin operation, thus with onecomponentout of operation. This should
hold for anyonecomponentout of operation. The (n - 1) criterion is very com-
monly used inpower system design. It enables a high reliability without the need
for stochasticassessment. In some cases (large transmissionsystems,generatorsche-
duling), (n - 2) or (n - 3) criteria are used. As we saw in Section 2.8,thorough
a
assessmento f all "common-modefailures" is needed before one can trustfully use
such ahigh-redundancydesign criterion.
Here we will concentrateon the (n - 1) criterion, also referred to as "single
redundancy."This criterion is very commonly used in the designof industrial med-
ium-voltagedistribution as well as in publicsubtransmissionsystems. The main design
rule is that no single eventshould lead to aninterruption of the supply to any of the
customers.In an industrial environmentthe wording is somewhatdifferent: no single
eventshouldlead to aproductionstop for any of the plants. How these basic rules are
further developeddependson the kind of system. A list of things that have to be
consideredis given.
1. The obviousfirst rule is that no componentoutageshouldlead to an inter-

ruption. Thereshouldthus be analternatepath for the power flowthrough
any component.
2. Not only shouldthere be analternatepathfor the power flow, thisalternate
path shouldalso not lead to anoverloadsituation. In the public supply the
Section7.3 • Power SystemDesign-Redundancy
ThroughParallel Operation 407
load demandvaries significantlyduring the day. Acertainamountof over-

load can betoleratedfor a few hours. Inindustrial systems the load is typi-
cally more constant,so that any overloadwould bepermanent.However in
industrialsystems it is often easier to reduce the load on a time scale
hours
of
or to start on-site generation.
3. The power systemprotectionshouldbe able to clear any faultwithout caus-
ing an interruptionfor any of the customers. This requiresmore complicated
protectionsystemsthan for radial-operatednetworks. Theseprotectionsys-
tems require additional voltage transformersand/or communicationlinks.
Also thenumberof circuit breakersincreases: two circuitbreakersare needed
for eachconnectionbetween twosubstationsin a looped orparallel system.
4. Voltage fluctuationsdue to rapid loadfluctuations and voltage sags due to
motor startingshouldbe within limits for anyonecomponentout of opera-
tion. This translatesinto a minimum fault level for any load bus. The switch-
gearratingdictatesa maximumfault level for the system with allcomponents
in operation.The optimal use of this margin betweenmaximum and mini-
mum fault levels is oneof the main challenges in the design industrial
of
medium-voltagedistribution systems.
5. The electromechanicaltransientdue to ashort circuit in the system with all
componentsin operationshould not lead to loss of any load. In industrial
systems with a large fraction of inductionmotor load, it must beensuredthat
thesemotorsare able to re-acellerate after the fault.
6. The voltage sag due to any fault in the systemshouldnot lead to tripping of
essentialload with any of the customers.
From this list it becomesobviousthat the designof a parallel or loop system

could be a
serious challenge. But the reliability
demandsof largeindustrialplantsare suchthat no
radial system could deliver this. The increased reliability is more
than worth the higher
installationcosts and costso f operation.
7.3.1.2 Voltage Sags in Parallel and Loop Systems. Considerthe system shown
in Fig. 7.12: three supplyalternativesfor an industrial plant. In theradial system on
the left, theplant is fed through a 25 km overheadline; two more overheadlines ori-
ginate from the samesubstation,each with a lengthof 100km. In thecenterfigure
the plant is fed from a loop bymaking a connectionto the nearestfeeder. In the
third alternativeon the right aseparateoverheadline has beenconstructedin paral-
lel with the existing 25 km line. Themagnitudeof voltage sags due to faults in this
system is shown in Fig. 7.13. The calculationsneeded toobtain this figure are dis-
cussed in Section 4.2.4. We will use Fig. 7.13 to assessnumberof
the voltage sags ex-
periencedby the plant for the three designalternatives.
For the radial system, theplant will experienceinterruptionsdue to faults on
25 km of overheadline, and voltage sags due to faults on 200 of kmline. The relation
between sagmagnitudeand distanceto the fault isaccordingto the dottedline in Fig.
7.13. Improving the voltage toleranceof the equipmentwill significantly reduce the
exposed length. The exposed length for radial operation is given in Table 7.2 for
different equipmentvoltage tolerances. By simplyadding the exposed lengths, it is
assumedthat the impact of interruptionsand voltage sags is the same, whichnot is
always the case. Even if the process trips due to a voltage sag, it mightrequire still
power from the supply for a safes hutdownof the plant.
Substation Substation Substation

II III II III II III
]
] ] an
an an N
N N X
N
] B .e
§ § 0
~
100km lOOkm 100km
Figure 7.12 Threesupply alternativesfor an industrial plant: radial (left), looped

(center),and parallel (right).
0.8
a
.8
-8 0.6
a
.~
m 0.4 .-
f
f/} :
,
I
I
........
.,
"
Figure 7.13 Sag magnitudeas a function of

0.2 :/ ,
....
:t \ fault position for faults in the systemshown

\
:'
:'
\
, in Fig. 7.12. Solid line:faults on the 25 km
\
branchof a 125 km loop; dashedline: faults
20 40 60 80 100 on the 100km branchof a 125km loop;
Fault positionin kilometers dotted line: faults on aradial feeder.
TABLE 7.2 ExposedLengthfor VariousEquipmentVoltageTolerancesfor Radial

Operationin Fig. 7.12
ExposedLength
VoltageTolerance FeederI FeederII FeederIII Total
Trips on interruptionsonly 25 km 25 km
Trips on sags below20% 25 km 3km 3 km 31km
Trips on sags below50% 25 km 12 km 12 km 45 km
Trips on sags below900/0 25 km 100 km 100 km 225 km
The calculationshave beenrepeatedfor loopedoperationas in thecenterdrawing

in Fig. 7.12, resulting in the values shown in Table 7.3. Only equipmentimmuneto
for
all voltage sags will thenumberof equipmenttrips be lessthan for the radial supply.
The exposed length for thevariousequipmentvoltagetolerancesis given in Table
7.4 for parallel operation. For a voltage toleranceof 50% this option is preferable
above loopedoperation.Knowledgeof the various costs involved is needed to decide
if this reductionin trip frequency isworth the investment.
D esign-Redundancy
Through ParallelOperation 409
TABLE 7.3 ExposedLength for Various Equipment Voltage Tolerances for

Looped Operation in Fig. 7.12
Exposed Length
VoltageTolerance Feeder I Feeder II Feeder III Total
Trips on interruptions only
Trips on sags below 200/0 25 km 14km 3 km 42 km
Trips on sags below 50°A» 25 km 100 km 12 km 137 km
TABLE 7.4 Exposed Length for Various Equipment Voltage Tolerances for
Parallel Operation in Fig. 7.12
Exposed Length
VoltageTolerance Feeder I Feeder II Feeder III Total
Trips on interruptions only
Trips on sags below 20% 50 km 3 km 3 km 56 km
Trips on sags below 90% 50 km 100 km 100 km 250 km
7.3.2 Spot Networks
The basiccharacteristicof a spot network isthat a bus is fed from two or more
different busses at a higher voltage level. In the previous section we looked at parallel
and loop systems originatingat the same bus or at two busses connectedby a normally
closed breaker. When a bus is fed from two different busses, the same design problems
have to be solved as for parallel and loop systems. (n - 1) criterion remains the
The
underlying rule. Themagnitudeof voltage sags is significantly lower for spot networks,
comparedto parallel networks. Also thenumber of interruptionswill be somewhat
lower, but that difference will not be significant as the
numberis already low.
7.3.2.1 Magnitudeof Voltage Sags. Considerthe system in Fig. 7.14: the bus-
bar with the sensitive load is fed from two different busbarsat a higher voltage level,
ZSI and ZS2 are source impedances at the higher voltage level, Ztt and Zt2 are trans-
former impedances, z is the feeder impedance per unit length, {, the distance between
bus I and the fault. The two busses can be in the same substationor in two different
substations.The reliability in thelatter case is likely to besomewhathigher, although
it is hard to exactlyquantify this difference.
Consider a fault on a feederoriginatingfrom bus I at a distance£, from the bus.
The magnitudeof the voltage at bus I is found from the voltage-dividerequation
(7.7)
where we neglect the effect of the second source on the voltage at bus I. This is a
reasonableassumptionas the impedanceof the two transformersin series will be
much higher than the source
impedanceat bus I. If we assume the two sources to be
ZSl
BusI-..........- . - - - ..........--BusIl
Fault Figure 7.14 Busbarfed from two different

Sensitive load busbarsat a higher voltage level.
completelyindependent,so that the sourcevoltageat bus II doesnot drop due to the

fault, the voltageat the load bus isfound from
v.wg = VI + Z ~tl Z (1 - VI) (7.8)

II + 12 + SI
We simplify the expressionssomewhatto be betterable to assess the effect

of the double
supply. Assumethat z == ZSI, which is alwayspossibleby choosingthe properdistance
unit. Assumealso that Z,1 = Zt2 and that ZSl «
Z,t and ZS2 « 2 ,2, The voltageat the
load bus is, undertheseassumptions:
V t: +12
sag - .c + 1 (7.9)
and at bus I:
c (7.10)
VI = £+ 1
For a radially operatedsystem,without a connectionto bus II the voltageat the
load bus is equal to the voltage at bus I, given by (7.10).Figure 7.15 comparesthe
voltage magnitudeat the load bus for the two designalternatives.It is immediately
obvious that the secondinfeed significantly reducesthe voltagedrop. The deepestsag
will have a magnitudeof 50% of nominal. Here it is assumedthat the secondtrans-
former has the sameimpedanceas the first one. Inpractice this translatesto them
having the samerating. If the secondtransformerhas asmaller rating, its impedance
will typically be higher and the voltagesag will bedeeper.
From the expressionsfor the voltageversusdistance,we can obtain expressions
for the critical distance,like in Section6.5. For the radial systemwe obtain the same
expressionas before:
(7.11)
For the systemwith doubleinfeed, we obtain

V-!
Lcrit = 1 _ ~, V ~ 0.5 (7.12)
D esign-Redundancy
0.8
a /
.S "
~ 0.6 "
.a '
.~
8 0.4
~
r:J)
0.2
·Figure 7.15 Sagmagnitudeas adistanceto

the fault, without (solid line) and with (dashed
line) a connectionto a secondsubstationat a 2 4 6 8 10
higher voltage level. Distance to fault (arbitr. units)
10,..-----y------r-----r-----,..-..,..,....----,
I
I I
, I
, I
I,,
, I
, , I I
i I
,, ,,'
, ,
, , I I
,,
I I
.'
.' ,
I
I
Figure 7.16 Exposed length for radial supply , ,I "
,II / '
(solid line) and for aconnectionto a second ". ,,"
substationat a higher voltage level: same "."" .,
numberof feeders from bothsubstations ".:'" "
(dashed line); twice as many feeders from the 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
secondsubstation(dash-dotline). Sag magnitude in pu
and L,crit = 0 for V < 0.5. From the critical distancethe exposed length can be calcu-
lated, resultingin Fig. 7.16. Themain featureis that the exposed length is zero in case
the equipmentcan toleratea sag down to50% of nominal. This could be an i mportant
pieceof informationin decidingaboutthe voltage-tolerancerequirementsfor the load.
For higher critical voltages(more sensitiveequipment)the exposed lengthdependson
the numberof feedersoriginatingfrom the two busses. Let INbe thenumberof feeders
fed from busI and N 2 the numberof feeders fed from bus II. The total exposed length
for the load fed from both feeders is found from
(7.13)
for the spot network and
(7.14)
for the radial system. In case NI = N 2, the exposed length for the
double infeed is
always lessthan for single infeed. WhenN2 > N, the double-infeedoption becomes
lessattractivewhen theequipmentbecomes too sensitive. In the example shown by a
dash-dottedline in Fig. 7.16, N2 = 2N}, the cross-overpoint is at 75% remaining

voltage.
It is important to realize that the second bus does not have to beanother at
substation.By operatinga substationwith two bussesconnectedby a normally open
breaker,the same effect is achieved. Suchconfigurationmight
a not be feasible in the
public supply as it reduces the reliability for
customersfed from aradial feeder. But for
industrial distribution systems it is an easymethodof reducing the sagmagnitude.
7.3.2.2 Public Low- Voltage Systems. An example of a low-voltagespotnetwork

is shown in Fig. 7.17. A low-voltage bus is fed by two or more feeders originating
from different substationsor from busses notoperatedin parallel. Theprotectionof
the feeders takes place by overcurrentprotectionin the medium-voltagesubstations
and by a sensitive reverse-power relay (the "network protector") at the low-voltage
bus. In public systems it is not always possible to supply from different substations.
This will still lead to a low numberof interruptions,but the numberof voltage sags
will not be reduced, and will even be somewhatincreased due to faults on the parallel
feeders.
The system shown in Fig. 7.18 is also referred to as spotnetwork;otherscall
a it a
distributedgrid network, or simply asecondarynetwork. Suchnetworksare common
in the downtown areas of large cities (NewYork, Chicago, London, Berlin).
Distributedlow-voltagenetworkswith an operatingvoltage of 120 V typically use no
protection against low-voltage faults. The faultcurrent is so high that every short
circuit will burn itself free in a short time. For voltage levels of 200 V and higher,
expulsionfuses orcurrent-limitingfuses are used. A networkprotectoris againinstalled
on secondaryside of everytransformerto preventbackfeed from the low-voltage net-
work into medium-voltagefaults. Thesedistributedlow-voltage networksoffer a high
reliability. Outageson any of thedistribution feeders willnot be noticed by thecusto-
mers. For the mitigation of sags it is essentialthat the feedersoriginate in different
substations,otherwise thenumberof sags will even be increased. Any fault in the low-
voltage network will cause a sag for allcustomerssuppliedfrom this network.The use
of current-limitingfuses will significantly reduce the sag
duration,so that these sags are
not of much concern.
T Oifferent MV
substations
SecondaryLVfeeders Figure 7.17Low-voltage spot network.

D esign-Redundancy
Substation 1 Substation2
MVILV
transformers
Low-voltage
network
Substation 3
Figure 7.18 Low-voltagedistributedgrid.
A comparisonof different designoptionsfor the public supply is given in[165].

Both stochastic predictiontechniques and site
monitoringwere used in thecomparison.
Spot networks turned out to have much less interruptionsthan any other network
configuration.Looking at the sag frequency,undergroundnetworksperformedbetter
thanoverheadnetworks, experiencing only one third of the numberof sags. The supply
configurationhad onlyminor effect on the sag frequency.
7.3.2.3 Industrial Medium-VoltageSystems. In industrial systems spot net-

works are in use at almost any voltage level; the feeders are typicallyprotectedby
using differential protection. A configuration with three voltage levels is shown in
Fig. 7.19.
At each voltage level, a bus is fed from two different busses at a higher voltage
level. These two busses might well be in the same substation,as long as they are not
operatedin parallel. The effect of this supply
configurationhas been discussed in Figs.
4.37, 4.38, and 4.39 in Section 4.2.4. By opening breakerin
the the substationat an
intermediatevoltage level, thuschangingfrom parallel operationto a spot supply, the
lnfeedfrom transmission network
--.-.........---.......- Medium-voltageload
Figure 7.19 Industrial spot network. Low-voltage load

magnitudeof deep sags is significantly reduced (Fig. 4.39). The effect on shallow sags is
more limited.
7.3.2.4 Transmission Systems. Another example of a spot network is the

275 kV system in the UK. These systems form the subtransmissionnetwork around
the big cities. Each 275 kV system consistsof about 10 busses in a loop-likestructure,
fed at three to five places from the 400 kV national grid. The structureof the grid
aroundManchesteris shown in Fig. 7.20: thick linesindicate400kV substationsand
lines, and thin lines 275 kV.
Similar configurationsare used inother Europeancountries,e.g., 150kV and
400 kV in Italy and Belgium, 150kV and 380 kV in p arts of The Netherlands,130kV
and 400 kV in Sweden[23]. The number of supply points for the subtransmission
systems varies from twothrough ten. In theUnited States this type ofconfiguration
is in use across all voltage levels, down to 69 kV, as shown in Fig. 6.39.
The effect of supplyconfigurationsas shown in Fig. 7.20 isthat faults in the
400 kV grid only cause shallow sags at the 275 kV substations.If we neglect the
275 kV line impedancescomparedto the transformerimpedances,the voltage in the
275 kV system is the average of the voltages at the 400 kV sides of transformers.
the A
fault close to one of thesubstationswill drop the voltage to a low value at this sub-
station,but othersubstationswill be less affected. With ninetransformers,the shallow
sags willdominate.The effect of this"averaging" is that the customerexperiences less
deep but more shallow sags. To illustratethis effect, we againconsiderthe transmission
system shown earlier in Fig. 4.27. The distance between thesubstationshas been
increased to 100km, allother parameterswere kept the same.Figure 7.21 plots the
sagmagnitudeas afunction of the fault position; position 0 is a fault insubstation1,
position 100 (km) a fault insubstation2. Considernext asubtransmissionsystem fed
from substation1 and substation2. The voltage in thesubtransmissionsystem is
approximatedby the averagevoltagein the two transmissionsubstations;this voltage
is indicated by the dotted line in Fig. 7.21. Due to thelooped operationacross the
voltage levels, the deepest sags become shallower,and someof the shallow sags deeper.
The disadvantageof the way of operationlike in Fig. 7.20 isthat faults in the
275 kV networks lead to deep sags. The interconnectedoperation makes that the
exposed areacontainsmore lengthof lines than in caseof radial operation.If these
Figure 7.20 Spot network at subtransmission

level: 400 kV (thick lines) and 275 kV (thin
lines) system in theNorth of England.(Data
obtainedfrom [177].)
D esign-Redundancy
::I
Qc '-
.S ",,
,,
-8 0.6
" /' '"
.S "
""
""
t
~
0.4
",,
,
,, I
I
I
/
"
t:I} ,, I
,,
I
,,
0.2 ,, , I
Figure 7.21Sagmagnitudein transmission
and subtransmissionsystems. Solid line:
,, ,
J
transmissionsubstationI, dashed line: "

transmissionsubstation2, dottedline: .PI00 -50 0 50 100 150 200
subtransmission. Faultposition
loops cross several voltage levels, like in the

United States, the net effect is likely to be a
reductionin sag frequency.
7.3.3 Power System Deslgn-on-slte Generation
7.3.3.1 Reasons for Installing a Generator.

Local generatorsare used for two
distinctly different reasons:
1. Generatingelectricity locally can becheaperthan buying it from the utility.

This holds especially forcombined-heat-and-power (CHP) where the waste
heat from the electricitygenerationis used in theindustrialprocess. Thetotal
efficiencyof the process is typically much higher than in conventionalgen-
eratorstations.
2. Havingan on-sitegeneratoravailableincreases the reliabilityo f the supply as
it can serve as abackupin case the supply is interrupted.Some large indus-
trial plants have the ability tooperatecompletely in island mode. Also
hospitals,schools,governmentoffices, etc., often have satandbygenerator
to take over the supply when the public supplyinterrupted.
is
Here we onlyconsiderthe secondsituation, which might be anadditional advantage

next to theeconomicand environmentalbenefits of on-sitegeneration.We first assess
the effectof the generatoron the availability. Supposethat the public supply has an
availability of 98%. This might soundhigh, but anunavailability of 2°~ implies that
there is no supply for 175 h ourseach year, or on average 29 minutesper day, or 40 4-
hour interruptionsper year. Inother words, 980/0 availability is for many industrial
customersunacceptablylow. We assumethat an on-sitegeneratoris installed which can
take over all essential load. Supposethat the on-sitegeneratorhas anavailability of
900/0. The supply isguaranteedas long aseitherthe public supply or thegeneratorare
available. Themethodsintroducedin Chapter2 can be used tocalculatethe reliability
of the overall system. The resulting availability is 99.8%, or an unavailability of 18
hoursper year, four to five4-hourinterruptionsper year. In case faurther increase in
reliability is needed, one canconsiderto install two or even threegeneratorunits. Each
of these is assumed to be able to supply all the essential load. Withgenerators
two we
obtain an unavailability of 2 hours per year; with three, the unavailability is only 10
minutesperyear,neglectingall common-modeeffects. As we saw inChapter2 the latter
assumptionis no longer valid for highly reliable systems.Any attempt to further
increasethe reliability by adding more generatorunits is unlikely to be successful.
Emergencyor standbygeneratorsare often startedwhen an interruptionof the public
supply occurs. Instead of calculating unavailabilitiesit is more suitable to calculate
interruption frequencies.Supposethat the public supply is interrupted40 times per
year. The failure to startof an emergencygeneratoris typically somewherebetween10/0
and 5%. A valueof 5% will reducethe numberof interruptionsfrom 40 peryearto two
per year. This assumesthat the generatoris alwaysavailable.In reality one hasto add
anotherfew percentunavailability due to maintenanceand repair. The resultinginter-
ruption frequencywill be aroundfive per year. Again an industrial useris likely to opt
for two units, which brings the interruptionfrequencydown to lessthan one per year.
7.3.3.2 Voltage Sag Mitigating Effects.We saw inSection4.2.4 and in Section

6.4 that a generatormitigatessags near its terminals. To mitigate sags thegenerator
has to be on-line; an off-line generatorwill not mitigate any voltage sags.The effect
of a generatoron the sag magnitudewas quantified in Fig. 4.26 and in (4.16). The
latter equationis reproducedhere:
(1 - Vsag)= Z Z4 (1 - Vpcc) (7.15)

3+ Z 4
with Z3 the impedancebetween the generator/loadbus and the pee (typically the
impedanceof a distribution transformer)and 2 4 the (transient)impedanceof the gen-
erator. If we further assumethat Vpcc = .c~1' with.Z the distanceto the fault, and
introduce ~ =~, we get the following expressionfor the sagmagnitudeat the load
bus as a functio~ of the distanceto the fault:
V =1 1_ _
(7.16)
sag (1 + ~)(1 + £)
This expressionhasbeenused toobtain the curvesin Fig. 7.22: the sagmagnitudeas a
function of distanceis shownfor different valuesof the impedanceratio ~. A value ~ =
o correspondsto no generator;increasingt; correspondsto increasinggeneratorsizeor
increasingtransformerimpedance.C onsidera typical transformerimpedanceof 50/0 of
0.8
6-
.5
~ 0.6
a
.~ . ,I
~ 0.4 i,'
8 "
~ ",',
C/)
,
0.2 Figure 7.22Sagmagnitudeversusdistance
for different generatorsizes. Theratio
betweentransformerand generator
2 4 6 8 10 impedanceused was 0 (solid line), 0.2 (dashed
Distance to the fault (arbitr. units) line), 0.4(dash-dotline), and 0.8(dottedline).
D esign-Redundancy
its rated power, and a typical generatortransientimpedanceof 18%. For equal gen-
eratorandtransformerrating, we find t; = 0.28; ~ = 0.8 correspondsto a generatorsize
about three times the transformerrating, thus also about three times the sizeof the
load. We sawbeforethat generatorcapacityof more than threetimes theload doesnot
have any improving effect on the reliability. It is thus unlikely that the generator
capacity is more than three times the load. Anexception are someCHP schemes
where theindustry sellsconsiderableamountsof energy to theutility.
We see in Fig. 7.22 how the g eneratormitigatesthe voltage sag. The larger the
generator,the more the reduction in voltage drop. From the expressionfor the sag
magnitudeas afunction of distance,one canagainderive anexpressionfor the critical
distance:
1
Lcrtl = (1 + ~)(1 _ V) - 1 (7.17)
This expressionhas been used to calculatethe critical distancefor different generator

sizes,resultingin Fig. 7.23. The curves are simply the inverseof the curvesin Fig. 7.22.
We see areductionin critical distancefor each valueof the sagmagnitude.Note that
the installationof an on-sitegeneratordoesnot introduceany additionalsags (with the
exceptionof sags due to faults in ornear the generator,but thoseare rare). The sag
frequencyfor the different alternativescan thus be comparedby comparingthe critical
distances.
A betterpictureof the reductionin sagfrequencycan beobtainedfrom Fig. 7.24.
The various curves show the percentagereduction in sag frequency betweenthe site
without generatorand the site with agenerator.Again three generatorsizes have been
compared.For small sagmagnitudesthe reductionin sagfrequencyis 100%; thereare
no sags left with thesemagnitudes.For higher magnitudesthe relative reduction
becomesless. Thismitigation methodworks best forequipmentwhich alreadyhas a
certainlevel of immunity againstsags.
10r----...----.------y-----,-----rr-..---,
Figure 7.23 Critical distance versus

magnitude for different generatorsizes.The
ratio between transformer and generator
impedance used was 0 (solid line), 0.2 (dashed 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
line),0.4 (dash-dot line), and 0.8 (dotted line). Sagmagnitudein pu
7.3.3.3 Island Operation. On-site generatorsare fairly commonin large indus-

trial and commercialsystems. Theon-site generationis operatedin parallel with the
public supply. When the public supply fails, the on-site generatorgoes into island
operation.This "island" can consistof the whole load or part of the load. The latter
situation is shown in Fig. 7.25.The island systemshould be mademore reliable than
-'-'-'-,-"-'-';"
5 100 \
, \
.
[ \
\
\
\
\
.5 80 \ \
\
i~ 60
\
" "'-.
t!=
~
.8 40
.s=
.g 20
Figure 7.24Reductionin sag frequencydue
~ to the installationof an on-sitegenerator.The
ratio betweentransformerand generator
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 impedanceused was 0.2(dashedline), 0.4
Sag magnitude inpu
(dash-dotline), and 0.8 (dotted line).
Infeed from On-site

publicsupply generation
Radial
network Island system
(meshed)
n/o
Figure 7.25Industrial power system with

Nonessential load Essential load islandingoption.
the rest of theindustrial distribution system (e.g., by using a meshed network and
differential protection).The island system also serves asbackupfor
a the restof the
industrial distribution system. A big problem in large industrial systems isthat
islanding cannot be tested. One has to wait for an interruption to occur to seeif it
works.
7.3.3.4 Emergency andStandbyGeneration. Emergencyand standbygenerators

are typically started the moment an interruption is detected. They come online
between one second and one minute after the start of the interruption. Note that
there is no technical difference between emergency generationand standby genera-
tion. The term "emergencygeneration"is used when there is a legal obligation to
have ageneratoravailable; in allother cases the term"standbygeneration"is used
[26]. When installing standbygenerationto improve voltage quality it is important
that essentialequipmentcan toleratethe short interruption due to thetransferto the
Section 7.4 • TheSystem-EquipmentInterface 419
standby generation.Standbygenerationis often used incombination with a small

amountof energystoragesupplying the essential load
during the first few seconds of
an interruption.
7.4 THE SYSTEM-EQUIPMENT INTERFACE
The interface between the system and equipmentis

the the mostcommon place to
mitigate sags andinterruptions.Most of the mitigation techniques are based on the
injection of active power, thuscompensatingthe lossof active power supplied by the
system. Allmoderntechniques are based on power electronic devices, with the voltage-
sourceconverterbeing the main building block. Next we discuss the various existing
and emerging technologies, withemphasis on the voltage-source converter.
Terminology is still very confusingin this area, terms like"compensators,""condi-
tioners," "controllers," and "active filters" are in use, all referring to similar kindof
devices. In theremainderof this section, the term"controller" will be used, with
reference toother terms in general use.
7.4.1 Voltage-Source Converter
Most modernvoltage-sagmitigation methodsat thesystem-equipment interface

contain a so-calledvoltage-sourceconverter.A voltage-sourceconverteris _a power
electronic device which cangeneratea sinusoidalvoltage at any required frequency,
magnitude,and-phase angle. We alreadysaw thevoltage-sourceconverteras an impor-
tant part of ac adjustable-speed drives. In voltage-sagmitigation it is used totempora-
rily replace the supply voltage or to generatethe part of the supply voltage which is
missing.
The principle of thevoltage-sourceconverteris shown in Fig. 7.26. Athree-phase
voltage-sourceconverterconsistsof three single-phase converterswith a commondc
voltage. By switching the power electronic devices onoff orwith a certainpatternan ac
voltage isobtained.One can use a simple squarewave or apulse-width modulated
pattern. The latter gives lessharmonicsbut somewhathigher losses. Details of the
/ Self-commutating
II device (GTO/IGBT)
Commondc ...----+-----0 Three-phase

bus with capacitor ac output
or battery block
Controllergenerating
required switching pattern
Figure 7.26 Three-phasevoltage-sourceconverter.

operationand control of the voltage-sourceconvertercan be found in most books on

power electronics, e.g., [53],[55].
In circuit-theorymodels,. thevoltage-sourceconvertercan simply be modeled as
an ideal voltage source. To assess the effect
of this on voltages andcurrents,no knowl-
edge is neededa bout the powerelectronicdevices and thecontrol algorithms. In the
forthcomingsections thevoltage-sourceconverteris modeled as an ideal voltage source
to analyze themitigation effect of variousconfigurations.
The samevoltage-sourceconvertertechnologyis also used for so-called "Flexible
AC TransmissionSystems"or FACTS [180], [181] and for mitigation of harmonic
distortion [179], [182], [183] and voltagefluctuations [170], [178]. In this chapterwe
will only discuss their use formitigating voltage sags andinterruptions.The whole set
of power electronicsolutions to power quality problems, including static transfer
switches, activeharmonicfilters, and voltage control, is often referred to as"custom
power" [184], [191].
7.4.2 Series Voltage Controllers-DVR
7.4.2.1 Basic Principle. The series voltagecontroller consists of a voltage-

sourceconverterin series with the supply voltage, as shown in Fig. 7.27. The voltage
at the load terminalsequalsthe sumof the supply voltage and the output voltage of
the controller:
(7.18)
A convertertransformeris used toconnectthe output of the voltage-sourceconverter
to the system. A relatively smallcapacitoris presenton de sideof the converter. The
voltage over thiscapacitoris kept constant,by exchangingenergy with the energy
storage reservoir. Therequiredoutputvoltage isobtainedby using a pulse-width mod-
ulation switchingpattern.As thecontrollerwill have to supply active as well as reactive
power, some kindof energy storageis needed. The termDynamic Voltage Restorer
(DVR) is commonlyusedinsteadof series voltagecontroller [184], [185]. In the DVRs
that are currently commercially available large capacitorsare used as a source of
energy.Other potential sources are being considered: battery banks, superconducting
coils, flywheels. We will for now assumethat there is some kind of energy storage
available. Thevariousstorageoptionswill be discussed later.
Supply Injected Load

voltage
+ voltage voltage
dcbus
Energy
storage
Figure 7.27 Series voltagecontroller.
The amountof energystoragedepends on the power delivered by the converter

and on themaximumdurationof a sag. Thecontrolleris typically designed for a certain
maximum sagdurationand acertainminimum sag voltage. Some practicalaspects of a
series voltagecontroller are discussed in[174].
7.4.2.2 Active Power Injection. To assess the storage

requirementswe calculate
the active power deliveredby the controller, using the notation in Fig. 7.28. We
assumethat the voltage at the load terminals is 1pu along the positive real axis:
V/oad = 1 + OJ (7.19)
The loadcurrentis 1pu in magnitude,with a lagging power factor cos
ljJ:
[load = cosljJ - jsinljJ (7.20)
of the controllerhas amagnitudeV and phase-angle
The voltage sag at the system side
jump y,:
Vsag = V cos1/1 + jV sin y, (7.21)
The complex powertaken by the load is found from
P10ad + jQload = V load7;oad = cosljJ + j sinl/J (7.22)
The complexpower takenfrom the system is
PsyS+ jQsys = Vsagl ;oad = V cos(l/J+ y,) + jV sin(ljJ + y,) (7.23)
The active powerthat needs to begeneratedby thecontrolleris the difference between
the activepower takenfrom the system and the active
part of the load:
P eonl = p/oad - P syS (7.24)
This can bewritten as
V cos(ljJ + 1/1)]
P COnl = [ 1- cosf/> X Plood (7.25)
For zero phase

...anglejump we obtain the following simple expression for the active-
power requirementof the controller:
Peon' = [1 - V]P/oad (7.26)
The active powerrequirementis linearly proportionalto the drop in voltage. When
phase-anglejumps are consideredthe relation is no longer linear and becomes depen-
dent on the powerfactor also. To assess the effect of phase-anglejump and power
factor, we have used therelations between sagmagnitudeand phase-angle j ump as
derived in Chapter4. The active powerrequirementfor different power factor and
Figure 7.28 Circuitdiagramwith power

system, series
controller, and load.
Alpha=O Alpha =- 20 degrees
Alpha = -40 degrees Alpha = - 60 degrees
Figure 7.29 Active powerrequirementfor a

0.5 series voltagecontroller, for different
impedanceangles(a=O, -20°, -40°, -60°)
and different lagging power factors: 1.0 (solid
00 0.5 1 00 0.5 1 lines), 0.9(dashedlines), 0.8(dash-dotlines),
Sag magnitude in pu Sag magnitude in pu 0.7 (dotted lines).
different phase-anglejump is shown in Fig. 7.29. Sag magnitudeand phase-anglejump

have beencalculatedas a function of the distanceto the fault by using expressions
(4.84) and (4.87).Magnitudeand phase-angle j ump werecalculatedfor different values
of the impedanceangle and next filled in in (7.25) toobtain the active power require-
ment. The latter is plotted in Fig. 7.29 as afunction of the sagmagnitude V.
As shown in (7.26), thepower factor of the load does not influence the active
power requirementsfor sagswithout phase-anglejumps (upperleft). For unity power
factor, the phase-anglejump somewhatinfluences the active power requirement.This is
mainly due to the voltage over the controller no longer being equal toI-V. For
decreasingpowerfactor and increasingphase-angle j ump, the active powerrequirement
becomes less. One shouldnot concludefrom this that a low powerfactor is preferable.
The lower thepower factor, the larger the loadcurrentfor the sameamountof active
power, thus the higher therequiredrating of the converter.
The reductionin active powerrequirementwith increasing (negative)phase-angle
jump is explainedin Fig. 7.30. Due to thephase-angle j ump the voltage at system side
of
the controllers becomes more in phase with the load current. The amount of active
Sag without Load

phase-angle jump voltage
....
,
.. ..
Sag with
phase-angle jump
Figure 7.30 Phasordiagramfor a series

voltage controller. Dashedline: with negative
Lagging load phase-anglejump. Solid line: without phase-
current anglejump.
Alpha=O Alpha = - 20 degrees
I
~ 0.5
.s> . 0 l.-- --J oL.- --J
o 0.5 1 o 0.5 1
-" ~.,,:<~.:,:~,~ . .
~ " .:-~~~~:-..
Figure 7.31 Active power requirementfor a a
.. 0.5 0.5 ,".v v,
seriesvoltagecontroller, for different ! ,,,,
'~\,
impedanceangles(a=O, -20°, -40°, -60°)
and different leadingpowerfactors: 1.0(solid
J o L-- --J o '--- -..J
lines), 0.9(dashedlines), 0.8(dash-dotlines), o 0.5 1 o 0.5 1

Sagmagnitudein pu Sagmagnitudein pu
0.7 (dotted lines).
power taken from the supply thus increases and the activepower requirementof the
controlleris reduced. This holds for a negative
phase-anglejump and a lagging power
factor. For a leading power factor, a negativephase-anglejump increases the active
power requirements,as shown in Fig. 7.31.
7.4.2.3 Three-Phase Series Voltage Controllers. The seriescontrollerscurrently

commercially available consist of three single-phase converterswith a commonde ca-
pacitor and storagereservoir. The power taken from the storagereservoir is the sum
of the power in the three phases. For eachof the phases, (7.25) can be used to calcu-
late the active power.For a three-phase balanced sag (Le., a sag due three-phase
to a
fault) the sameamountof power is injected in each phase. The power requirementis
multiplied by three. But also the active power taken by the load is three times as
large, sothat (7.25) still holds, with the differencethat Pload is the total load in the
three phases.
To considerthe powerrequirementsfor three-phaseunbalancedsags, we write
(7.25) in a somewhatdifferent form. Let the (complex)remaining voltage (the sag
magnitude)be V, so that the voltage injected by thecontroller is I - V. The load
currentis e-jt/J, which gives for the complex power delivered by the controller:
(7.27)
Considera three-phaseunbalancedsag of type C: two phases down in voltage; one
b, we the same lineof
phase not affected. To calculate the injected power in phase apply
thoughtas leading to (7.27). The load voltage in phase b is
-
Vload = - -2I - -J'v
I r:;
2 3 (7.28)
The complex voltageduringthe sag is

- 1 1- r:
Vsag=-"2-2jVeharv3 (7.29)
with Vellar the complexcharacteristicvoltage of the sag. The voltage injected by the
controller is the difference between the load voltage and the sag voltage:
(7.30)
0
The loadcurrentin phase b isshifted over 120 comparedto the currentin phase a:
i.: = e-j ¢(-~ - ~jJ3) (7.31)
The complex injected power in

phaseb is
(7.32)
For phase c we find
(7.33)
(7.34)
(7.35)
(7.36)
(7.37)
Adding the complex powers in phaseb and phasec gives thetotal injected power (the
voltage in phase a is
n ot affected by the sag):
-
s.; -_32(1 - -
Vchar)e
if/>
(7.38)
factor j, Repeatingthe calculationsfor a three-

This is identical to (7.27), except for the
phaseunbalancedsagof type D, gives exactly the same injected power as for a type C
sag. For the analysisof three-phaseunbalancedsags we have neglected the zero-
sequencecomponent.This is an acceptableapproximationat the terminals of end-
userequipment,but not always inmedium-voltagedistribution, where DVRs are cur-
rently being installed.Adding a zero-sequence voltageto all three-phasevoltages in the
above reasoningwill lead to an additional term in thecomplexpower expressions for
the three phases. These additionalterms add to zero, so t hat the zero-sequence voltage
does not affect thetotal active power demandof the seriescontroller.
The power injectedduring a three-phasesag is three times the power injected in
one phase. Bycomparing(7.38) with (7.27) we canconcludethat the power injected
during a sagof type C or type D ishalf the powerinjected during a balancedsag with
the samecharacteristicmagnitude,phase-anglejump, and duration.
7.4.2.4 Single-Phase Series Voltage Controllers. For single-phasecontrollers,

the actual voltage in one phase (the
voltage at the equipmentterminalsin the termi-
nology from Chapter4) determinesthe amountof active power which needs to be in-
jected. This is not onlydeterminedby the characteristicmagnitudebut also by the
type of sag and the phase to which thecontroller is connected.
What mattersto a single-phasecontroller are the injected powers in eachof the
part of Sb in (7.32) and of Sc in (7.37). Thesecalculations
three phases, i.e. the real
have beenperformedfor three-phaseunbalancedsagsof type C and type D, resulting
in Figs. 7.32 and 7.33, respectively.For each sag type only two phases have been
plotted: the two phases with the deep sag for type C, and the two phases with the
shallow sag for type D. Thethird phase for a type C sag does not require any injected
power; the activepower requirementsfor the third phase of a type 0 sag are identical
to (7.25). Both in Fig. 7.32and in Fig. 7.33 the injected power has been plotted for
two valuesof the impedanceangle (0 and 30°) and four valuesof the power factorof
the loadcurrent (1.0,0.9,0.8,0.7).We can conclude from the figures that the power
factor has significant influence on the power injection. Thecharacteristicphase-angle
jump makes that the two phases behave slightly differently, but does not change the
overall picture.
For a single-phasecontroller,the characteristicvoltage does not have much prac-
tical meaning.Thereforethe activepowerrequirementshave beenplottedin a different
way in Figs. ·7.34and 7.35. Thehorizontal axis is theabsolutevalue of the complex
voltage during the sag; inother words, the sagmagnitudeat theequipmentterminals.
The different curves in eachsubplot give the relation between sagmagnitudeand
injected power for each of the phasesof a type C or type Dthree-phaseunbalanced
sag. This leads to ma aximumof five curves, two from a type C sag, three from a type D
sag. We seethat there is no generalrelation between the injected power and the sag
Alpha = 0 Alpha =- 30 degrees
t 1
l
~ 0.5 ..__"," _, , 0.5 , .. ...
~ ~.:~:.~~::~.~.~ ..~.:-:.:~..
" ................
o ~ --.J o
o 0.5 o 0.5
~&t 1',~~>~....
. . . "," -·w.
Figure 7.32Active power requirementsfor a ... ~~..• ~ ...
single-phaseseriesvoltagecontroller, for two ~ 0.5 ' ~.~::~,...
phasesof a type C unbalancedsag, for j '~'::
impedanceanglezero (left) and -300 (right). 0"'--- ---' 0'--- --'
Powerfactor 1.0(solid lines), 0.9 (dashed),0.8 o 0.5 1 o 0.5 1
(dash-dot),0.7 (dotted). Characteristicmagnitude Characteristicmagnitude
Alpha=O Alpha = - 30 degrees

t 06 .
~:~ ~~::':·?~~~2~.~.~. ~~.,.

~ . -- ".
8. 0.4 '- ..-- .
~ 0.2
~ 0 o ~
S-O.2 ~ .....-J -0.2 '-- -.1
o 0.5 o 0.5
~ 0.6 0.6
Figure 7.33Active power requirementsfor a a 0.4 0.4
single-phaseseriesvoltagecontroller, for two ~ 0.2 0.2
. 0 ..
phasesof a type D unbalancedsag, for
impedanceangle zero (left) and -300 (right).
j -o.~ ~~~~~~.:.:.~~~~~.~~c~.,,~',.... -0.2 ...:. :..~..~ ..-:-..:-:.::-....
Powerfactor 1.0(solid lines), 0.9(dashed),0.8 o 0.5 I o 0.5 I
(dash-dot),0.7 (dotted). Characteristicmagnitude Characteristicmagnitude
pf= 1.0 pf= 0.9

~
Q> I
~
&
t 0.5 0.5
~
Q>
>
~ 0 0
0 0.5 0 0.5
pf= 0.8 pf= 0.7
~
QJ
R
t 0.5 0.5
Figure 7.34Active power requirementsfor a
ti
.s> 0 0
single-phase series voltage
controller as a
function of the sagmagnitude-forzero
0 0.5 0 0.5 impedanceangle and four values of the power
Sag magnitude Sag magnitude factor of the loadcurrent.
pf= 1.0 pf= 0.9

~
Go) 1
~
a
t 0.5 0.5
ii>
J3 0 0
0 0.5 0 0.5
pf= 0.8 pf= 0.7
~
~
0
c,
t 0.5 0.5 Figure 7.35Active power requirementsfor a
~
Go)
> single-phase series voltage
controller as a
.s 0 0
function of the sagmagnitude-foran
0 0.5 0 0.5 impedanceangle equal to - 30° and four
Sag magnitude Sag magnitude valuesof the power factorof the loadcurrent.
magnitude,especially for small values o f the power factor. Note also

thatfor low power
factor, a zero-magnitudesag is not the one with the highest active power requirements.
Figures 7.34 and 7.35 have been reproducedin Figs. 7.36 and 7.37 with yet
anotherhorizontalaxis. The active powerrequirementshave beenplottedas a function
of the absolutevalueof the complex missing voltage (see Section 4.7.1). We seethatalso
the missingvoltage does not uniquely determinethe injected power. The load power
factor and, to a lesserextent,the characteristicphase-anglejump influence the injected
poweras welland shouldthus beconsideredin dimensioningthe energystorageof the
controller.
7.4.2.5 Effect of the Voltage Rating. The voltage ratingof the voltage-source
converter directly determinesthe maximum voltage (magnitude)which can be in-
jected. This inturn determinesagainstwhich sags the load is protected.In the above
calculations,it was assumedthat the load voltage would remain exactly at its pre-
event value. This isnot strictly necessary: small voltage
d rop and some phase-angle
jump can betoleratedby the load. Figure 7.38 shows how theprotectedarea of the
complex (voltage) plane can beobtained for a given voltage rating. The voltage
pf= 1.0 pf= 0.9

...
u 1
~
8- 0.5
~ 0.5
t:u
~ 0 0
0 0.5 0 0.5
pf= 0.8 pf= 0.7
t> 1
~
... 0.5 0.5
Figure 7.36 Active power requirements for a ~
u
controller as a
,....~ 0 0
function of the missingvoltage-forzero
impedance angle and four values of the power 0 0.5 0 0.5
factor of the loadcurrent. Missing voltage Missing voltage
pf= 1.0 pf= 0.9

t) I
~
8-
b 0.5 0.5
\3
.s 0 0
0 0.5 0 0.5
pf= 0.8 pf= 0.7
...
l
t) 0.5 0.5
Figure 7.37 Active power requirements for a
controlleras a
i
function of the missingvoltage-foran
~ 0 0
impedance angle equal to -300 and four 0 0.5 0 0.5
values of the power factor of the load
current. Missing voltage Missing voltage
rating of the voltage-sourceconverter is translatedto the same base as the load

voltage. Theactual rating dependson the turns ratioof the convertertransformer.
The voltage tolerance, as indicated in the figure, gives the lowest voltagemagni-
tude and the largest phase-angle j ump for which the load canoperatenormally. The sag
voltage shouldnot deviate morethan the maximum injectable voltage (Le., the voltage
rating of the converter)from the voltage tolerance. This leads to the dashedcurve,
which givesmagnitudeand phase-angle j ump of the worst sagsthatcan bemitigatedby
the controller;i.e., the voltage tolerance of thecombinationof load andcontroller.The
possible range of sags indicated
is by a thick solid line. The rangeo f sags caneither be
the range for a varietyo f supplies, like in Fig. 4.96, or for a specific supply, like in Fig.
4.108. It. is very well possible to cover the whole range of possible sags choosinga
by
large enoughvoltage rating. However, the numberof sags decreases for lower magni-
tudes, and the costs of the controller increase with increasing voltage rating. Therefore
the seriescontrollerscurrentlyin use have a minimum voltage of typically 50%, so that
sags with amagnitudebelow 50% of nominalare notprotected.With reducingcostsof
'power electronics, it is very well possible t hat future controllerswill cover the whole
range of possible sags.
Voltagetolerance
~
t
Range of
possible sags
Figure 7.38 Part of the complex (voltage)
plane protectedby a series voltagecontroller
with the indicatedvoltage rating.
7.4.2.6 Effectofthe Storage Capacity. The voltage rating of the controller de-
termineswhich range of magnitudeand phase-anglejump of sags can be mitigated.
For a given magnitudeand phase-anglejump the active power requirementis found
from (7.25). The active power requirementand the amount of energystoragedeter-
mine the longestsag durationwhich can be mitigated.
During the designof a seriescontroller, a sagmagnitudeand a sagdurationare
chosen.The sagmagnitudegives thevoltagerating, the sagdurationgives therequired
storagecapacity.Togetherthey determinethe "designpoint" in Fig. 7.39.The voltage
toleranceof the load without controller is shownas adashedline (in this examplethe
voltagetoleranceof the load is 200 ms, 90% ) . The influenceof the phase-anglejump is
neglectedhere.(Including the phase-angle j ump would give arangeof voltage-tolerance
curves, both with and without the controller.) Any sag with amagnitudeabove the
design magnitudeand with a duration lessthan the designduration,will be mitigated
by the controller: i.e., the resulting load voltage will be above the voltage-tolerance
curveof the load. Sagslonger than the designdurationareonly toleratedif they do not
depletethe storagecapacity.Neglectingthe phase-angle j ump, we can use (7.26) for the
injected power:
Peont = (1 - V)P1oad (7.39)
The energyneededto ride through a sagof magnitude V and duration T is
£ = (1 - V)TPload (7.40)
--------------------~-----------------;
0.8
:::s
Q..
.S 0.6
]
.~ 0.4 Design point
~
Figure 7.39 Voltage-tolerancecurve without
0.2 (dashed line) and with (solid line) series
voltage controller. The designpoint gives the
lowest magnitudeand the longestd uration
2 4 6 8 10 which theload-controllercombinationis able
Duration in seconds to tolerate.
Let (To, Vo) be the designpoint. The availableenergystorageis

[avail = (1 - VO)TOPload (7.41)
The minimum sagmagnitudeVmin for a duration T is found from
[avail = (1 - Vmin)TPload (7.42)
This gives the following expression for the
voltage-tolerancecurve:
To
V min = 1- (1 - VO)T (7.43)
This is is shown in Fig. 7.39 as the curve from the design

point toward the right and
upward. Thevoltage-tolerancecurve of the load withcontroller gets its final shape by
realizingthat any sagtoleratedwithout controllercan also betoleratedwith controller.
The area between the curves is the gain in voltage
tolerancedue to thecontroller. To
assess thereductionin numberof trips, a sag densityc hart is needed.
7.4.2.7 Interruptions. A series voltage controller does not function during an

interruption. It needs a closedpath for the load current,which is not always present
during an interruption. If there is loadpresentupstreamof the controller and down-
stream of the circuit breaker causing the interruption, this load will form a path
throughwhich theconvertercurrentcan close, as shown Fig. 7.40.
The seriescontroller will aim to keep the voltageVI and thus thecurrent /load
constant.The effect isthat the current[load is forced into theupstreamload impedance
Z2 leading to a voltageV2 = Z2//oad on system sideof the controller, but in opposite
phasecomparedto VI' Using VI = Zt[/oad we get
Z2
V2 =-ZI V. (7.44)
with ZI the impedanceof the load to beprotectedby the controller. If the upstream
load is smallerthan the protectedload, 2 2 > Z 1, this could lead todangerousover-
voltages. With the existing devices this effect is limited in two ways:
• The voltage difference over the controller is V t + V2 which is significantly

larger than 1pu if.Z 2 > Zt. For a controller with a maximumoutputvoltage
of 0.5 pu (a typical value) the resulting voltage over the upstreamload can
never be morethan 0.5 pu.
Circuit breaker
causing the
interruption
Series
~ controller Loadprotected
----/--r--f Jontroner
Upstream----...-
load
Figure 7.40 Series voltage

c ontroller with
upstreamload during an interruption.
• The energy reservoir is limited, so

that this overvoltage willdisappearwithin a
few seconds.Note that both the protectedload and theupstreamload will
deplete the energy reservoir.
This could, however, become problema in the future when therating of voltage con-
trollers increases,both in injected voltage and instoredenergy. The effect of the sudden
inversion of the voltage on theupstreamload should be studied as well.
7.4.3 Shunt Voltage Controllers-StatCom
A shunt-connected voltagecontrolleris normally not used for voltage sag mitiga-

tion but for limiting reactive powerfluctuationsor harmoniccurrentstakenby the load.
Such acontroller is commonly referred to as a"Static Compensator"or "StatCom."
Alternativeterms in use are"AdvancedStaticVar Compensator"(ASVC) and "Static
Condensor"(StatCon).A StatComdoesnot containany active powerstorageand thus
only injects or draws reactive power. Limited voltage sagmitigation is possible with the
injection of reactive power only [57], [157], [210],but active power is needed both
if
magnitudeand phase angleof the pre-eventvoltage need to be kept constant.
The principle of a shunt voltage controller is shown in Fig. 7.41. The actual
controller has the sameconfigurationas the seriescontroller. But instead of injecting
the voltage difference between the load and the system, current
a is injected which
pushes up thevoltageat the loadterminals,in a similar way to the sagmitigation by
a generatordiscussed in Section 7.2.
The circuit diagramused to analyze the controller'soperationis shown in Fig.
7.42. The load voltaged uring the sag can be seen as the
superpositionof the voltage due
to the system and the voltagechangedue to thecontroller.The former is the voltage as
it would have beenwithout a controller present,the latter is the change due to the
injectedcurrent.
Assumethat the voltagewithout controller is
V.sag = V cos1/1 + jV sin 1/1 (7.45)
The load voltage is again equal to 1pu:
V/oad = 1 + OJ (7.46)
Distribution
Transmission substation
system
Supply transformer
t----~ Load
Shunt voltage
controller
Figure 7.41 Shuntvoltagecontroller.

Figure 7.42Circuit diagramwith power

system, seriesc ontroller,andload. Full circuit
(top), voltageswithout controller(center),
effect of thecontroller (bottom).
The requiredchangein voltagedue to the injectedcurrentis the differencebetweenthe

load voltage and the sag voltage:
~V =1- V cos 1/1 - jV sin 1/1 (7.47)
This changein voltagemust be obtainedby injecting a currentequal to
leont = P - jQ (7.48)
with P the active powerand Q the reactivepowerinjectedby the controller. The active
power will deterrninethe requirementsfor energystorage.Let the impedanceseen by
the shuntcontroller(sourceimpedancein parallelwith the load impedance)be equalto
Z=R+jX (7.49)
The effect of the injected currentis a changein voltageaccordingto
~ V = leontZ = (R + jX)(P - jQ) (7.50)
The requiredvoltageincrease(7.47) and the achievedincrease(7.50) haveto be equal.
This gives the following expressionfor the injectedcomplex power:
p _ 0Q = I - V cos"" - jV sin "" (7.51)
} R+jX
Splitting the complexpowerin a realandan imaginarypart, givesexpressionsfor active
and reactivepower:
P = R(l - V cos 1/1) - VX sin 1/1
(7.52)
R2 + X 2
Q
= RV sin 1/1 + X(l - V cos 1/1)
(7.53)
2+X2
R
The main limitation of the shuntcontroller is that the sourceimpedancebecomesvery
small for faults at the samevoltagelevel close to theload. Mitigating suchsagsthrough
a shuntcontroller is impractical as it would require very large currents.We therefore
only consider faultsupstreamof the supplytransformer.The minimum value of the

sourceimpedanceis the transformerimpedance. One can think of this configurationas
a dedicatedsupply to a sensitive load (e.g., anautomobileplant), where the task of the
controller is to mitigate sagsoriginating upstreamof the transformer.
The resultsof somecalculationsfor this configurationare shown in Figs. 7.43 and
7.44. Four different values for the source impedance(transformerimpedance) have
been used: 0.1, 0.05, 0.033, and 0.025 pu. For the load impedance a value of 1pu
resistive has been chosen. For a 0.05 pu source impedance, the fault level is 20 times
the load power.Fault levels of 10 to 40 times the load are typical distribution
in
systems.
Figure 7.43 shows the a mountof active power injected by thecontrollerto main-
tain the voltage at its pre-event value. We seethat for zero impedance angle the active
power requirementis independentof the source impedance. This does not hold in
general, but only for this specific case with a pure reactance in parallel with a pure
resistance.F or increasingimpedanceangle we see an increase in active power, especially
for smaller valuesof the source impedance. The reactive power shown in Fig. 7.44 is
ratherindependento f the impedanceangle. The reactive power requirements decrease
significantly with increasing source impedance. As the (reactive) source impedance
Alpha = 0 Alpha = - 20 degrees

6r---------,
5-
.S
t 4 .. '
~ 0.5
Q)
.~
< 00 0.5 I
Alpha =-40 degrees Alpha = -60 degrees
8,..-----:-:-:------, 15r - - - - - - - - - - ,
6- ' .
.: 6 o'., ...
.. ,-° '.
0
10 - -'- ,,0.
~ .:'<": ~
"
.... ".-' ",
Figure 7.43 Activepowerinjected by a shunt
Q., 4 : / , ,
.. ', ,".....:,". o"
."
5 :.~.~:~ , ~ .,
" ..
- - - _....... '-0.
" ..,\.'~'"
".
voltage controller, for different impedance
~ 2..{:"" , \"'. angles(0, -20° -40°, -60°) and different
.~ ,
~" '~
,
< 00 0.5 I
'\
00 0.5 1
sourceimpedances:0.1pu (solid line),0.05pu
(dashedline), 0.033pu (dash-dotline),
Sag magnitude in pu Sag magnitude in pu 0.025pu (dottedline).

~
40r-:-·..- - - - - - - - - , 40 .
.: 30, , .
30,. '.
~ ", .
8. 20 """
", .....
20
.~ 10 ' ". 10
8
~ 00 0.5 1 00 0.5 1
::s Alpha = -40 degrees Alpha = - 60 degrees
Q., 40rr-·.-.- -......----.., 40 .
.S ".
l) 30 .... 30 -.-.
~ Figure 7.44 Reactivepower injected by a
&20 ...... -0 •
20 " " .....
shuntvoltagecontroller, for different
.~ 10 10 impedanceangles(0, -20°, -40°, -60°) and
~ different sourceimpedances:0.1pu (solid
~ 00 0.5 1 00 0.5 1 line), 0.05pu (dashedline), 0.033pu (dash-dot
Sag magnitude in pu Sag magnitude in pu line), 0.025pu (dotted line).
increases, less injectedcurrent is needed to get the same change in voltage. Note the
difference in vertical scale between Figs 7.43 and 7.44. The reactive power exceeds the
active power injected in all shown situations.
The current rating of the controller is determinedby both active and reactive
power. From (7.52) and (7.53) we find for the absolutevalue of the injected current:
1 - 2V cos1/1 + V2
I cont = (7.54)
R2+X2
We seethat an increasing phase-angle jump (increasing1/1, decreasing cos 1/1) increases

thecurrentmagnitude. Thecurrentmagnitudeis plottedin Fig. 7.45 in the same format
as the active power in Fig. 7.43 and the reactive power in Fig. 7.44.
ComparingFig. 7.45 with Fig. 7.44 showsthat the currentmagnitudeis mainly
determinedby the reactive power. Like the reactive power, the current magnitudeis
only marginally affected by the phase-anglejump.
The large increase in active power injected with increasing phase-angle jump is
explained in Fig. 7.46. The injected voltage is the
requiredvoltage rise at the load due to
Alpha=O Alpha =- 20 degrees

40 '. 40·...
a 30 . 30 ..
.S .." ....
6 20 ..'. 20 ......
"
.'.
".
u~ 10 10
00 O.S 1 . 00 0.5 1
40 .... 40··..
:s .
~ 30.. ...... 30 ' ,
Figure 7.45 Magnitudeof the currentinjected .S ..
by a shuntvoltagecontroller, for different 5 20 .... 'eo 20 '" ....
impedanceangles (0, -200 , -400 , -60°) and
different sourceimpedances:0.1 pu (solid
o~ 10 10
line), 0.05 pu(dashedline), 0.033 pu(dash-dot 00 0.5 1 00 0.5 1

line), 0.025 pu(dotted line). Sagmagnitudein pu Sagmagnitudein pu
Source
impedance
....,.. ,"Injected
. Normaloperating
voltage voltage
\ Sag
\
,,
------- voltage
\
,,
,
----a.,.
\
\
\
\
\
\
,
\
\
,,
Figure 7.46 Phasordiagramfor shuntvoltage ~
controller. Solid lines: without phase-angle Injected
jump. Dashedlines: with phase-anglejump. current
the injection of a currentinto the sourceimpedance.T his injectedvoltageis the differ-

encebetweenthe normal operatingvoltageand the sag voltageas it would be without
controller. The injectedcurrentis the injectedvoltagedivided by the sourceimpedance.
In phasorterms: theargument(angle,direction)of the injectedcurrentis the argument
of the injected voltageminus the argumentof the sourceimpedance.T he sourceimpe-
dance is normally mainly reactive. In case of a sag without phase-anglejump, the
injected current is also mainly reactive. A phase-anglejump causesa rotation of the
injectedvoltageasindicatedin the figure. This leadsto a rotationof the injectedcurrent
away from the imaginaryaxis. From the figure it becomesobviousthat this will quickly
causea seriousincreasein the active part of the current (i.e., the projection of the
current on the load voltage). The changein the reactive part of the current is small,
so is thechangein currentmagnitude.
7.4.3.1 Disadvantagesof the Shunt Controller. It is clear from the above

reasoningthat the main disadvantageof the shuntcontroller is its high active power
demand. In case of a large load with a dedicatedsupply from 'a transmissionnet-
work, a shunt controller might be feasible. Voltage sags in transmissionnetworks
show smallerphase-anglejumps, and the transformerlossesare very small. The latter
have not been taken into considerationin the above calculations,as they are rarely
more than a few percentof the load. If the load is suppliedthrough an underground
cable network, these lossescould dominatethe active power requirementof the con-
troller. Another disadvantageof the shunt controller is that it not only increasesthe
voltage for the local load but for all load in the system.Again for a load with a dedi-
catedsupply through a large transformer,this effect issmall, but for a load fed from
a distribution feeder with many other customersit is not feasible to install a shunt
controller. In caseof a load fed from a distribution feeder, the controller will not be
able to mitigate sags originating at distribution level. The sourceimpedanceduring
the sag willsimply be too small to enableany seriousincreasein voltage.
The behaviorof the shuntvoltage controller during an interruption dependson
the amountof load involved in the interruption. When the supply is interrupted,the
injectedcurrentclosesthrough the load, and the (active and reactive)power demands
are formed by the total load involved in the interruption.If this is only the load to be
protected,the controllerwill haveno problemproviding this power. If a lot more load
is interruptedthe controllerwill probablyreachits currentlimits or its energyreservoir
will be depletedvery fast.
If the controlleris able to maintainthe load during the interruption,synchroniza-
tion problemscan occur when the voltage comesback. If the supply voltage differs
significantly in phasewith the voltage generatedby the controller, large currentswill
start to flow leadingto relay tripping and/orequipmentdamage.A phasedifferenceof
600 gives an rmsvoltageof 1pu over the terminalsof the recloser.A phasedifferenceof
1800 gives 2 puover the terminals.Considerthat the nominalsystemfrequencyis 60 Hz
and that the voltage comes back after 3 seconds.If we want to limit the angular
differenceto 300 , the relative error in frequencyshould not be more than:
30° = 5 X 10-4 (7.55)

3 s x 60cyclesjsx 360 0 jcycle
From this it follows that the frequencyneedsto be between59.97 and 60.03 Hz. To
operatethe voltage-sourceconverterwithin this frequencyrangeis not a problem:mod-
ern clocksachieveaccuracieswhich areseveralordersof magnitudebetterthanthis. But
the systemfrequencycaneasilydeviatemore than0.03 Hz from its nominal value.
The mainadvantageof a shuntcontrolleris thatit can also be used to improve the

currentquality of the load. By injecting reactive power, the power factor can be kept at
unity or voltagefluctuationsdue tocurrentfluctuations(the flickerproblem)can be kept
to a minimum. Theshuntcontrollercan also be used to a bsorbthe harmoniccurrents
generatedby the load. In case such controller
a is present, it isworth considering the
installation of some energystorageto mitigate voltage sags. It will be clear from the
previouschaptersthat a stochasticassessmentof the variousoptionsis needed.
7.4.4 Combined Shunt and Serle. Controller.
The seriescontroller, as discussed before, uses an energy storage reservoir to

power part of the load during a voltage sag. We saw t hat the seriescontroller cannot
mitigate any interruptions,and that it is normally not designed to mitigate very deep
'sags (much below50% of remaining voltage). There is thusnormally some voltage
remainingin the powersystem. This voltage can be usedextractthe
to required energy
from the system.A series-connected converterinjects the missing voltage, and a shunt-
connectedconvertertakes acurrent from the supply. The powertaken by the shunt
controllermust be equal to the power injected by the series controller.The principle is
shown in Fig.7.47.Series- andshunt-connected convertershave acommonde bus. The
change instoredenergy in thecapacitoris determinedby the difference between the
converterand the powertakenfrom the supplyby the shunt
power injected by the series
converter.Ensuringthat both are equal minimizes the size of the capacitance.
Iseries ~
~ag -----. load
System Load
o
00
Figure 7.47 Shunt-series-connected
voltage >
controller: theshunt-connectedconverteris
placed on system side of the series
controller.
7.4.4.1 Current Rating. The active powertaken from the supply by the shunt-
connectedconverteris
(7.56)
We assumethat the shunt-connectedconvertertakes acurrent from the supply with
magnitude[shunt and in phase with the system voltage
IShunt = [shunt COS t/J +Jrtthunt sin t/J (7.57)

where 1/1 is thephase-angle
j ump of the sag.Taking the currentin phase with the system
voltage minimizes thecurrent amplitude for the sameamount of active power. The
active powertakenfrom the supply is
Pshunt = VIshunt (7.58)

with V the sagmagnitude.The active power injected by the series

controller was
calculated before, (7.25):
V cos(¢+ 1/1)]
Pseries = [ 1- cos ¢ Pload (7.59)
The powertakenby the shunt-connected converterPshunt should be equal to the power

converterP.reries' This gives the following expression for
injected by the series-connected
the magnitudeof the shuntcurrent:
1 cos(¢+ 1/1)]
I ,rhunt = [V- cos ¢ Plood (7.60)
The resultsof this equationare shown in Fig. 7.48 in the same format and with the same
parametervalues as before (e.g., Fig. 7.29). The magnitude ofshunt the current has
partof the loadcurrent.The
beenplottedfor values up to 4 pu, i.e. four times the active
influence ofphase-angle j ump and power factor is similar to their influence on the active
power as shown in Fig. 7.29. But the overriding influence onshuntcurrentis
the the sag
magnitude.The less voltage remains in the system, the more currentis needed to get the
sameamount of power. As the power requirement increases with decreasing system
voltage, the fast increase current
in for decreasing voltage is understandable .

4,----;-- - --='---,
3
2
00 0.5 I 00 0.5 1
Alpha = - 40 degrees Alpha = - 60 degrees
4 .-.:..r-- ---='---, 4 I
I,
\, 3 \
, .~\
-v
• 2 ..~ Figure 7.48Shuntcurrent for a shunt-series
.~\
'\,
.\ , voltage controller, for different impedance
~ " .c- ~.~ ":.."'- angles(0, _20°, _40°, _60°)and different
...
:::: .'::.. ....-.;:
leading powerfactors: 1.0 (solid lines), 0.9
00 0.5 00 0.5 1 (dashed lines), 0.8
( dash-dotlines), 0.7(dotted
Sag magnitude in pu Sag magnitude in pu
lines).
7.4.4.2 Shunt Converter on Load Side. Figure 7.49 again shows shunt
a -series
controller. The difference with Fig. 7.47 is
t hat the shuntcurrentis taken off the load
voltage.
To assess the effect of this, we again calculate the requirements for the shunt and
seriescurrents.We use the same n otationas before:
V load = 1 + OJ (7.61)
[load = COS¢- jsin¢ (7.62)
Vsag = V cos1/1 + jV sin 1/1 (7.63)

~ag ~oad
System Load
Figure 7.49Shunt-seriesconnectedvoltage
controller; the shunt-connectedconverteris
placed on load sideo f the seriescontroller.
factor COs~:
We assumethat the shuntcurrentis taken at a lagging power
I.vlzunt = I cos~ - jI sin ~ (7.64)
The total currenttaken off the supply,throughthe series-connected
converter,is
[series = IShunt + [load = cosl/J + I cos~ - j sin l/J- jI sin ~ (7.65)
The active power taken off the supply should be equal to the powertakenby the load.
The power injected by the series
converteris taken off again by theshuntconverter.As
there is no active power storage, the total active power still has to come off the supply.
This gives the following expression:
(7.66)
From this the following expression for the
s huntcurrentcan beobtained:
I = cosl/J - V cos(l/J + 1/1)
(7.67)
V cos(1/1 + ~)
To minimize theshuntcurrent,the angle~ is taken suchthat 1/1 + ~ = 0; thus theshunt
If we further rate theshuntcurrentto the
currentis in phase with the supply voltage.
active part of the loadcurrent,we obtain
I = -!. _cos(1/1 + e/» (7.68)
V cose/>
which is exactly the same
currentas for a system-side shunt.
7.4.4.3 Single-PhaseController. For a single-phasecontroller, we have again

calculatedthe invertercurrentas a functionof the sagmagnitudein a similar way as
for Figs. 7.34 and 7.35. The results are shown in Figs. 7.50and 7.51 for different
power factor of the load current. Fig. 7.50 is for sagswithout phase-anglejumps
(zero impedance angle), Fig. 7.51 for sags with a serious
phase-anglejump (an impe-
dance angle equal to -30°). The overallbehavioris dominatedby the fast increase in
current for deep sags. But for small power factor, especially, phase-angle
the jump
also plays animportantrole.
7.4.4.4 Advantagesand Disadvantages. The main advantageof the shunt-series

controller is that it does not require any energy storage. It can be designed to miti-
gate any sag above caertain magnitude,independentof its duration. This could
result in a relatively cheap device, able to compete with the UPS (see below) for the
pf= 1.0 pf= 0.9

4 4
=
~ 3
:s
3
(J
~ 2 2
~
~
.s
00 0
0.5 0 0.5
pC= 0.8 pC= 0.7
4 4
c:
~
3 3
(J
~
u 2 2
t: Figure 7.50 Shuntcurrentfor a single-phase
u
> shunt-seriesv oltagecontrolleras afunction of
.s the sagmagnitude,for zero impedanceangle
0 0
0 0.5 0 0.5 and four valuesof the power factor of the
Sag magnitude Sag magnitude load current.
pf= 1.0 pC= 0.9

4 4
=
~ 3 3
(J
~ 2 2
i>
.s
00 0
0.5 0 0.5
pC= 0.8 pf= 0.7
4 4
d
~
(J
3 3
~
u 2 2
t: Figure7.51 Shuntcurrentfor a single-phase
u shunt-seriesv oltagecontrolleras afunction of
] the sagmagnitude,for impedanceangle - 30°
0
°0 0.5
Sag magnitude
0 0.5
Sag magnitude
and four values of the power factor of the
load current.
protectionof low-power, low-voltageequipment.The shuntconverterof a shunt-ser-

ies controller can also be used to mitigate current quality problems, as mentioned
above with the discussion o f the shuntcontroller.
The main disadvantageof the shunt-seriescontroller is the largecurrent rating
required to mitigate deep sags. For low-power, low-voltageequipmentthis will not be a
serious concern,b ut it might limit the number of large power andmedium-voltage
applications.
7.4.5 Backup Power Source-SMES, BESS
One of the maindisadvantagesof a seriescontroller is that it cannot operate

during an interruption. A shunt controller operatesduring an interruption, but its
storage requirementsare much higher. We saw that the shunt-connectedcontroller
operatesperfectly when only thecontroller and the protectedload are interrupted.
The controller is in that case only feeding theprotectedload. This principle can be
used by creating the rightinterruption. This results in theshunt-connectedbackup
power source as shown in Fig. 7.52. The configuration is very similar to the shunt
------t Statict--_.._--------
System switch Load
Energy
u
00 storage
> reservoir
Figure 7.52 Shunt-connected backup power
source.
_ _~ Static1 - - - . . . . , . - - - - - - ' \
System switch Load
1
Static
switch
2
Energy
storage
reservoir
Figure 7.53 Series-connected backup power
source.
controller. The difference is the static switch which is present between the system and
the load bus. Themomentthe system voltagedropsbelow a pre-set rms value, the static
switch opens and the load is supplied from the energy storage reservoir through the
voltage-sourceconverter.Various formsof energy storage have been proposed.A so-
called superconductingmagneticenergy storage (SMES) stores electrical energy in a
superconducting coil [57], [158], [159], [160], [161], [162]. A BESSor battery energy
storagesystemuses a largebatterybankto store the energy [186], [187],[188]. For small
devices the energy storageis not a problem,but using a SMES, BESS, or any otherway
of storage at medium voltage will put severestrainson the storage. A backup power
source is only feasible if it can ride
t hrough a considerablefraction of short interrup-
tions. Looking at some statistics forshort interruptions,Figs. 3.5, 3.6, and 3.7, shows
that the amountof storageshouldbe able to supply the load for 10 to 60 seconds. Less
storage would not give any serious improvementin the voltage tolerance comparedto
the seriescontroller.
All backuppower sources suggested in the literatureuse ashuntconnection,but it
aseriesconnectionas in Fig. 7.53. This device could
is also feasible to use operateas a
seriescontrollerfor sags and as baackuppower source forinterruptions.The moment a
deep sag is detected, static switch 1 opens and static switch 2 closes.
7.4.8 Cascade Connected Voltage Controllers-UPS
The main device used to mitigatevoltage sags and

interruptionsat the interface is
the so-calleduninterruptablepowersupply(UPS).The popularityof the UPS isbasedon
its low costs and easy use. For an office worker the UPS isjust anotherpiece of
equipmentbetween the wallo utlet and acomputer.All that is needed is to replace the
batteriesevery few years, and as long as one does
not power the kettle and the micro-
wave from the same UPS, virtually
a problem-freesupply iscreated.
7.4.6.1 Operationof a ups. The UPS isneither a shunt nor a series device,
but what could bedescribedas acascadeconnectedcontroller. The basic configura-
tion of a typical UPS isshown in Fig. 7.54. Itsoperationis somewhatsimilar to the
converterpart of an ac adjustable-speed drive (compareFig. 5.12): a diode rectifier
followed by an inverter. The main difference is the energystorageconnectedto the
de bus of a UPS. In allcurrently commerciallyavailable UPSs the energy storageis
in the form of a battery block. Other forms of energystoragemight become more
suitablein the future.
During normal operation,the UPS takes its power from the supply, rectifies the
ac voltage to dc andinverts it again to ac with the same frequency and rms value. The
designof the UPS is suchthat the de voltageduring normal operationis slightly above
the batteryvoltageso that the batteryblock remainsin standbymode. All power comes
from the source. The onlyp urposeof the batteryblock in normal operationis to keep
the de busvoltageconstant.The load ispoweredthroughthe inverterwhich generates a
sinusoidalvoltagetypically by using aPWM switching pattern.To preventload inter-
ruptions due to inverter failure, a static transfer switch is used. In case the inverter
output drops below acertainthresholdthe load is switched back to the supply.
During a voltage sag orinterruptionthe batteryblock maintainsthe voltage at the
de bus for severalminutesor evenhours,dependingon the batterysize. The load will
thus tolerate any voltage sag ors hort interruption without problem. For long inter-
ruptions, the UPSenablesa controlledshutdown,or the start of a backupgenerator.
Bypass
ac de
System de
Energy
storage Figure 7.54 Typicalconfigurationof an
uninterruptablepower supply (UPS).
7.4.6.2 Advantages and Disadvantages.The advantageof the UPS is its simple

operationand control. The power electronic componentsfor low-voltage UPSs are
readily availableand the costsof a UPS arecurrently not more than the costsof'.a
personalcomputer.It is probably not worth installing a UPS for eachpersonalcom-
puter in an office (making regular backupswould be moresuitable), but when a
computer(or any other low-power device) is an essentialpart of a production pro-
cess the costsof the UPS are negligible. As the UPS will mitigate all voltage sags
and short interruptionsa stochasticassessmentis not even needed.
The main disadvantageof the UPS is thenormal-operatingloss because of the
two additional conversions,and the useof batteries.Contrary to general belief, bat-
teries do needmaintenance.They should be regularly tested to ensure that they will
operatein caseof an interruption; also they should not be exposed to high or low
temperaturesand sufficient cooling should be installed preventoverheating.All

to this
is not so much aconcernfor the small UPSs used in an office
environment,but for large
installationsthe maintenancecosts of a UPSinstallationcould becomeratherhigh.
7.4.6.3 Alternatives. As a long-term solution to mitigate voltage sagsand

interruptions,the UPS is not the mostappropriateone. The twoadditional conver-
sions are not really needed, as can be seen in Fig. 7.55. Thedrawing top shows the
normal configuration:the ac voltage isconvertedinto de and back to ac by the UPS.
In the computer the ac voltage is againconvertedinto de and nextconverted to
the utilization voltage for the digital electronics. This scheme represents almost any
modernconsumerelectronics device.
Alternatively, one can directlyconnectthe batteryblock to the de bus inside the
computer.In fact a laptop computergets its power in such a way. Some mitigation
methodsfor ac adjustable-speed drives also use a direct infeed into the dc bus.
From an
engineeringviewpoint this is a more elegant solution than using a UPS, but the user
doesnot always have the technical knowledge to do this. solutionlike
A this can only be
initiated by the equipmentmanufacturers.
One can extend this idea further, ending up with a denetwork for an office
building providing backuppower to all sensitiveequipment.By connectingan array
of solar cells to this denetwork the situation could arise where the utilitysupply
becomes thebackupfor the internal de network.
UPS
.- -. ---- -----Computer
f
---------.. -.... ---.. ----. f
t-----:--t Digital
electronics :
i
I
f
_ .. - - . _ .. - __ - - I
_ _ eI
Computer
Digital
I
electronics
I
I
I
,. -.-- --- _--------._.
Figure 7.55 Powerconversionsfor a UPS poweringa computer,and for an

alternativesolution.
7.4.6.4 UPS and Backup Generators. Figure 7.56 shows a power system where
both UPSs and backup generationare used to mitigate voltage sags and interrup-
tions. The UPS is used to protect sensitive essential load against voltage sags and
short interruptions.But especially for large loads, it is not feasible to have more
than
a few minutes energy supply stored in the batteries. In case of an interruption, the
so-called "islanding switch" opens, disconnectingthe sensitive load from theutility
system. During the interruption the sensitive load is completelypowered from a
backup generator.This generatorcan be eitherrunning in parallel with the utility
Utility
infeed
Islanding
switch
Figure 7.56 UPS combined with backup

Nonessential Nonsensitive Sensitive generation to mitigate voltage sags, short and
load essentialload essential load long interruptions.
supply, or bestartedthe momentan interruption is detected. All essential load is fed

from the backup generator,where only the essential load which is sensitive to sags
and short interruptionsneeds to be powered from the UPS. Decreasingthe time to
switch over to islandoperation decreases the energy storage requirementsin the
ups. The energystoragerequirementis proportional to the switch-over time. The
UPS only needs to supply the load which cannottoleratethe interruptiondue to the
switch-overto islanding operation.The faster the switch-over, the less load needs to
be powered from the UPS.
An interestingexample of the use o f UPSs incombinationwith on-sitegenerators
to achieve a high reliability is discussed [172].
in
7.4.7 Other Solutions
Somemitigation equipmentis not based on thevoltage-sourceconverter;a few

examples are discussed below.Motor-generatorsets andferroresonanttransformers
have beenaround for many years to mitigate voltage sags;electronic tap changers
form an interestingnew technique.
7.4.7.1 Motor-Generator Sets. A motor-generatorset is an oldsolution against

voltage sags,making use of the energy stored in a flywheel. The basic principle is
shown in Fig. 7.57: a(synchronousor induction) motor and asynchronousgenerator
are connectedto a common axis together with a large flywheel. When the power
supply to themotor is interrupted,the flywheel makes that the systemcontinuesto
rotate and thuscontinuesto supply the load. These kind o f systems are still in use
(and new ones are still being installed) industrial
in installations. The ridethrough
time of several seconds enables transferschemes withmechanicalswitches. The noise
of a motor-generatorset and themaintenancerequirementsof the rotating machines
are not a concernin most industrial environments.They do however makemotor-
generatorsetsunsuitablefor an officeenvironment.
In the configurationshown in Fig. 7.57, thenormaloperationlosses are very high
which makes this an expensive solution. A numberof alternativeshave beenproposed
to limit the losses. Oneoption is to have themotor-generatorset operatingin no-load
when the supply voltage is within itsnormalrange. Themomenta sag orinterruptionis
detected, a (static) switch is opened and generator
the takes over the supply. A possible
configurationis shown in Fig. 7.58.
In normal operationthe synchronousmachineoperatesas asynchronouscon-
densorwhich can, e.g., be used for reactive powercompensationor for voltagecontrol.
When the supply isinterruptedthe static switch opens and the synchronousmachine
Section 7.4 • The System
-EquipmentInterface 443
r-r-
Flywheel-
Power
system
= Motor Generator ~
I--
Sensitive
load
Figure 7.57 Principle of motor-generatorset. -
Static
switch
Power 1-----,.- - - - - - - Load
system- - - - - I
Synchronous
machine
Flywheel
Diesel
Figure 7.58 Configurationof ofT-line UPS engine
with diesel enginebackup.
starts tooperateas asynchronousgenerator,injecting both active and reactive power .

This will provide power for one or two seconds. By using a large reactance between the
load and the power system,certain
a level of voltage-sagmitigation is achieved. The
effect is the same as for an on-site generator.By opening the static switch on an
undervoltageit is even possible tooperate the synchronousmachine as abackup
power sourceduring sags as well. While the flywheel provides backuppower, the diesel
engine isstarted.
More recentimprovementsare the use ofwritten-polemotorsand thecombina-
tion of a motor-generatorset with power electronics. Awritten-pole motor is an ac
motor in which the magnetic pole pairs are not obtainedfrom windings but instead are
magnetically written on therotor [193]. This enables aconstantoutputfrequency of the
generator,independentof the rotationalspeed. The mainadvantagefor use in amotor-
generatorset isthat the generatorcan be used over a much larger range of speed, so
that more energy can be extractedfrom the flywheel.
A combinationof the motor-generatorset with power electronicconvertersis
shown in Fig. 7.59. Themotor is no longer directlyconnectedto the power system,
but through an adjustable-speeddrive. This enablesstarting of the flywheelwithout
causing voltage sags in the system, overspeed of the flywheel increasing ridethrough
the
time, and lossreduction while the set is instandby.The output of the generatoris
rectified to a constantde voltage which can be utilized through a series- or shunt-
connected voltage-source converteror directly fed into the de buso f an adjustable-
speed drive. The ac/dcconverterenables theextractionof power from the flywheel over
a much larger range of speed.
Supposethat a normalmotor-generatorset gives anacceptableoutputvoltage for
a frequency down to 45 Hz (in a 50 Hz system). A frequency of 45 Hz is reached when
the speed has droppedto 90%. Theamountof energy in the flywheel is still 81% of the
energy at maximum speed. This implies that only 19% of thestoredenergy is used.
Adjustable-speed
drive ac motor
Power
system
Figure 7.59 Powerelectronicconvertersin

combination with a motor-generatorset.
Supposethat we cangeneratea constantde voltage for a speed down to 50% , by using

an ac/dcconverter.The energythat can beextractedis 75% of the total energy, an
increase by a factoro f four. The ridethroughtime is thus also increased by a factor of
four-for example, from 5 to 20 seconds. The ridethroughcan befurther increased by
running the acmotor above nominal speed. Byacceleratingthe flywheel slowly, the
mechanical load on the m otor can be kept small. As the kinetic energyproportional
is
to the square of the speed,rathersmall
a increase in speed canalreadygive a serious
increase inridethroughtime.Supposean overspeedof 20%. which increases the energy
in the flywheel to 144% of theoriginal maximum. The extraction of energy from the
flywheel stops when 25% of the original maximum remains, that so the amount of
energyextractedfrom the flywheel is 119%: afactor of six more thanwith the original
setup . The resultingridethroughtime is 30 seconds .
7.4.7.2 Electronic TapChangers. Electronic tap changers use fast static

switches to change the t ransformation rat io of a transformer. Th is can either be a
distr ibution transformeror a dedicatedtransformerfor a sensitive load. The principle
of its operation is shown in Fig. 7.60, in this case with three static switches. The
number of turns of the fourparts of the secondarywinding are (top tobottom):
100%, 40% , 20%, and 10% of the nominal turns ratio . Byopeningor closing these
three switchestransformationratios between 100% and 170% can be achieved, with
10% steps. If all three switches are closed, the turns ratio is 100%; with switch 1
closed and 2 and 3 open it is 130% , etc. By using this electronicchanger tap , the
output voltage is between 95% and 105% o f nominal for input voltages down to
56% of nominal. Transformerswith electronictap changers are currently available as
.....
Power >-
system Load
>-
- .....
>-
>-
>-
>-
,'1
>-
Static
switehe
:'2
>-
1'3 Figure 7.60 Basic principleof the
constructionof an electron ic tap changer.
Section 7.4 • TheSystem-Equ
ipment Interface 445
an additional seriescomponentbetween the source and the load. In future it may be

feasible to install electronic tap changers on distribution transformers and save the
additional component.
7.4.7.3 FerroresonantTransformers. A ferroresonanttransformer,also known

as aconstant-voltagetransformer,is mainly designed to maintain constantvoltage
a
on its output over a range of input voltage. The basicconstructionof a ferroresonant
transformeris shown in Fig. 7.61. The third winding of a three-winding transformer
is connected to a large capacitor. Without this capacitor,the device operates as a
normal transformer.The effect of thecapacitoris explainedthrough Fig. 7.62. The
solid line is the relation between voltage and current for the nonlinear inductance.
The dashed line holds for the capacitor. The place where the curves cross is the oper-
ating point. Note that these curves give the voltage and current magnitude for one
frequency, in this case the power system frequency as that is the frequency exciting
the system. Thisoperatingpoint is independent of the supply voltage, thus the flux
through the iron core is independent of the supply voltage (assuming that the ferro-
resonantwinding has a smaller leakage than the input winding). The output voltage
is related to this flux, thus also independent of the input voltage.
The energy stored in the ferroresonant winding is able to provide some ride-
through during voltage dips. A disadvantage of a ferroresonant transformer is its
dependence on load changes. The inrush current of the load can lead to a collapse of
the flux and a long undervoltage . A modern version of the ferroresonant transformer
uses power electronic converters to keep the load current at unity power factor, thus
optimizing theoperation of the transformer.
power~ ~sensitive
system 0----3 ~Ioad
tl
LJ Ferroresonant
winding
Figure 7.61 Basic principle of the
construction of a ferroresonant transformer .
Figure 7.62 Voltage versus current diagram

.:
for a saturableinductor (solid line) and for a
capacitor(dashed line). Current
7.4.8 Energy Storage
Severalof the controllersdiscussedabove,needenergystorageto mitigate a sag.

All of them needenergystorageto mitigatean interruption.Herewe comparedifferent
types of energystoragewhich arecurrently being usedandconsidered.T he comparison
is basedon three different time scales,relatedto threedifferent controllers.
• A seriesvoltagecontrolleris only able tomitigatevoltagesags. Atypical design

value is 50%, 1 second;i.e., the controller is able to deliver 50% of nominal
voltagefor 1 second.In termsof energy-storagerequirementsthis corresponds
to full load for 500 ms.
• A (shunt-connected)b ackup power sourceis also able tomitigate interrup-
tions. To be able toimprove the voltage tolerancesignificantly a ridethrough
between10 and 60 secondsis needed.We considerthe requirement:full load
for 30 seconds.
• To achievevery high reliability, sensitiveload is typically poweredvia a UPS
which can supply the load for 10 to 60 minutes. During this period, backup
generatorscome on line to take over the supply. The third energy-storage
requirementwill be full load for 30 minutes.
7.4.8.1 DC Storage Capacitors.Capacitorsare mainly used to generatereac-

tive power on an ac system. But in a de systemthey can be used togenerateactive
power. The amountof energystoredin a capacitanceC with a voltage V is
(7.69)
The voltagedecreaseswhen theenergyis extractedfrom the capacitor.Capacitorscan

thus not be used tosupplyelectric power to a constant-voltagede bus, asneededfor a
voltage-sourceconverter.A second(de/de)'converteris neededbetweenthe capacitors
and the constant-voltagebus, asshown in Fig. 7.63. Alternatively, the control algo-
rithm of the voltage-sourceconvertercan be adjustedto variablede voltage.
In either case,there will be a minimum voltage below which the converteris no
longerableto operate.It is thusnot possibleto extractall energyfrom the capacitors.I f
the converteroperatesdown to 50% of the maximumvoltage,75% of the energycanbe
extracted.A converteroperatingdown to 25% canextract 940/0 of the energy.
Considera medium-voltagecontroller using 4200 V, 1500J.LF storagecapacitors.
The amountof energystoredin one capacitoris
(7.70)
PWM voltage-source
Storage converter
capacitors
\ de Power
system
de ac interface
Variable O__ _ _....J
Figure 7.63 Energyextractionfrom de
de voltage storagecapacitors.
Supposethat the converteris able tooperatedown to 50% of voltage. Eachcapacitor

unit is able tosupply: 0.75 x 13kJ= 9.75 kJ.
For a 500 msridethrough,eachunit cansupply 19.5 kW of load. A small medium-
voltage load of 500 kW requires26 capacitorunits; a largemedium-voltageload of
10MWover 1000 units. For a 30secondridethrougheach unit can only power 325W
of load, alreadyrequiring 1500units for a small medium-voltageload. Thus de capa-
controllerswith ridethroughup to about 1 second,but not
citors are feasible for series
for backupvoltagesourcesrequiring ridethroughof 30 secondsand more.
Various energy storageoptionsfor adjustable-speed drives arecomparedin [42].
A price of $35 is given for a 4700JtF, 325 V capacitor.The amountof energystoredin
one suchcapacitoris 250J,of which 188J(75%) can be used,enoughto powera 375W
load for 500 ms or a 6.25 W load for 30 seconds.
To power a small low-voltageload of 1000Wduring 500msrequiresthreecapa-
citorscosting$105; topowerit for half a minuterequires160capacitors,c osting$5600.
For a completelow-voltageinstallationof 200 kW we need 534 c apacitors($18,700) for
500msridethroughand 32,000capacitors($1,120,000) for 30seconds.T he conclusion
is the same as before: capacitorstorageis suitablefor 1 secondridethroughbut not for
1 minute ridethrough.
7.4.8.2 Batteries. Batteriesare a verycommonly used method of storing elec-

tric energy. They are used in the vast majority of UPSs sold,not only in the small
one used topower a single PCbut also in larger ones whichcan power a complete
installation. Batteries provide a constantvoltage so that they can be directly con-
nected to thevoltage-sourceconverter. A 5 MVA, 2.5 MWh battery energy storage
system (BESS) has been installed to power critical equipment in a large chemical
facility [188]. The amountof storedenergy in this system is GJ,9 much more than in
any of the aboveexamples.An even larger installation has beeninstalled in Califor-
nia in 1988 for load-levelingpurposes[186]. This BESS is able tosupply 10MW dur-
ing 4 hours, correspondingto 144GJ of stored energy. This installation covers an
areaof 4200 m2 for the batteriesonly.
Looking at smallersizes,considera car batterywith a storagecapacityof 1MJ
(12 V,'23 Ah) costingabout$50. This simplebatterycontainsenoughenergyto powera
2 MW load during 500 ms, a 33 kWload during 30 seconds,or a 550 Wload during 30
minutes. One car battery containsthe sameamountof energyas 77medium-voltage
storagecapacitors.
The limitation with a batteryis not so muchthe amountof energystoredin it, but
the speed with which this energy can madeavailable.Emptyingour
be car batteryin 30
secondsrequiresa currentof 2760 A. The batterywill never beableto supplythis. If we
considera maximumcurrentof 200 A, the maximumload which can be suppliedfrom
one battery is 2400W. The battery can power this load for 7 minutes,which can be
consideredas theoptimumridethroughtime for this battery.This fits well in equipment
to mitigate interruptionsfor the time until on-sitegenerationbecomesavailable.
The numberof batteriesneededand the costsof these, are given inT able 7.5 for
the load sizesa nd ridethroughtimes given before. Only fors hortridethroughtimes will
capacitorsbe able tocompetewith batteries.
Batterieshave anumber of disadvantagesc omparedto capacitors,which may
compensatethe higher costs of the latter. The commonly used lead-acid battery (on
which this calculationis based),containsenvironmentally unfriendlymaterials,has a
limited lifetime (in numberof rechargingcycles),and requiresregularmaintenanceto
ensurea high reliability. The newer typesof batteries,which arebeing developedfor use
TABLE 7.5 Numberof Batteries (inbrackets)and CostsNeeded toPowerSeveral

Load Sizes for SeveralRidethroughTimes
I kW 200 kW 500 kW IOMW

500 ms (I) S50 (84) S4200 (209) SIo,oOO (4167) $210,000
30 sec (I) S50 (84) S4200 (209) $10,000 (4167) $210,000
30 min (2) stoo (364) SI8,000 (910) $46,000 (18182) S910,000
in electrical vehicles, do not have these

disadvantagesbut they obviously have higher
costs.
7.4.8.3 Supercapacitors. Supercapacitors(or double-layercapacitors)are pro-

pagated as a future solution for energy storage to improve equipmentvoltage toler-
ance. They have energy densities comparableto batteries, but much longer lifetime
and much lessmaintenancerequirements. Theirdisadvantageis that they are only
available for voltages of a few volts. A value of 3.3 F, 5.5 V ismentionedin [189].
The amountof stored energy is5 0J, only 1/5th of the4700J.l,F, 325V capacitor. Like
with a battery, there is a limit to the speed with which energy be canextracted from
a supercapacitor.F or the supercapacitorscurrently in operation, the discharge time
cannotbe less thanabout 1 minute . This makes them somewhat faster than batteries
but still much slower thancapacitors. The development ofsupercapacitorsis mainly
driven by the requirements o f electric vehicles, where the
a mountof storedenergy is
of more importancethan the speed with which it can be extracted .
7.4.8.4 Flywheels. An alternative which is currently being investigated is the

storage of energy in fast-spinningflywheels. The classicalmotor-generatorset, dis-
cussed before, already uses this principle, but the modern equivalent rotates at a
much higher speed. By using magnetic bearings and vacuum sealing of rotating
the
parts , very highrotational speeds can be achieved [192], values up to 90,000 rpm
have been reported [l90J. A possible configuration is shown in Fig. 7.64. The fly-
wheel isbroughtup to speed by an ac adjustable-speed drive. This drive also ensures
that rotational speed of theflywheel remains within a certain range during standby
operation.During a voltage sag or an interruptionthe brushless de generatorextracts
From the
power
system
To the
Brushless de generator power
~ ''' _ ~~~ ~~ , - - system
Inertia
Figure 7.64 Configurationof a flywheel energystoragesystem and itsinterfaceto

the power system.
energy from the flywheela nd suppliesthis to the power system via ade/deconverter
and a voltage-source(dc/ac) converter.
Considera solid cylindrical pieceof materialwith a length of 50 em and a radius
of 25 em. Theinertia of this pieceof material,for rotationalongthe axisof the cylinder,
is
J = ~mR2 (7.71)
with m the massand R the radiusof the cylinder. With a specific massof 2500 kg/m" we
find for the mass:
m=n X 0.252 x 0.50 x 2500 = 245 kg
and for the inertia:
J = 2:1 x 245 x 0.252 = 7.7kgm2

The kinetic energyof an intertia J rotating with an angularvelocity (J) is
£ = !J(J)2 (7.72)
2
If we rotate our cylinder at the "moderate" speed of 3000 rpm (w =
21r X 3~ = 314radjs,the amountof kinetic energystoredin the rotating cylinder is
1
£ =2 x 7.7 x 3142 = 380kJ
This energycannotbe extractedcompletely,as the energyconversionbecomes ineffi-

cient below acertain speed. Supposethis to be 50% of the maximum speed. The
amount of useful energy is again 750/0 of total energy, in this case
0.75 x 380kJ = 285kJ. This flywheel is thus able to power a 570kW load for 500ms,
a 9.5kW load for 30 seconds,o r a 160W load for 30 minutes.
Increasingthe rotational speed to 25,000 rpm by using the newest
technologies,
increasesthe amountof storedenergyto
1
£ = 2 x 7.7 X 26182 = 26 MJ
The useful energy of 0.75 x 26MJ is enoughto power a 40MW load for 500ms, a
650kW load for 30 seconds,or an II kW load for 30 minutes.
7.4.8.5 Superconducting Coils.It is well known that an inductor L, carrying a

current i, containsan amountof energyin its magneticfield equal to
(7.73)
This would makean inductor an alternativeform of energystorage,next to thecapa-

citor. The reasonthat inductorstorageis not commonlyused isthat the currentcauses
high losses in the wirem akingup the inductor.The losses due to current
a i are equalto
(7.74)
with R the total seriesresistance.S upposethat we can achieve anX jR ratio of 100 for
the inductor. In that case we find for the losses:
(7.75)
To compensatefor the resistivelosses,the energycontentsin the coil has to be

suppliedthree times a second.
A solutionsuggestedseveralyearsago is tostorethe energyin a superconducting
coil. The resistanceof a superconductoris (exactly) zero sothat the current will flow
forever without any reductionin magnitude.A possibleconfigurationfor sucha super-
conducting magnetic energy storage(SMES)is shownin Fig. 7.65.The variablecurrent
through the superconductingcoil is convertedto a constantvoltage. The constant-
voltage de bus isconnectedto the (ac) power system by meansof a voltage-source
converter.The coil currentclosesthroughthe de/deconverterwhich causesa small loss.
The configurationofSMESdevices isdiscussedin moredetail in [57], [158], [160], [162],
[169].
Refrigerator
Constant-voltage
de bus
Superconducting
t Power
system
coil interface
Figure 7.65 Energystoragein a
superconductingcoil and interfacewith the
power system.
Oneapplication[158] uses a 1000 Acurrentthrougha 1.8 H inductor. The energy

storedin the magneticfield is
1
£ == 2" x 1.8 X 10002 = 900kJ (7.76)
Assumethat the de/deconverteroperatesfor currentsdown to 50% of the maximum

current. The usable energy is in this case 0.75x 900kJ = 675kJ. This is enough to
power a 1.35MW load for 500 ms, a 22.5 kWload for 30 seconds,or a 375 W load
for 30 minutes. The device describedin [158] operatesas a shunt-connectedbackup
power source;it is used tomitigatevoltagesagsand shortinterruptionswith durations
up to a fewseconds.
Commercialapplicationsof SMES devices arereportedfor storedenergyup to
2.4 MJ and power ratings up' to 4 MV A. The devicescurrently in operationuse low-
temperaturesuperconductors w ith liquid helium as acoolingmedium.A demonstration
SMES using high-temperaturesuperconductorshas beenbuilt which is able tostore
8 kJ of energy.This is still two ordersor magnitudeaway from the devices using low-
temperaturesuperconductors,but the manufacturerexpectsto build 100 kJ devices in
the nearfuture. A study after the costsof SMES devices nowand in 10 years'time, is
describedby Schoenunget al. [168]. For example, a 3MW, 3 MJ unit would cost
$2,200,000now, but "only" $465,000in 10 years' time. The main cost reduction is
basedon the so-calledlearningcurve due to the productionof about 300 units in 10
years.By using the datain [168] the costshavebeenplotted as afunction of the stored
energy,resultingin Fig. 7.66.
In Table7.6 thecostsof energystoragein a SMESare comparedwith the costsof
batteriesand capacitors.The costs of the power electronicconvertershave not been
5-------------------,
• Costs now
o Costs in 10 years time
4
~ 3
.8
~
o
2 ..
Figure 7.66 Costs ofsuperconducting
magnetic energystorage(SMES) including 0 0
.. o
00 0
0
o 0
o
o
o 0 0 o 00
0
the power system interface, asfunction
a of n
o~_w.......:==----+----+-----+-----f
the amountof stored energy.( Data obtained 0.1 10 100 1000

Stored energy in MJ
from [168].)
TABLE 7.6 CostsComparisonof SMES, BESS andCapacitors
Costs of EnergyStorage
Power RidethroughTime SMES BESS Capacitors
300 kW I sec $183,000 $6300 $56,000

60 sec $389,000 $6300 $3,350,000
3MW I sec $411,000 $63,000 $558,000
60 sec $1,064,000 $63,000 $33,500,000
included, as these are similar for all energy storage methods. The costsbattery of a
energy storage system (BESS) is based on the same batteriesas used before: 1MJo f
storage, 2400Wof power for $50. The costs of capacitorstorage is based on 188 J of
storage for $35 as used before. Additional costs ofconstruction,wiring, protection,
cooling, etc., have not been included for the capacitorsor for the batteries.
We see that, withcurrent prices, battery storage remains by far the cheapest
solution, even if we consider a factor of two to three for additional costs. But the
lifetime of a battery is limited in number of discharge cycles, andbatteriescontain
environmentallyunfriendly products.When the costsof SMES devices go down and
the costs of batteries go up in the future, the former will become a more attractive
option for high-power short-time ridethrough.For short-time ridethroughcapacitor
storage is still moreattractive,especially if one realizes
that we used low-voltage capa-
citors where medium-voltage capacitorsare likely to form acheaperoption.
Note that the amountof energystoredin an SMES is similar to theamountof
energy stored in abattery.The main difference isthat the energy in asuperconducting
coil can be made available much faster. The units currently in operationare able to
extract 1MJ of energy from the coil in 1 second. The limitation in energyextractionis
the voltage over aninductor when thecurrentchanges:
di
dc
V;nd = L Cit (7.77)
The energyextraction p/oad is related to the change in

currentaccordingto
~ H3 Li c} = P10ad (7.78)
which gives for thevoltage over the inductor:

. -
V ind -
P/oad (7.79)
.
'de
With constantenergy extraction (constant p/oad) , the induced voltage increaseswith
decreasingcurrent. For a 500 kW load and a minimum current of 500 A, the voltage
over the coil is
500kW
V;nd = 500A = lOOOV (7.80)
For a 3MW unit we get V;nd = 6 kV. The de/de converter should be able to
operatewith this voltageover its input terminals.
Summary and
Conclusions
This chaptersummarizesthe conclusionsfrom the previouschapters.Next to that some

thoughtsare givenconcerningthe future of this area of power engineering. Just like in
the rest of thebook, the emphasisis on voltage sags andinterruptions.
8.1 POWER QUALITY
In Chapter I the term "power quality" and several related terms are defined. Power
quality is shown to consistof two parts: "voltage quality" and "currentquality." The
voltagequality describes the way in which the power supply affects equipment;as such
it is part of the quality of supply. Current quality describes the way in which the
equipmentaffects the power system and part is of the so-called"quality of consump-
tion." The termelectromagneticcompatibility (EMC) has a largeoverlapwith "power
quality" and the terms can often be used as synonyms.
An overview is givenof the various types of powerquality disturbances.An
important distinction is made between"variations" and "events." Variations are a
continuous phenomenon, e.g., the variation of the power system frequency.
Measuringvoltage andcurrentvariationsrequirescontinuousrecordingof their values.
Events only occur occasionally: voltage sags and interruptionsare typical examples.
Measuringvoltage andcurrentevents requires a triggering process: e.g.,ems the voltage
becoming lessthan a pre-definedthreshold.These two typesof power quality distur-
bances also requiredifferent analysis methods: average andstandarddeviation for
variations;frequencyof occurrencefor events.
The main subjecto f this bookis formed by voltage sags and interruptions:the two
mostimportantexamples from a familyo f voltage events known as "voltagemagnitude
events." Voltage magnitudeevents aredeviationsfrom the normal magnitude(ems
value) of the voltage with arather well-definedstarting and end time. Themajority
of these events can be characterizedby one magnitudeand oneduration. Different
initiating events and differentrestorationprocesses lead to different rangesof magni-
tude andduration.Based on these ranges, a classification of voltagemagnitudeevents is
proposed.
453
454 Chapter8 • Summaryand Conclusions
8.1.1 The Future of Power Quality
There is one questionthat always comesup when thinking about the future of
powerquality: "Will the powerquality problemstill be amongus in 10 years time?" It
may well bethat equipmentwill be improvedin such a waythat it no longeris sensitive
to the majority of voltagedisturbancesand that it no longer producesseriouscurrent
disturbances.In other words, equipmentwill have becomefully compatiblewith the
power supply. At the moment, however, there is no indication that this will happen
soon.Equipmentappearsto be assensitiveandpolluting as ever. Abrowsethroughthe
advertisementsin power-qualityorientedjournalsshows that the emphasisis on miti-
gation equipment (surge suppressors,UPSs, custom power) and on power-quality
measuremente quipment.Advertisementsin which equipmentwith improved voltage
toleranceis offered are extremelyrare.
The main drive for improved equipmentis likely to come from standards,in
particular the IEC standardson electromagneticcompatibility. When the standards
on harmonic currents produced by end-userequipment (lEe 61000-3-2 and -3-4)
becomewidely accepted,the harmonic distortion problem may be the first one to
move to thebackground.
Voltage quality eventslike voltage sags will take even longer to becomepart of
equipmentstandards.A t leastvoltagesags arereasonablyunderstoodnowadays(read
Chapters4, 5, and 6). Higher frequencyphenomenalike switching transientsare less
well understood,more difficult to model, and their statistics probably show more
variations among different customers.Still they causeequipmentproblems. High-
frequencydisturbancesmay well becomethe next bigpower-qualityissue.
8.1.2 Education
An importantaspectof powerquality is education:educationof those who come

in touch with power quality problemsas well as newgenerationsof engineers.Power
quality may bring power engineeringeducationcloser to the actual aim of power
engineering:generatingelectrical energyand delivering it to electricalend-userequip-
ment. Educatinga newgenerationof engineersis obviouslya taskfor universities. And
with engineersI am not only referring to power engineers.Every studentin electrical,
electronic,and mechanicalengineeringshould know aboutpotential problemsdue to
the connectionof equipmentto the powersupply.Note that these are thepersonsto use
electricalequipmentandto designfuture equipment.When they areawareof potential
compatibility problems,they are more likely to comeup with equipmentthat is com-
patible with the supply.
Postgraduateeducationis importantand not necessarilya task for a university.
Severalcompaniesoffer good power-qualitycoursesthat enablepeoplein industry to
solve the problems they encounter.However, universities are better suited to give
theoreticalbackgroundsneededto solve future problems,next to providing an under-
standingof existing problems.
8.1.3 Measurement Data
From the beginning,power quality has been anareavery much based on mea-
surementsand observations.T he standardtools in use atuniversities,simulationsand
theoreticalanalysis;are much less used in thepowerquality work. In fact, theamount
of universityresearchon powerquality is still very limited. This will certainlychangein
Section 8.2 • Standardization 4SS
the near future; powerquality will not only find its way into educationbut also into
university research.There is a serious risk herethat a gap will develop between the
heavily measurement-based power-quality practice and the very much theory- and
simulation-baseduniversity research. Such situation
a may be preventedif utilities
make much moreof their data available for university research and education.A
very good example is set by IEEE Project group 1159.2. At their Website (accessible
through www.standards.ieee.org) a number of voltage recordings are available for
downloading.I would like to see much more utilities making d ata available in this
way: not only theactual voltage andcurrent recordings but also some basic data
aboutthe kind of event and the kind of power system involved.
8.2 STANDARDIZATION
In the secondpart of Chapter1, power qualitystandardsare discussed. The IEC set of

standardson electromagneticcompatibility offers the opportunity to seriously solve
several powerquality problems.The standardsdescribe variouspower-qualitydistur-
bances, define testingtechniquesand give requirementsfor equipmentand system
performance.A large number of standardsis still under developmentand even
more arerequired to fully standardizeequipmentas far as power quality and EMC
is concerned.In Chapter1 some suggestions are given for the extension of the concept
"compatibility level" from variationsto events.
The Europeanvoltage characteristicsstandard,EN 50160, is described in detail.
The standardgives a gooddescriptionof the voltage quality forvoltage.variations,but
is ratherweak for voltage events.
8.2.1 Future Developments
Developmentsin this area will unfortunatelytake a long time, sothat power

quality problemswill be aroundfor at least several more years. This is simply
inherent
to the standard-settingprocess.During my work on someIEEE standards,it became
of
clear that one can only take one step at a time. The first step, making people aware
power quality problems,has beentakenboth within the IEC and within the IEEE. The
recently publishedIEEE standardon compatibility between electronic process equip-
ment and the power system ( IEEE Std. 1346-1998) may be the first of a long series of
IEEE standardson this subject. AlsoChapter9 of the 1997 editionof the IEEE Gold
Book (IEEE Std.493-1997) willcontributeto the power-qualityawareness. It is inter-
esting to notice that both documentswere already being used and referred to several
years before theyactually became accepted as standarddocuments.The same has
happenedwith several IECstandards,noticeablythe one limiting theharmoniccurrent
distortion by low-powerequipment(IEC 61000-3-2). BothIEEE and lEe shouldmake
their draft documentsavailableto a much wider audience. This will not only widen the
discussion but also speed up the acceptanceprocess of thestandard.
The EuropeanvoltagecharacteristicsstandardEN 50160 is one of the first docu-
ments quantifying the voltage quality experienced by customers. Despite allshort-
its
comings, thepublicationof this standardhas triggered morecoordinatedmeasurement
campaignsthan before. Thefuture will bring the publicationof local equivalentsof EN
50160.
456 Chapter8 • Summaryand Conclusions
8.2.2 Bilateral Contracts
An arearelated to powerquality standards,but likely showingmuchfaster devel-

opment,is formed by thebilateral contractsbetween utilitiesand customers.Several
examples arealreadyin place where the utility pays compensationto its customerswhen
the quality of supply drops below a certainlevel. The typicalcontractdefines a max-
imum-acceptablenumberper year for each event type, e.g., two long interruptions,five
shortinterruptions.When thisnumberis exceeded within acertainyear, the utility pays
a predefinedamountof compensationfor eachadditional event. The initialcontracts
only containedinterruptions,but voltage sags have been implementedin a numberof
contractsas well. When setting up these contracts,a precise definitionof the various
events is essential. Next to these
bilateral contracts,utilities are likely to come up with
generalcompensationschemes forcustomerswith a bad voltagequality. When utilities
refuse to take these steps they may be forced into worse constructionsby political and
legal developmentsoutsideof their control.
The conceptof bilateralcontractsis likely to beextendedto the interfacebetween
transmissionand distribution systems. At thisinterfacevoltage quality becomes even
more two-directionalthan at the utility-eustomerinterface. Voltagedisturbancesmay
originatein either system.
8.3 INTERRUPTIONS
A long interruption is an interruption of the power supply followed by amanual

restoration.When the supply isrestoredautomaticallythe result is ashortinterruption.
Long interruptionsare discussed inC hapter2, short interruptionsin Chapter3. Long
interruptionsare by far themostserious voltagequality disturbance.M ost utilities keep
a record of frequencyand durationof long interruptions.Unfortunatelymuch of this
very usefuldata is not generally accessible. A positiveexceptionto this is theUnited
Kingdom where utilities are obliged topublish data on the supply performance.
Currently this only includesinterruption data but it is likely to beextendedto other
types of events.
Short interruptionsare shown to be due to combinationof
a automaticreclosing
and a system design aimed at limiting the numberof reclosers.Automatic reclosing
makesthat a longinterruptionbecomes ashortinterruptionand is as such m a itigation
method.But limiting the numberof reclosers makesthat customersexperience ashort
interruptionthat otherwisewould have experienced a voltage sag. Removingthe whole
reclosure scheme is deteriorationof
a the supply for somecustomersbut an improve-
ment for others.
A detailed analysis ispresentedof voltages andcurrentsassociatedwith single-
phasetripping. It is shown that single-phasetripping leads to less severe voltage events
at theequipmentterminals,but it may also lead to a higher percentageof second trips.
A numberof pilot schemesshouldbe set up wheresingle-phasetripping is used for the
first attemptand three-phasetripping for the secondattempt.
8.3.1 Publication of Interruption Data
In the future more utilities will publish interruptionfrequency andsupply avail-

ability. For customersto be able to assess the compatibility betweenequipmentand
supply, it is essentialthat utilities publishthe supplyperformance.As interruptiondata
Section 8.4 • Reliability 457
are already available, this will be the first to be published. A likely

developmentis that
utilities publish more than just frequency and availability over the whole country.
Details like "worst-servedcustomers,"regional variations, and distribution of the
interruptiondurationwill give more insight into thequality of supply experienced by
individual customers.Publicationof more statistics will inevitably lead to comparison
a
between different utilities and regions. To obtain a fair comparison,many years of
observationmay be needed. Alternatively satandardizedreliability evaluation tool
can be used to predict the supply performance.As most interruptionsoriginate in
the distribution system, relatively simple techniques may be sufficient.
The increase inobservationdata will probably not include data on short inter-
ruptions, at least not initially.Getting data on short interruptionsfor all customers
requires an extensive monitoring effort. For short interruptions,prediction methods
may be the only suitable way of getting datafor all customers. These predictionmeth-
ods may be"calibrated"throughmonitoring at a limitednumberof sites.
8.4 RBLIABILITY
The secondpart of Chapter2 summarizes the various aspects of power system relia-
bility and the stochastic analysis techniques currently in use: network modeling,
Markov models, andMonte Carlo simulation. Various examples are given for each
of these techniques. Different aspects are given for the reliability analysis
of generation,
transmission,and distribution systems (the three so-called "hierarchicallevels"). For
the industrial power supply a systematic methodologyis given that can be used to
obtain the reliability of the supply. Thismethodologyconsistsof six layers, partly
correspondingto the hierarchical levels but also including power
quality and equipment
failure.
8.4.1 V.rlflcatlon
Power system reliability has two distinctly different faces: the observed reliability
of numberand
and the predicted reliability. Observed reliability, i.e., keeping records
durationof interruptions,is the domainof the utilities; predictedreliability, i.e., relia-
bility evaluation,is thedomainof universities;without much overlapbetween these two
sides. A comparisonbetween observed and predicted reliability is needed to move
forward in reliability evaluation.For this, utilities should provide thedata and uni-
versities the analysis and prediction techniques. Only such caomparisonwill give a
clear answera boutthe accuracyof the variousstochasticpredictiontechniques. Such a
comparisonwill also lead to a wider acceptance of stochasticpredictiontechniques and
to a wider useof them within the utilities.
8.4.2 Theoretical Developments
Potentialdevelopments on the theoreticalside are the inclusionof nonexponen-

tial repair-time distributions and of common-modeeffects. In both cases thedata
requirements are high. This again calls for a closercooperationbetween utilities and
universities. Muchof the theoretical work on power system reliability has been direc-
ted toward transmission systems. In the near future, distribution networks will
become much more a focus of the research. The main theoretical bottleneck is
again thedistribution of the interruptionduration. By using theexponentialdistribu-
458 Chapter8 • Summary andConclusions
tion erroneousresults areobtained,especially for thenumberof very long interrup-

tions.
8.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF VOLTAGE SAGS
In Chapter4 the various characteristicsof voltagesags are discussed. After the more
"classical"characteristics,m agnitudeand duration, two newercharacteristics,phase-
anglejump and three-phaseunbalance,are treatedin considerabledetail. Techniques
are presentedto calculatethese sagcharacteristicsfor a given fault and loadposition
and fault type. Thetechniquesare applied to an example supplyconsistingof several
voltage levels.
Phase-angle j ump andthree-phaseunbalanceare discussed in detail in Chapter4.
Especially three-phaseunbalanceis an important characteristic.The currently used
definition of sagmagnitudeis not suitablefor three-phaseequipment.The definition
of sagmagnitudeis generalized forthree-phaseunbalancedsags leading to a classifica-
tion of three-phaseunbalancedsags into seven types, of which two types (C and D)
cover the majority of sags. A three-phaseunbalancedsag is quantified through a
characteristiccomplex voltage which isindependento f voltage level or loadconnection.
Magnitudeand phase-anglejump are absolutevalue andargument,respectively,of the
characteristiccomplex voltage. The possible rangemagnitudeand
in phase-anglejump
is calculated,for single-phaseas well as forthree-phaseequipment,for the example
supply as well as in general.
Chapter4 concludeswith a treatmentof two additionalsagcharacteristics,point-
on-wave and missing voltage, discussionaboutload
a influence on voltage sags, and a
brief treatmentof voltagesags due toinduction motor starting.
8.5.1 Definition and Implementation of Sag Characteristics
The variouscharacteristicsdiscussed here a nd othersrecentlyintroduced,need to

be applied tomeasuredvoltage sags. This will giveinformation about their statistics
and about the rangeof values that can be expected. The next step will that be these
additional characteristicsare implementedin commercially available power quality
monitors. Before that stage isreached,it is essentialthat all sag characteristicsare
uniquely defined. This willprevent confusion due to different manufacturersusing
different definitions. Missingvoltagemay become acompromisebetween the different
magnitudedefinitions used onboth sides of theAtlantic (voltagedrop versusremaining
voltage). Thedisadvantageof using missing voltage is t hat the majority of single-phase
equipmentis affected by theremainingvoltage, not by the missing voltage. The appli-
cation of point-on-wavecharacteristicsmay be limitedto.a small group of equipment.
But in any case, all these characteristicsdescribepart of the quality of supply and
statisticalinformationaboutthem shouldbe partof the outcomeof voltage sag surveys.
8.5.2 Load Influence
An areathat has beensomewhatforgottenin the variousvoltage sag studies is the

effect of load on the voltage sag
characteristics.A qualitativestudyof the effect of large
inductionmotorsis describedin Chapter4. For a quantitativestudy of all types of load,
a detailed analysisof measuredvoltage sags is needed. Such a study should include
large and smallm otor and electronicload as well asembeddedgeneration.The effect of
the loaddetermineshow the sagcharacteristicschangewhen a voltage sag propagates
Section 8.6 • EquipmentBehaviordue to Voltage Sags 459
from high voltageto low voltage.Observationshaveshownthat a sag with amagnitude

(remainingvoltage) of 40% at 132 kV is seen as a sag with magnitudeof
a 60% at
400V.
8.8 EQUIPMENT BEHAVIOR DUE TO VOLTAGE SAGS
In Chapter5 the effectof voltagesags onequipmentis discussed. Theemphasisis on

single-phase rectifiers (computers, consumer electronics, process controllers), ac
adjustable-speeddrives, and de adjustable-speeddrives. Single-phaserectifiers are
affected bymagnitudeand duration of the voltage sag. They trip when thevoltage
drops below acertainmagnitudefor longer than a certainduration(resultingin a so-
called "rectangularvoltage-tolerancecurve"). The voltage toleranceof the equipment
can easily beimprovedby addingadditionalcapacitanceto the internaldc bus. Using a
voltage regulatorthat can operatedown to a lower voltage is a more elegantbut also
more difficult solution.
For three-phaserectifiers, as used in ac
adjustable-speed drives, it is mainly the
characteristicmagnitudeand the sag typethat affect the de busvoltage and thus the
drive behavior.The amountof capacitancecurrentlyin use in ac drives is too small for
the sagdurationto haveany influence.Making the drivetolerantagainstbalancedsags
requiresseriousimprovementsin the designof the PWM inverter. For balancedsags
the dc-busvoltagedropsto a lower value(equalto the sagmagnitude,in pu) within one
or two cycles.For three-phaseu nbalancedsags the sizeo f the dc-buscapacitanceis very
important. If the capacitanceis large enough(in the upper range of the amount of
capacitancecurrentlyin use) thedc-busvoltagewill not drop below 80% for any three-
phaseunbalancedsag. If the drive is able to stay on-line, the effectof the sag on the
load will be very small.
DC adjustable-speed drives areshown to be very sensitive tovoltage sags. The
armaturecurrent and the torque drop to zero almost immediately,even for arather
shallow sag. As de drives are typically used for
speed-sensitiveprocesses, thed rop in
speedassociatedwith the zerotorquewill easily lead to adisruption of the process.
8.8.1 Equipment Testing
An importantfuture step is thedevelopmento f a testingprotocol for equipment.

This will enablethe customerto comparethe voltagetoleranceof different devices.For
single-phaseequipmentit is probably sufficient to test fordifferent magnitudeand
duration. Possibleexceptionsare contactors(affected by point-on-wave)and equip-
ment with controlled rectifiers (affectedby phase-anglejump).
Testingof three-phaseequipmentwill be much more complicated:even for non-
controlledrectifiers, thecharacteristicphase-anglejump affects thedc-busvoltage. For
de drives the threephasesare nolongerequivalentso that the numberof testsrequired
increasesby a factor of three. Three-phaseequipmentneeds to be tested for several
types of three-phaseunbalancedsags and for a range of magnitude,duration, and
phase-anglejump. Further analysisof monitoring results is needed too btain realistic
values for therangeof characteristicsto be included in the tests.
Another problem that needs to be solved is the definition of the testcriterion.
Whethera certainreactionis acceptabledependsto a largeextendon the processdriven
by the drive. A possiblesolution is to give the variation in speedand torque as a
function of the sagcharacteristics.This will enablean assessment of the effectof the
sag on theprocesswhen using acertaindrive.
460 Chapter8 • Summary and Conclusions
8.6.2 Improvement of Equipment
Improvementof equipmentoffers the only long-termsolutionto the power qual-

ity problem. As shown inChapter5, the effect of the sag can be mitigated for many
devices by installingadditionalcapacitance.There are somedrawbackswith this, the
first being the additional costs. A risk of additional capacitanceis that the inrush
current on voltage recovery becomes more severe. This may lead to blowing of fuses
or to damageon power electroniccomponents.
Installing additionalcapacitancehas its limits. It is not feasible for making drives
toleratebalancedsags and it is in most cases not feasible at all for de drives. More
advanced rectifiers, inverters, and
control algorithmsare needed to achieve this. There
is not yet a drivetoward improvedequipmentbut somewhere in the (hopefully not too
remote) future this willhappen.Possible driving forces are standardized
a testing pro-
tocol; equipmentimmunity requirementsaspartof the EMC standards;and, of course,
a demandfor improvedequipmentfrom the sideof the customer.
8.7 STOCHASTIC ASSESSMENT OF VOLTAGE SAGS
Chapter6 discusses the stochasticand statisticaltreatmentof the compatibility between

equipmentand supply.Dataaboutthe performanceof the supply can be obtainedfrom
power quality monitoringand fromstochasticpredictionstudies.Monitoring may give
a more accuratepicture of the kind of disturbancesto be expected, butstochastic
predictionwill give results in a muchshortertime.
Different methodsare discussed to present the results of stochasticassessment
a
study (either powerquality monitoring or stochastic prediction). The so-called
"voltage-sagcoordinationchart" is shown to be a useful instrumentfor the compat-
ibility assessment. The results
of a numberof largepower-qualitysurveys are presented
and compared.One of the conclusionsis that a further treatmentis needed of the
propagationof voltage sags from the faultposition to lower voltage levels. The
above-mentionedeffect of load on the sag characteristicswill play an important role
in such studies.
Two methodsare presentedfor the stochasticprediction of voltage sags: the
method of fault positionsand themethod of critical distances. Themethod of fault
positionsis suited for computerizedcalculationsin large meshed(transmission)sys-
tems. Themethodof critical distancesis suitable for simplehandcalculationsand for
calculationsin radial (distribution) systems.
8.7.1 Other Sag Characteristics
All the techniques discussed Chapter6

in concentrateon magnitudeand duration
of voltage sags. To cover a wider range equipment,new
of techniques have to be
developed for theother sagcharacteristics:phase-angle jump;three-phaseunbalance;
point-on-wave.Some suggestions are given in the text.problemwith
A theseadditional
sagcharacteristicsis that the equipment'sreaction to them is not known, not even in a
qualitativeway.
8.7.2 Stochastic Prediction Techniques
Stochasticprediction techniques willcontinue to be further developed: both

detailedcomputerizedtechniques using themethodof fault positions as well as simpli-
Section 8.7 • StochasticAssessment of Voltage Sags 461
tied methodslike the methodof critical distances. These developmentswill reduce the
gap between powerquality and reliability evaluation.In fact, stochasticprediction of
voltage sags may be consideredaspart of the reliability evaluationof the power supply.
Stochasticpredictionof voltage sags based on the methodof fault positionsis likely to
become astandardpart of power-system analysis software, next to load flow, short-
circuit currentcalculations,transientstability, etc.Calculatingthe expectednumberof
voltage sags may become common as as calculatingthe short-circuit current or the
normal operatingvoltage.
It is likely that the first commercially availableprogramswill only give results for
magnitudeand duration.But soon morecharacteristicsmay becomepart of the calcu-
lation results:three-phaseunbalancebeing the most essential one.
The methodof critical distances willcontinueto playarole. It may becomepart
of the stochasticprediction software, e.g., to estimate the extent of and distance
between the fault positions. The method of critical distances remains much more
powerful than the methodof fault positionsfor fast "back-of-the-envelope"calcula-
tions. An exampleof the latter is the simple expression derived in the last section of
Chapter6. This expression estimates the number of sags due to faults in a meshed
transmissionsystem. Thedrawbackwith this expression isthat there is(not yet) any
theoretical basis for it. Further studies andcomparisonsmay teach usabout this
expression'saccuracy level.
8.7.3 Power Quality Survey.
Power quality surveys will alsocontinueto be performed.In fact quite a large

numberof them is going on at the moment, even thoughthe statisticsare not actually
being collected in all cases. Thenumberof publicationsof survey results will however
become less, as they are likely to show"more of the same."This is anunfortunatebut
understandable development. There is a small hope however that the datawill be made
available for further research, e.g., resulting in statistics for
three-phaseunbalance,
phase-anglejump, point-on-wave, and any other possible sagcharacteristic.Such
data provide very useful results needed to assess voltage-tolerance
the requirements
of equipment.
The amount of survey results published, even internal
in reports, is still very
limited. There must be gigabytes of very interestingmonitoringdatastoredat utilities
all over the world, waiting to be processed. Only ten years ago it was very difficult to get
power systemmeasurementsfor research purposes. Soon the situation may be that
there is a surplusof data for which there are no directapplications.This should of
course not stop any utility from installing monitors.The only way of getting an accu-
rate picture of the quality of supply at any given location (i.e., not only sags and
interruptionsbut the wholespectrumof disturbances)is still by meansof measuring.
8.7.4 Monitoring or Prediction?
Both monitoring and stochasticpredictionare mentionedas a wayof obtaining

information aboutthe supplyperformance.Monitoring is still the methodmost com-
monly used: it gives not onlyinformation on voltage sags but also on other voltage
events andvariations.Much of thisinformationis still very hardto obtainby stochastic
prediction.For voltage sags, however, powerful
predictiontechniquesexist andobtain-
ing accurateresults through monitoring may take many years.For individual sites
stochasticprediction is most suitable; toobtain the average powerquality over a
462 Chapter8 • Summary andConclusions
large area (e.g., a whole

country) monitoring is more suitable. Bycomparingmonitor-
ing and prediction results thetrust in prediction techniquesis likely to grow, and the
comparisoncan be used tofurther develop thepredictiontechniques.
8.8 MITIGATION METHODS
In Chapter7 various methodsfor the mitigation of voltage sags andinterruptionsare

discussed. This is theultimate aim of any powerquality investigation: to solve the
problem. Thechapterstartswith an overviewof mitigation methods.Each methodis
briefly discussed: reducing the numberof faults; reducing thefault-clearingtime; chang-
ing the power system;installing mitigation equipment; and improving equipment
immunity. For different types of events,different mitigation methodsare most suitable:
improving the equipmentfor short-durationevents, improving the system for long-
durationevents.
Power system design and mitigation equipmentare discussed in more detail. The
two improvementmethodsin power system design are parallel operationof compo-
nents and switching to an alternativesupply. Until a few years ago, thelatter would
only besuitableas amitigation methodagainstlong interruptions.For sagmitigation
only certaintypesof parallel operationwere suitable. Theintroductionof the medium-
voltagestaticswitch makes it possible to mitigatevoltage sags by very quickly switching
to a healthysupply. This may make radial operationa more reliable supplyalternative
than parallel operation.
Several types ofmitigation equipmentare discussed in C hapter7. Theemphasisis
on shunt and seriescontrollers based onpower-electronicvoltage-sourceconverters.
Throughtheseconvertersit is possible tocompensatefor the drop in system voltage or
even totemporarilytake over thesupplycompletely.For not too deep voltage sags it is
possible tocompensatethe drop in voltage magnitudeby injecting reactivepoweronly,
but for a full compensationboth reactive and active power are needed. The latter calls
for a certain amountof energystorage.A numberof energystorageoptions are dis-
cussed in the last section Chapter7:
of both classical ones(batteries,capacitors)as well
as some of the more recently introducedones (superconductingcoils, high-speed fly-
wheels,supercapacitors). A comparisonof the variousoptionsshowsthat batteriesand
capacitorsremain themost-suitable options:capacitorsfor ridethroughtimes around
one second;batteriesfor ridethroughtimes of 10 minutesand longer.
The mostcommonly used method remains theinstallation of mitigating equip-
ment at theutility-customerinterfaceor at theequipmentterminals.The uninterrup-
tible power supply has become standardpieceof
a equipmentin many installations.
This simply takes away lots o f worries aboutthe quality of the supply. It is also in many
cases the only possible solution: manycustomersdo not have the possibility toopt for
improved equipmentor for an improved power supply. A recentdevelopmentis the
installationof large mitigation equipmentat theutility-eustomerinterfaceprotectinga
whole plant againstsupply disturbances.This may be thecheapestshort-termsolution,
but it should not be used as an excusestop to the installationand developmentof less-
sensitiveequipment.
8.9 FINAL REMARKS
Powerquality is an areaof power engineeringthat did not exist only 10 years ago.
Powerquality and reliability have formanyyears beenpart of power system design and
operation,but they were rarelyconsideredas a separatearea. Being a new area, the
Section 8.9 • FinalRemarks 463
developments in power quality are fast and difficult to predict. A new device may be
inventedtomorrow solving all voltage sagproblems.
A more likely developmentis that sensitiveequipmentwill stay amongus for a
long time to come.Certainlyshort and longinterruptionswill remain a problem.The
power quality area willfurther expandand likely develop into two new areas: a non-
technical area covering"customer-utility interactions"and a technical onethat will
merge withelectromagneticcompatibility("equipment-system interactions").An addi-
tional spin-off of the developmentsin power quality will be that power system educa-
tion and research will be much more measurementbasedthan in the past.
Regardlessof what the future will bring, powerquality in all its varieties will offer
utilities, equipmentmanufacturers,customers,and universities a very interestingfield of
study, on which lots ofcooperationis needed and possible.
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Appendix A:
Overview of EMC
Standards
IEC 61000: Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) consists of 6 parts, each consisting

of several sections. Below a list is given of the sections related to power quality, as well
as some documents currently (February 1999) under development.
• Part 1: General
- Section 1: Application and interpretation of fundamental definitions and
terms.
- Section 2: Methodology for the achievement of functional safety of electrical
and electronic equipment (in preparation).
• Part 2: Environment
- Section 1: Description of the environment-Electromagnetic environment for
low-frequency conducted disturbances and signalling in power supply systems.
- Section 2: Compatibility levels for low-frequency conducted disturbances and
signalling in public supply systems.
- Section 3: Description of the environment-Radiated and non-network-fre-
quency-related conducted disturbances.
- Section 4: Compatibility levels in industrial plants for low-frequency con-
ducted disturbances.
- Section 5: Classification of electromagnetic environments.
- Section 6: Assessment of the emission levels in the power supply of industrial
plants as regards low-frequency conducted disturbances.
- Section 7: Low-frequency magnetic fields in various environments.
- Section 8: Voltage dips, short interruptions and statistical measurement
results (in preparation).
- Section 12: Compatibility levels for low-frequency conducted disturbances
and signalling in public medium-voltage power supply systems (in prepara-
tion).
477
478 Appendix A • Overview of EMC Standards
• Part 3: Limits
- Section 1: Overview of emission standards and guides (in preparation).
- Section 2: Limits for harmonic current emissions (equipment input current
~ 16A per phase).
- Section 3: Limitation of voltage fluctuations and flicker in low-voltage supply
systems for equipment with rated current ~ 16A.
- Section 4: Limitation of emission of harmonic currents in low-voltage power
supply systems for equipment with rated current greater than 16A.
- Section 5: Limitation of voltage fluctuations and flicker in low-voltage power
supply systems for equipment with rated current greater than 16 A.
- Section 6: Assessment of emission limits for distorting loads in MV and HV
power systems.
- Section 7: Assessment of emission limits for fluctuating loads in MV and HV
power systems.
- Section 8: Signalling on low-voltage electrical installations-Emission levels,
frequency bands and electromagnetic disturbance levels.
- Section 9: Limits for interharmonic current emissions (equipment with input
power ~ 16 A per phase and prone to produce interharmonics by design) (in
preparation).
- Section 10: Emission limits in the frequency range 2 ... 9 kHz (in prepara-
tion).
- Section 11: Limitation of voltage changes, voltage fluctuations and flicker in
low voltage supply systems for equipment with rated current ~ 75 A and sub-
ject to conditional connection (in preparation).
• Part 4: Testing and measurement techniques
- Section 1: Overview of immunity tests.
- Section 2: Electrostatic discharge immunity test.
- Section 3: Radiated, radio-frequency, electromagnetic field immunity test.
- Section 4: Electrical fast transient/burst immunity test.
- Section 5: Surge immunity test.
- Section 6: Immunity to conducted disturbances, induced by radio-frequency
fields.
- Section 7: General guide on harmonic distortion and interharmonics mea-
surement and instrumentation, for power supply systems and equipment con-
nected thereto.
- Section 8: Power frequency magnetic field immunity test.
- Section 9: Pulse magnetic field immunity test.
- Section 10: Damped oscillatory magnetic field immunity test.
- Section 11: Voltage dips, short interruptions and voltage variations immunity
tests.
- Section 12: Oscillatory waves immunity test.
- Section 13: Test for immunity to harmonics and interharmonics including
mains signalling at a.c. power port (in preparation).
- Section 14: Voltage fluctuations-Immunity test.
- Section 15: Flickermeter-Functional and design specifications.
Appendix A • Overview of EMC Standards 479
- Section 16: Test for immunity to conducted common mode disturbances in

the frequency range 0 Hz to 150 kHz.
- Section 17: Ripple on d.c. input power port, immunity test (in preparation).
- Section 20: TEM cells (in preparation).
- Section 21: Reverberation chambers (in preparation).
- Section 22: Guide on measurement methods for electromagnetic phenomena
(in preparation).
- Section 26: Calibration of probes and associated instruments for measuring
electromagnetic fields (in preparation).
- Section 27: Unbalance, immunity test (in preparation).
- Section 28: Variation of power frequency, immunity test (in preparation).
- Section 29: Voltage dips, short interruptions and voltage variations on d.c.
input power ports, immunity tests (in preparation).
- Section 30: Measurements of power quality parameters (in preparation).
- Section 31: Measurements in the frequency range 2 kHz to 9kHz (in prepara-
tion).
• Part 5: Installation and mitigation guidelines
- Section I: General considerations.
- Section 2: Earthing and cabling.
- Section 6: Mitigation of external EM influences (in preparation).
- Section 7: Degrees of protection against electromagnetic disturbances pro-
vided by enclosures (in preparation).
• Part 6: Generic standards
- Section 1: Immunity for residential, commercial and light-industrial environ-
ments.
- Section 2: Immunity for industrial environments.
- Section 4: Emission standard for industrial environments.
- Section 5: Immunity of apparatus for generating stations and high-voltage
substations (in preparation).
Appendix B:
IEEE Standards on Power
Quality
The American standard setting organizations, ANSI and IEEE, do not have such a
comprehensive and structured set of power quality standards as the lEe. On the other
hand, the IEEE standards give much more practical and some theoretical background
on the phenomena. This makes many of the IEEE standard documents very useful
reference documents, even outside of the United States. Below follows a list of existing
IEEE standards on power quality, and some standard documents currently under
development.
• Std 4-1995 Standard techniques for high-voltage testing.

• Std 120-1989 Master Test Guide for Electrical Measurements in Power
Circuits.
• Std 141-1993 Recommended practice for electric power distribution for indus-
trial plants.
• Std 142...1991 Recommended practice for grounding of industrial and commer-
cial power systems, also known as the Green Book.
• Std 213-1993 Standard procedure for measuring conducted emissions in the
range of 300 kHz to 25 MHz from television and FM broadcast receivers to
power lines.
• Std 241-1990 Recommended practice for electric power systems in commercial
buildings, also known as the Gray Book.
• Std 281-1994 Standard service conditions for power system communication
equipment.
• Std 299-1991 Standard method of measuring the effectiveness of electromag-
netic shielding enclosures.
• Std 352-1993 Guide for general principles of reliability analysis of nuclear
power generating station safety systems.
• Std 367-1996 Recommended practice for determining the electric power station
ground potential rise and induced voltage from a power fault.
481
482 Appendix B • IEEE Standards on Power Quality
• Std 376-1993 Standard for the measurement of impulse strength and impulse
bandwidth.
• Std 430-1991 Standard procedures for the measurement of radio noise from
overhead power lines and substations.
• Std 446-1987 Recommended practice for emergency and standby power sys-
tems for industrial and commercial applications, also knows as the Orange
Book.
• Std 449-1990 Standard for ferroresonance voltage regulators.
• Std 473-1991 Recommended practice for an electromagnetic site. survey
(10kHz to IOGHz).
• Std 493-1997 Recommended practice for the design of reliable industrial and
commercial power systems, also known as the Gold Book.
• Std 519-1992 Recommended practice and requirements for harmonic control in
electric power systems,
• Std 539-1990 Standard definitions of terms relating to corona and field effects
of overhead power lines.
• Std 762-1987 Standard definitions for use in reporting electric generating unit
reliability, availability, and productivity.
• Std 859-1987 Standard terms for reporting and analyzing outage occurrences
and outage states of electrical transmission facilities.
• Std 944-1986 Application and testing of uninterruptible power supplies for
power generating stations.
• Std 998-1996 Guide for direct lightning stroke shielding of substations.
• Std 1048-1990 Guide for protective grounding of power lines.
• Std 1057-1994 Standard for digitizing waveform recorders.
• Std 1100-1992 Recommended practice for powering and grounding sensitive
electronic equipment, also known as the Emerald Book.
• Std 1159-1995 Recommended practice for monitoring electric power quality.
• Std 1184-1995 Guide for the selection and sizing of batteries for uninterruptible
power systems.
• Std 1250-1995 Guide for service to equipment sensitive to momentary voltage
disturbances.
• Std 1325-1996 Recommended practice for reporting field failure data for power
circuit breakers.
• Std 1313.1-1996 Standard for insulation coordination-definitions, principles,
and rules.
• Std 1346-1998 Recommended practice for evaluating electric power system
compatibility with electronics process equipment.
• Project 1409 Custom power task force.
• Project 1433 A standard glossary of power quality terminology.
• Project 1453 Voltage flicker.
• Std C37.10-1995 Guide for diagnostics and failure investigation of power
cireui t breakers.
• Std C37.95-1994 Guide for protective relaying ofutility-eonsumer interconnec-
tions.
Appendix B • IEEE Standards on Power Quality 483
• Std C37.100-1992 Standard definitions for power switchgear.

• Std C.57.110-1986 Recommended practice for establishing transformer cap-
ability when supplying nonsinusoidalload currents.
• Std C57.117-1986 Guide for reporting failure data for power transformers and
shunt reactors on electric utility power systems.
• Std C62.41-1991 Recommended practice on surge voltages in low-voltage ac
power circuits.
• Std C62.45-1992 Guide on surge testing for equipment connected to low-
voltage ac power circuits.
• Std C62.48-1995 Guide on interactions between power system disturbances and
surge-protective devices.
Appendix C:
Power Quality Definitions
and Terminology
This appendix gives an overview of power quality terminology as used in this book and
as defined in standard documents. The main source for the latter is the "IEEE Standard
dictionary on electrical and electronics terms" (IEEE Std 100-1996). Other sources used
are IEC standard 61000-1-1 (Electromagnetic Compatibility: application and interpre-
tation of fundamental definitions and terms); CENELEC standard EN 50160 (Voltage
characteristics in public distribution systems), the UIE "Guide to quality of electrical
supply for industrial installations" and the book "Reliability evaluation of power
systems" (R. Billinton, R.N. Allan, Plenum Press, 1996). The references with the
various definitions below are to IEEE standards, unless otherwise noted.
The list below is certainly not consistent, neither is it complete. It does, however,
give an overview of the terminology in use as well as the potential pitfalls in defining
and using power quality terminology. Currently a number of IEEE standards are under
development and are aimed at providing a complete and comprehensive set of defini-
tions for power quality terminology (among others 1159 and 1433). As only early drafts
were available these are not included in the list below.
C.1 GENERAL POWER QUALITY TERMINOLOGY
• Compatibility level The specified disturbance level at which an acceptable, high

probability of electromagnetic compatibility should exist [IEC 61000-1-1].
• Compatibility margin The ratio of the immunity limit to the emission limit [lEe
61000-1-1].
• Conducted disturbance
- An electromagnetic disturbance propagated along the line conductors of a
distribution system or across transformer windings [EN 50160].
- An electromagnetic disturbance that reaches a device through a conducting
medium.
485
486 Appendix C • Power Quality Definitions and Terminology
• Conducted interference
- Interference resulting from conducted radio noise or unwanted radio signals
entering a device by direct coupling [539].
- Electromagnetic interference due to an electromagnetic disturbance reaching
the affected device through a conducting medium.
• Current disturbance A variation or event during which the current in the system
or at the equipment terminals deviates from the ideal sine wave (this book).
• Current event One of two classes of current disturbances. A large deviation
from the ideal current sine wave, which only occurs occasionally (this book).
• Current magnitude variation A current variation in which the magnitude of the
load current is not constant (this book).
• Current phase variation A current variation in which the load current is not in
phase with the system voltage (this book).
• Current quality The study or description of deviations of the load or equipment
current from the ideal sine wave. The ideal current sine wave is of constant
magnitude, constant frequency equal to the voltage frequency, and in phase
with the voltage. The term "current quality" is rarely used, but it has been
introduced as a complement to "voltage quality" (this book).
• Current variation One of two classes of current disturbances. A small slowly
varying deviation from the ideal sinusoidal current which is always present but
nominally or ideally zero (this book).
• Electromagnetic compatibility The ability of an equipment or system to func-
tion satisfactorily in its electromagnetic environment without introducing intol-
erable electromagnetic disturbances to anything in that environment [lEe
61000-1-1].
• Electromagnetic compatibility level = compatibility level [lEe].
• Electromagnetic disturbance Any electromagnetic phenomenon which may
degrade the performance of a device, equipment, or system, or adversely affect
living or inert rnatter [lEe 61000-1-1].
• Electromagnetic emission = emission.
• Electromagnetic environment
- The electromagnetic field(s) and or signals existing in a transmission medium
[IEEE Electromagnetic Compatibility Society].
- The totality of electromagnetic phenomena existing at a given location [IEC
61000-1-1].
• Electromagnetic interference Degradation of the performance of a device,
equipment, or system caused by an electromagnetic disturbance [IEC 61000-
1-1].
• Electromagnetic noise = electromagnetic disturbance [539].
• Emission The phenomenon by which electromagnetic energy emanates from a
source usc 61000-1-1].
• Emission level The level of a given electromagnetic disturbance emitted from a
particular device, equipment, or system, measured in a specified way [lEe
61000-1-1].
• Emission limit The maximum permissible emission level [lEe 61000-1-1].
Appendix C • Power Quality Definitions and Terminology 487
• Emission margin The ratio of the compatibility level to the emission limit [IEC
61000-1-1].
• Immunity level The maximum level of a given electromagnetic disturbance,
incident in a specified way on a particular device, equipment, or system, at
which no degradation of operation occurs [IEC 61000-1-1].
• Immunity limit The minimum required immunity level [IEC 61000-1-1].
• Immunity margin The ratio of the immunity limit to the compatibility level
[IEC 61000-1-1].
• Interference = electromagnetic interference.
• Interference voltage Voltage produced by electromagnetic interference [IEEE
Electromagnetic Compatibility Society; CISPR-International Special
Committee on Radio Interference].
• Power disturbance Any deviation from the nominal value (or from some
selected thresholds based on load tolerance) of the input ac power character-
istics [1100], [1159].
• Power quality
- The study or description of both voltage and current disturbances. Power
quality can be seen as the combination of voltage quality and current quality
(this book).
- The concept of powering and grounding sensitive equipment in a manner that
is suitable to the operation of that equipment [1100], [1159].
• Quality of consumption The complementary term of "quality of service," refer-
ring to the customer's responsibilities in the interaction between customer and
utility (this book).
• Quality of service The non-technical part of the "quality of supply" (this book).
The term is also used as a synonym for "quality of supply."
• Quality of supply Referring to the utility's responsibilities in the interaction
between the utility and the customer. The term "quality of supply" includes a
technical part which more or less coincides with the term "voltage quality" and
a non-technical part sometimes referred to as "quality of service" (this book).
• Radiated interference
- Radio interference resulting from radiated noise or unwanted signals [IEEE
Electromagnetic Compatibility Society].
- Electromagnetic interference due to an electromagnetic disturbance reaching
the affected device in the form of radiation.
• Unwanted signal A signal that may impair the measurement or reception of a
wanted signal [539].
• Voltage characteristics A description of the voltage quality experienced by
customers or equipment in a certain area [EN 50160].
• Voltage disturbance A variation of event during which the voltage in the system
or at the equipment terminals deviates from the ideal sine wave (this book).
• Voltage event One of two classes of voltage disturbances. A large deviation
from the ideal voltage sine wave, which only occurs occasionally (this book).
• Voltage magnitude event A voltage event in which the rms voltage is outside of
its normal operating range for a limited period of time (this book).
• Voltage magnitude variation A voltage variation in which the voltage magni-

tude deviates from its ideal or nominal value (this book).
• Voltage quality The study or description of deviations of the voltage from the
ideal sine wave (this book).
• Voltage variation
- One of two classes of voltage disturbances. A small slowly varying deviation
from the ideal sinusoidal voltage which is always present but nominally zero
(this book).
- An increase or decrease of voltage normally due to variation of the total load
of a distribution system or a part of it [EN 50160].
• Wanted signal A signal that constitutes the object of the particular measure-
ment or reception [539].
C.2 VOLTAGE MAGNITUDE EVENTS
• Brownout Used to describe a scheduled long or very-long undervoltage. The

use of this term should be avoided.
• Expected interruption duration The expected or average duration of a single
load interruption event [493].
• Instantaneous interruption An interruption with a duration between 0.5 cycles
and one-half second [1159], [1250].
• Interruption
- A voltage event in which the voltage is zero during a certain time. The time
during which the voltage is zero is referred to as the "duration" of the inter-
ruption [493], [1100], [1250).
- A voltage magnitude event with a magnitude less than 100/0 of the nominal
voltage [1159].
- The loss of electric power supply to one or more loads, consumers, or other
facilities [493], [ANSI 51.1].
• Long (interruption, undervoltage, overvoltage) A voltage magnitude event with
a duration between a few minutes and a few hours, corresponding to events in
the power system followed by a manual restoration of the pre-event situation
(this book).
• Long-duration voltage variation A voltage magnitude event with a duration
longer than 1 minute [1159].
• Long Interruption An interruption with a duration longer than three minutes
[EN 50160], [VIE]. .
• Momentary disturbance A variation in the level of the steady-state supply
voltage that results from surges, sags, circuit and equipment switching, or
from the operation of circuit breakers or reclosers resulting from their response
to abnormal circuit conditions [1250].
• Momentary interruption
- An interruption with a duration between 0.5 and 2 seconds. [1250]
- An interruption with a duration between 0.5 and 3 seconds [1159].
- An interruption with a duration limited to the period required to restore
service by automatic switching operations or by manual switching at locations
where an operator is immediately available. Such switching operations must be

completed within 5 minutes [346].
• Overvoltage
- An abnormal voltage higher than the normal service voltage, such as might
be caused from switching or lightning surges [432].
- A voltage above the normal rated voltage or the maximum operating voltage
of a device or circuit [95].
- Abnormal voltage between two points of a system that is greater than the
highest value appearing between the same two points under normal service
conditions [C62.22], [1313.1].
- An increase of the rms voltage with a duration longer than a few seconds
[1250].
- A voltage magnitude event with a magnitude greater than the nominal vol-
tage and a duration longer than 1 minute [1159].
- A voltage magnitude event in which the rms voltage is higher than the normal
operating range (this book).
• Permanent forced outage A forced outage where the component or unit is
damaged and cannot be restored to service until repair or replacement is com-
pleted [859].
• Permanent outage An outage of a power system component which is restored
through repair or replacement [859].
• Recovery time Time interval needed for the voltage or current to return to its
normal operating value, after a voltage or current event [1100].
• RMS variation = voltage magnitude event. The term rms variation is confus-
ing as it is not a voltage variation but a voltage event.
• Short (interruption, undervoltage, overvoltage) A voltage magnitude event with
a duration between a few cycles and a few minutes, corresponding to events in
the power system for which the pre-event situation is restored automatically
(this book).
• Short-duration voltage variation A voltage magnitude event with a duration less
than 1 minute [1159].
• Short Interruption
- An interruption with a duration up to three minutes [EN 50160).
- The disappearance of one or more phases of the supply voltage for a period
of time typically not exceeding three minutes [VIE].
• Supply interruption A condition in which the voltage at the supply terminals is
lower than 1% of the declared voltage [EN 50160].
• Sustained interruption
- An interruption with a duration longer than 2 minutes [1250].
- An interruption with a duration longer than 1 minute [1159].
- Any interruption not classified as a momentary interruption [346].
• Swell
- A momentary increase in the power frequency voltage delivered by the mains,
outside of the normal tolerances, with a duration of more than one cycle and
less than a few seconds [C62.41], [C62.48].
- An rms increase in the ac voltage, at the power frequency, for durations from
one half-cycle to a few seconds [1100], [1250].
- A voltage magnitude event with a magnitude above 110% of the nominal
voltage, and a duration between 0.5 cycles and 1 minute [1159].
• Temporary fault A short-circuit fault that is self-clearing or is cleared by fault-
clearing followed by fast reclosing [1250].
• Temporary forced outage A forced outage where the unit or component is
undamaged and is restored to service by manual switching operations without
repair but possibly with on-site inspection [859]. Note the contradiction with
"temporary interruption." The use of these terms should be avoided.
• Temporary interruption
- An interruption with a duration between 3 seconds and 1 minute [1159].
- An interruption with a duration between 2 seconds and 2 minutes [1250].
• Temporary power frequency overvoltage = swell [EN 50160].
• Transient fault A fault that disappears of its own accord [lEe], [IEEE Power
Engineering Society]. The term is also used for a fault that disappears after
reclosure and the use of the term should be avoided.
• Transient forced outage A forced outage where the unit or component is un-
damaged and is restored to service automatically [859].
• Transient outage An outage of a power system component which is restored
automatically [859].
• Undervoltage
- A voltage event in which the rms voltage is outside its normal operating
margin for a certain period of time (this book).
- A voltage magnitude event with a magnitude less than the nominal rms
voltage, and a duration exceeding 1 minute [1159].
- A voltage magnitude event with a duration less than the nominal rms voltage,
and a duration longer than a few seconds [1100], [1250].
• Very long (interruption, undervoltage, overvoltage) A voltage magnitude event
with a duration more than a few hours, corresponding to events in the power
system requiring repair or replacement of faulted components before the pre-
event situation can be restored (this book).
• Very short (interruption, undervoltage, overvoltage) A voltage magnitude event
with a duration less than a few cycles, corresponding to transient and self-
restoring events in the power system (this book).
• Voltage interruption = interruption [1159].
• Voltage swell = swell.
C.3 POWER SYSTEM RELIABILITY
• Active failure The outage of a primary component associated with a short-

circuit fault [Billinton-Allan].
• Adequacy The existence of sufficient facilities within a power system to satisfy
the customer demand [Billinton-Allan].
• Adverse weather Weather conditions that cause an abnormally high failure rate
for exposed components during the periods such conditions persist [859].
• Aging The change of the failure rate of a stochastic component with time.
• ASAI Average service availability index [Billinton-Allan].
ASAI == customer hours of available service
(C.I)
customer hours demanded
• Automatic outage An outage occurrence that results from automatic operation
of switching devices [859].
• AvaUability
- The fraction of time during which a system is capable of performing its
mission [446], [493], [859], [896.9], [C37.1], [C37.100].
- The probability that an item will be operational at a randomly selected future
instant in time [352], [380], [577], [896.3].
• CAIDI Customer average interruption duration index [Billinton-Allan].
CA I D I
= sum of customer interruption durations (C.2)
tota I num ber 0 f customer Interruptions
. ·
This definition corresponds to the "average duration of an interruption" as

defined in (2.3).
• CAIFI Customer average interruption frequency index [Billinton-Allan].
CAIFI = total number of customer interruptions (C.3)

total number of customers affected
Note that the CAIFI is at least one for any given period.
• Class 0 unplanned outage An outage of a generator unit that results from the
unsuccessful attempt to place the unit in service [762].
• Class 1 unplanned outage An outage of a generator unit that requires immediate
removal from the existing state [762].
• Class 2 unplanned outage An outage of a generator unit that does not require
immediate removal from the in-service state but requires removal within 6
hours [762].
• Class 3 unplanned outage An outage of a generator unit that can be postponed
beyond 6 hours but requires that the unit be removed from the in-service state
before the end of the next weekend [762].
• Class 4 unplanned outage An outage of a generator unit that will allow a unit
outage to be deferred beyond the end of the next weekend but which requires
that a unit be removed from the available state before the next planned outage
[762].
• Common-mode failure Multiple failures attributable to a common cause [308],
[627], [649], [650], [C37.100].
• Common-mode outage event A component failure due to a common-mode
failure [859].
• Complete outage stage The component or unit is completely deenergized or is
connected so that it is not serving any of its functions within the power system
[859].
• Constant failure rate period The possible period during the life of a component
during which failures occur at an approximately uniform rate [IEEE Vehicular
Technology Society].
• Dead time = reclosing interval [C37.100].

• Degradation failure A failure that is both gradual and partial. In time, such a
failure may develop into a complete failure [1100].
• Downtime The time during which a device or system is not capable of meeting
performance characteristics [C37.100].
• Early-failure period The early period in the life of a component during which
the failure rate decreases rapidly [IEEE Reliability Society].
• Electrical failure Failure of a circuit breaker, attributable to the application of
electrical stresses to the main circuit of the circuit breaker [C37.10].
• Emergency maintenance Unscheduled corrective maintenance performed to
keep a system operational [1219].
• Extended planned outage The scheduled outage state that is the extension of
the basic scheduled outage beyond its predetermined duration [762].
• Failure The termination of the ability of a power system component to fully
perform its required function.
• Failure of continuously required function The inability of a component to per-
form a function that is continuously required [859].
• Failure of response function The inability of a component to perform a function
that is required as a response to syst~m conditions or to a manually or auto-
matically initiated command [859].
• Failure rate A quantity related to a stochastic power system component, giving
the number of failures per component per year. The observed failure rate is
defined as the number of failures divided by the number of component-years.
Mathematically the failure rate is defined from the probability distribution
function of the component lifetime.
• Failure to trip In the performance of a relay or relay system, the lack of tripping
that should have occurred considering the objectives of the relay system design
[C37.90], [C37.100].
• Failure with forced outage Failure of a transformer that requires its immediate
removal from service [C57.115].
• Failure with scheduled outage Failure of a transformer for which it must be
taken out of service at a selected time [C57.115].
• False operation probability The ratio of the number of unintended operations to
the number of exposure operations for which the component should not
respond [859].
• False tripping The tripping of a protection relay that should not have occurred
considering the objectives of the relay design [C37.90], [C37.100].
• Forced interruption An interruption of the power supply due to a forced outage
[IEEE Power Engineering Society].
• Forced outage The outage of a power system component resulting from a fail-
ure or from incorrect operator intervention [446], [859].
• Forced outage duration = repair time.
• Forced unavailability The long-term average fraction of time that a component
is out of service due to failures [493], [859].
• Interruption criterion A criterion used in reliability to assess if a certain system

state or event constitutes a failure of the power supply to a given load or group
of loads (this book).
• Interruption frequency The expected or average number of interruptions per
year [493].
• Interruption to service The isolation of an electrical load from the system sup-
plying that load, resulting from an abnormality in the system [C37.1 00].
• Major storm disaster Designates weather that exceeds design limits of facilities,
and that satisfies all of the following: extensive mechanical damage to facilities;
more than a specified percentage of customers out of service (typically 100/0);
service restoration longer than a specified time (typically 24 hours) [859].
• Malfunction The loss of capability to initiate or sustain a required function,
often a protective action, or the initiation of undesired spurious action
(C37.100].
• Manual outage An outage occurrence that results from intentional or inadver-
tent operator controlled opening of switching devices [859].
• Mean outage duration The mean duration of outage occurrences of a specified
type [859].
• Mean time between failures (MTBF)
- The expected time interval between failures of an operating device or com-
ponent [C37.1], [C37.100], [C62.1], [C610.10].
- The observed average time between failures of a continuously operating
device, circuit, or system [599], [352], [859], [C61 0.10], [IEEE Reliability
Society].
• Mean time to outage The mean time to outage occurrence of a specified type
[859].
• Mean time to repair
- The expected time interval between the failure of a device or component and
its return to proper operation [C37.1], [C37.100], [610.12].
- The observed average time interval between the failure of a device or com-
ponent and its return to proper operation [352], [380], [610.10], [610.12].
• Mean time to restoration = mean outage duration [859].
• Multiple independent outages Outage occurrences, each having distinct and
separate initiating incidents, where no outage occurrence is the consequence
of any other, but the outage states overlap [859].
• Multiple outage event An outage event involving two or more components
[859].
• Nonexponential distribution A component lifetime or repair time distribution
which does not result in a constant failure or repair rate.
• Normal weather All weather not designated as adverse weather or major storm
disaster [859].
• Operations related outage A scheduled outage in which the unit or component
is removed from service to improve system operating conditions [859].
• Outage The state of a power system component when it is not available to
perform its intended function due to some event directly associated with that
component [346], [493], [IEEE Power Engineering Society].
• Outage duration The period from the initiation of an outage until the affected
component once again becomes available to perform its intended function
[346], [859].
• Outage event An event involving the outage occurrence of one or more units or
components [859].
• Outage occurrence The change in the state of one component or one unit from
the in-service state to the outage state [859].
• Outage rate = failure rate [346], [859].
• Outage state The component or unit is not in the in-service state; that is, it is
partially or fully isolated from the system [859].
• Partial outage state The component or unit is at least partially energized, or is
not fully connected to all of its terminals, or both, so that it is not serving some
of its functions within the power system [859].
• Passive failure The outage of a primary component not associated with a short-
circuit fault [Billinton-Allan].
• Permanent forced outage A forced outage where the component or unit is
damaged and cannot be restored to service until repair or replacement is com-
pleted [859].
• Permanent outage An outage of a power system component which is restored
through repair or replacement [859].
• Planned (interruption, outage, etc.) = scheduled (interruption, outage, etc.).
• Power system reliability The area of power engineering covering the stochastic
prediction of frequency and duration of supply interruptions. The term is
normally used to cover only interruptions, but the same techniques can be
applied to other power quality events.
• Primary outage An outage occurrence within a related multiple outage event
that occurs as a direct consequence of the initiating incident and is not depen-
dent on any other outage occurrence [859].
• Probability of failure to close on command The ratio of the number of failures to
close and the number of commands to close for a circuit breaker, switch, or
recloser [859].
• Probability of failure to open on command The ratio of the number of failures to
open and the number of commands to open for a circuit breaker, switch, or
recloser [859].
• Reclosing interval The time between the opening of a circuit breaker and its
automatic reclosure [C37.100].
• Reclosure The automatic closure of a circuit-interrupting device following
automatic tripping [C37.95].
• Redundant Referring to a (power system) component whose failure or outage
does not lead to an interruption of the supply for any load or customer.
• Related multiple outage event A multiple outage event in which one outage
occurrence is the consequence of another outage occurrence, or in which multi-
ple outage occurrences were initiated by a single incident, or both. Each outage
occurrence in a related multiple outage event is classified as either a primary
outage or a secondary outage depending on the relationship between that out-
age occurrence and its initiating incident [859].
• Reliability assessment = reliability evaluation [729].
• Reliability evaluation A stochastic study of a system in order to obtain its

failure characteristics. In power engineering the system under study is the
power supply and the failure characteristics are normally frequency and dura-
tion of interruptions.
• Repair rate The expected number of repair actions of a given type completed
on a given item per unit of time [352].
• Repair time The clock time from the occurrence of the failure to the time when
the component is restored to service, either by repair of the failed component
or by substitution of a spare component for the failed component [493].
• Reserve shutdown The state in which a unit is available but not in service [762].
• SAIDI System average interruption duration index [Billinton-Allan].
SAlOl = sum of customer interruption durations

(C.4)
total number of customers served
This definition corresponds to the "average unavailability per customer" as

defined in (2.2).
• SAIFI System average interruption frequency index [Billinton-Allan].
SAIFI = total number of customer interruptions (C.5)

total number of customers served
This definition corresponds to the "average number of interruptions per cus-

tomer" as defined in (2.1).
• Scheduled interruption An interruption of the supply due to a scheduled outage
• Scheduled outage The outage of a power system component due to intentional
operator intervention at a previously selected time [446], [493], [859].
• Scheduled outage duration The period from the initiation of a scheduled outage
until construction, preventative maintenance, or repair work is completed and
the affected component is made available to perform its intended function
[493].
• Scheduled unavailability The long-term average fraction of time that a compo-
nent or system is out of service due to scheduled outages [859].
• Secondary outage An outage occurrence that is the result of another outage
occurrence [859].
• Security The ability of a power system to respond to disturbances arising
within that system [Billinton-Allan].
• Single outage event An outage event involving only one component [859].
• Starting failure The inability to bring a unit from some unavailable state or
reserve shutdown state to the in-service state within a specified period [762].
• Switching time The period from the time a switching operation is required due
to a component failure until that switching operation is completed [493],
• System-related outage A forced outage that results from system effects or con-
ditions and is not caused by an event directly associated with the component or
unit being reported [859].
• Temporary forced outage A forced outage where the unit or component is

undamaged and is restored to service by manual switching operations without
repair but possibly with on-site inspection [859].
• Transient forced outage A forced outage where the unit or component is un-
damaged and is restored to service automatically [859].
• Transient outage An outage of a power system component which is restored
automatically [859].
• Unavailability
- The (observed) fraction of time during which a component or a system does
not perform its intended operation. The unavailability of the power supply is
normally expressed in minutes per year [493], [859].
- The probability that a component is in an outage stage at a given moment in
time [352], [493].
• Wearout-failure period = wearout period [IEEE Reliability Society].
• Wearout period The final period in the life of a component during which the
failure rate increases rapidly [352].
C.4 VOLTAGESAGS
• Balanced sag An equal drop in the rms value of voltage in the three phases of a
three-phase system or at the terminals of three-phase equipment for a duration
up to a few minutes. Note that a balanced sag is a special case of the three-
phase unbalanced sag (this book).
• Characteristic complex voltage A characteristic of a three-phase unbalanced
sag, indicating the severity of the sag. For the various types of three-phase
unbalanced sags, definitions for the characteristic complex voltage are given.
The characteristic complex voltage may generally be defined as the complex
voltage in the phase most affected or the complex voltage of the voltage dif-
ference most affected, whichever one is more affected. In either case the rele-
vant pre-event voltage or voltage difference is along the positive real axis (this
book).
• Characteristic magnitude The absolute value of the characteristic complex vol-
tage (this book).
• Characteristic phase-angle jump The argument of the characteristic complex
voltage (this book).
• Complex voltage at the equipment terminals For three-phase equipment, the
three complex voltages as experienced at the terminals of a device or as mea-
sured at a certain location due to a three-phase unbalanced sag. For each of the
three voltages, the pre-event value is along the positive real axis (this book).
• Critical distance The distance at which a short-circuit fault will lead to a
voltage sag of a given magnitude for a given load position (this book).
• Duration (of a voltage sag) The time during which the voltage deviates signifi-
cantly from the ideal voltage. A further definition of "significant deviation"
remains a point of discussion; a typical definition is an rms voltage less than
90% of its nominal value in at least one phase (this book).
• Envelope voltage The magnitude of the complex representation of the observed

instantaneous voltage [473]. Note that this definition is equivalent to the defi-
nition of magnitude (of a voltage sag).
• Evolving fault A change in the current during interruption whereby the magni-
tude of current increases in one or more phases [C37.100].
• Initial complex voltage The complex voltage in the faulted phase or between the
faulted phases at the point-of-common coupling between a short-circuit fault
leading to a voltage sag and the sensitive equipment experiencing this sag. The
pre-event voltage is along the positive real axis. The point-of-common coupling
is strictly speaking only defined in radial systems, but also in many non-radial
systems it is possible to indicate a point-of-common coupling (this book).
• Initial magnitude The magnitude of the initial complex voltage (this book).
• Initial phase-angle jump The argument of the initial complex voltage (this
book).
• Magnitude (of a voltage sag) For single-phase equipment, the rms value of the
voltage during a voltage sag. The magnitude is rarely exactly constant during
the sag, in which case one can give the magnitude as a function of time, or
characterize the magnitude through one value, typically the lowest value.
• Magnitude of the voltage sag at the equipment terminals Absolute value of the
complex voltage at the equipment terminals (this book).
• Missing voltage For single-phase equipment, the difference between the actual
time-domain voltage during a voltage event and the voltage as it would have
been had the event not occurred.
• Phase-angle jump For single-phase equipment, the difference between the phase
angle of the voltage during an event and the phase angle of the voltage before
the event. The phase-angle jump is positive when the during-event voltage leads
the pre-event voltage (this book).
• Phase-angle jump at the equipment terminals Argument of the complex voltage
at the equipment terminals (this book).
• Point-on-wave of sag initiation For single-phase equipment, the angle of the
.voltage wave at the instant of sag initiation. The last upward zero crossing of
the pre-event voltage is used as a reference point (this book).
• Point-on-wave of voltage recovery For single-phase equipment, the angle of the
voltage wave at the instant of voltage recovery. The last upward zero crossing
of the pre-event voltage is used as a reference point (this book).
• Post-fault A qualifying term that refers to an interval beginning with the clear-
ing of a fault [C37.100].
• Post-fault voltage sag The part of a voltage sag during which the rms voltage
remains outside its normal operating range, after the instant of voltage recov-
ery. The short-circuit fault which led to the voltage sag is no longer present
during the post-fault voltage sag (this book).
• Pre-fault A qualifying term that refers to an interval ending with the inception
of a fault [C37.100].
• Sag
- = voltage sag.
- A voltage magnitude event with a magnitude between 10% and 90% of
nominal and a duration between 0.5 cycles and one minute [1159].
- A voltage magnitude event with a magnitude less than the nominal voltage
and a duration between 0.5 cycles and a few seconds [1100], [1250].
• Sag initiation The sudden change in voltage somewhere in the power system or
at the equipment terminals, directly attributed to the initiation of a short-
circuit fault. The instant of sag initiation can be viewed as the actual start of
a voltage sag (this book).
• Supply voltage dip A sudden reduction of the supply voltage to a value between
90% and 1% of the declared voltage, followed by a recovery after a short
period of time [EN 50160].
• Three-phase balanced sag = balanced sag.
• Three-phase unbalanced sag A drop in the rms value of the voltage for a dura-
tion up to one minute, in at least one phase of a three-phase system or at the
terminals of three-phase equipment (this book).
• Unbalanced fault A short-circuit or open-circuit fault in which not all three
phases are equally involved. Examples are single-phase-to-ground, and phase-
to-phase short circuits.
• Voltage dip Sudden reduction in the supply voltage by a value of more than
100/0 of the reference value, followed by a voltage recovery after a short period
of time [UIE].
• Voltage sag For single-phase equipment, a drop in the rms value of the voltage
for up to a few minutes.
• Voltage sag duration See duration.
• Voltage sag magnitude See magnitude.
• Voltage recovery The sudden change in voltage somewhere in the power system
or at the equipment terminals, directly attributed to the removal of a short-
circuit fault from the healthy part of the power system. The instant of voltage
recovery can be viewed as the end of the actual voltage sag. Note that the
voltage does not necessarily recover completely to its pre-event value.
• Voltage tolerance The immunity of a piece of equipment against voltage mag-
nitude variations (voltage sags, voltage swells, and interruptions) and short-
duration overvoltages.
• Voltage-tolerance curve The relation between the maximum sag duration and
the minimum sag magnitude for which a sensitive component will trip.
C.5 WAVEFORM DISTORTION
• Characteristic harmonic Harmonic current component produced by a three . .

phase power electronic converter during balanced operation [519].
• Crest factor The ratio of the peak value of a periodic signal to its rms value
[C57.12.80], [120], [145], [194], [1100].
• Deviation factor The ratio of the maximum difference between corresponding
ordinates of the' wave and of the equivalent sine wave when the waves are
superposed in such a way as to make this maximum difference as small as
possible. Note: The equivalent sine wave is defined as having the same fre..
quency and the same root-mean-square value as the wave being tested [120],
• Deviation from a sine wave The ratio of the absolute value of the maximum
difference between the distorted wave and the crest value of the fundamental
[519], [937].
• Distortion Non-power frequency components of voltage or current. The term is
often used as a synonym for "harmonic distortion."
• Distortion factor
- The ratio of the rms of the harmonic contents of voltage or current to the rms
value of the fundamental quantity [120], [519], [1100], [1250].
- The ratio of the rms of the harmonic contents of voltage or current to the rms
value of the full wave [281], [IEEE Power Engineering Society]. Note the
difference between these two definitions.
• Distortion power A third power term next to active and reactive power, math-
ematically defined as
(8.6)
where S is the apparent power, P the active power, and Q the sum of the
reactive powers in all harmonic components [270].
• Form factor The ratio of the root-mean-square value of a periodic waveform to
the absolute value averaged over a full period of the waveform [IEEE Industry
Applications Society], [1100], [270], [59], [120].
• Harmonic A sinusoidal component of a periodic wave or quantity having a
frequency that is an integer multiple of the fundamental frequency. Note: For
example, a component, the frequency of which is twice the fundamental fre-
quency, is called a second harmonic [519], [599], [936], [1250], [C62.48], [EN
50160].
• Harmonic component = harmonic.
• Harmonic content The distortion of a voltage or current wave, expressed in the
absolute value of the various harmonic components [446], [539], [644], [IEEE
Industry Applications Society].
• Harmonic distortion Frequency components of voltage or current that are
integer multiples of the power-system frequency [1057], [1100], [1143], [1250],
[C62.48].
• Harmonic factor = distortion factor [519].
• Harmonic (voltage or current) distortion A voltage or current variation in which
the steady-state waveshape contains components with frequencies that are an
integer multiple of the fundamental frequency.
• Interharmonic (voltage or current) distortion A voltage or current variation in
which the steady-state waveshape contains a component with a frequency
which is not an integer multiple of the fundamental frequency [1159], [EN
50160].
• Line voltage notch = periodic voltage notching [519].
• Maximum theoretical deviation from a sine wave For a nonsinusoidal wave, the
ratio of the arithmetic sum of the amplitudes (rms) of all harmonics in the wave
to the amplitude (rms) of the fundamental [519], [936].
• Noncharacteristic harmonic Harmonic current component, not being a charac-

teristic harmonic, produced by a three-phase power electronic converter [519],
[936].
• Notch area The area of the line voltage notch. It is the product of the notch
depth, in volts, times the width of the notch measured in microseconds [519].
• Notch depth The average depth of the line voltage notch, measured as the
deviation from the sine wave of the voltage [519].
• Notching A periodic voltage disturbance caused by the normal operation of
power electronics devices when current is commutated from one phase to
another [1159].
• Periodic voltage notching A repetitive voltage disturbance where the voltage
one or more times a cycle becomes (significantly) closer to zero than the ideal
sine wave.
• Relative harmonic content The distortion of a voltage or current wave,
expressed in the value of the various harmonic components relative to the
power-frequency component [936].
• Signature Those characteristics of a waveform that help identify an event or
conditions [C37.100].
• Total demand distortion (TDD)
- The total root-sum-square harmonic current distortion, in percent, of the
maximum demand load current (15 or 30 minute demand) [519].
- The total rms current distortion in percent of maximum demand current
[1250].
• Total harmonic distortion = distortion factor [1250].
• Total harmonic distortion disturbance level The level of a given electromagnetic
disturbance caused by the superposition of the emission of all pieces of equip-
ment in a given system [1159].
• Voltage deviation
- The instantaneous difference between the actual instantaneous voltage and
the corresponding value of the previously undisturbed waveform. Note:
Voltage deviation amplitude is expressed in percent or per unit referred to
the peak value of the previously undisturbed voltage [936]. Note that this
definition corresponds to the definition of missing voltage as used in this
book and proposed in [1159.2].
- The ratio of the rms voltage to the average rms voltage of a signal [473].
• Voltage distortion Any deviation from the nominal sine wave of the ac line
voltage [1159], [1250].'
.' Voltage or current waveform The voltage or current as a function of time.
• Waveform distor~ion A steady-state deviation from an ideal sine wave of power
frequency [1159].
C.8 EQUIPMENT BEHAVIOR
• Critical load
- That part of the load that requires continuous quality electric power for its
successful operation [241].
- Devices and equipment whose failure to operate satisfactorily jeopardizes the

health or safety of personnel, and/or results in loss of function, financial loss,
or damage to property deemed critical by the user [1100].
- = sensitive load.
• Dropout A loss of equipment operation due to noise, sag, or interruption
[1100], [1159].
• Dropout voltage The voltage at which a device ceases operation [446], [1100],
[1159].
• Electromagnetic susceptibility :;:: susceptibility.
• Immunity The ability of a device, equipment, or system to perform without
degradation in the presence of an electromagnetic disturbance [IEC 61000-1-1].
• Immunity level The maximum level of a given electromagnetic disturbance,
incident in a specified way on a particular device, equipment, or system, at
which no degradation of operation occurs [IEC 61000-1-1].
• Immunity limit The minimum required immunity level [lEe 61000-1-1].
• Immunity to interference = immunity [IEEE Electromagnetic Compatibility
Society].
• Ridethrough capability The ability of equipment, to withstand momentary
interruptions of sags [1250]. The term voltage tolerance is preferred.
• Sensitive (equipment or load) Relating to equipment or load fed from the power
supply, which experiences failure or maloperation due to voltage variations or
events.
• Spurious response Any response, other than the desired response, of an elec-
trical transducer or device [599].
• Susceptibility The inability of a device, equipment, or system to perform with-
out degradation in the presence of an electromagnetic disturbance [lEe 61000-
1-1].
• Tripping of equipment Unintended operation or failure of equipment, normally
resulting in the equipment seizing operation.
• Vulnerability The characteristic of a device for being damaged by an external
influence, such as a transient overvoltage [C62.45].
C.7 OTHER POWER QUALITY DISTURBANCES
• AC power-line fields Power frequency electric and magnetic fields produced by

ac power lines [539].
• Ambient noise The all-encompassing noise associated with a given environ-
ment, usually a composite of contributions from many sources near and far
[539].
• Angle of retard unbalance The load voltage/current unbalance due to unequal
angles of retard either between positive and negative half cycles of a single ac
wave or between two .or more phases in a three-phase system [428].
• Background noise The total system noise independent of the presence or
absence of radio noise from the power line or substation [430].
• Chopped impulse wave An impulse wave that has been caused to collapse
suddenly by a flashover [Power Engineering Society], [lEe].
• Common-mode noise The noise voltage that appears equally and in phase from
each signal conductor to ground [422],.[525], [1050], [1100], [1143].
• Common-mode overvoltage An event in which the differential mode voltage
does not exceed its normal operating range, but the common-mode voltage
does [1057].
• Common-mode voltage The noise voltage that appears equally and in phase
from current-carrying conductor to ground [1159], [lEe 61000-2-1].
• Conducted radio noise Radio noise propagated by conduction from a source
through electrical connections [539].
• Critical stroke magnitude The amplitude of the current of the lightning stroke
that, upon terminating on the phase conductor, would raise the voltage of the
conductor to a level at which flashover is likely [998].
• Current unbalance A current variation for a three-phase load, in which the
three current magnitudes or the phase-angle differences between them are
not equal (this book).
• DC offset The presence of a de voltage or current component in an ac power
system [1159].
• Differential mode voltage The voltage difference between two phases of a
balanced circuit [802.3], [802.12].
• Flicker = light flicker [1159], [1250], [lEe].
• Frequency deviation = voltage frequency variation [1100], [1159].
• Full impulse voltage An aperiodic transient voltage that rises rapidly to a max-
imum value and falls, usually less rapidly, to zero [4].
• Full lightning impulse A lightning impulse not interrupted by any type of dis-
charge [4].
• Geomagnetically induced currents Currents induced in power systems by varia-
tions in the geomagnetic field. These variations, and thus the induced currents,
have periods of several minutes [367].
• Glitch A perturbation of the pulse waveform of relatively short duration and of
uncertain origin [4]. The use of this term should be avoided.
• High-frequency transient An oscillatory transient with an oscillation frequency
above 500 kHz [1159].
• Imbalance = voltage unbalance [1159].
• Impulse A surge of unidirectional polarity, for example a 1.2/50 JlS voltage
surge [4], [28], [829], [1100], [1250], [C62.11], [C62.22].
• Impulse noise Noise characterized by transient disturbances separated in time
by quiescent intervals [145], [539], [599].
• Impulsive transient A type of voltage of current transient, during which the
deviation from the normal voltage is unidirectional; i.e., either always positive
or always negative [1159].
• Light flicker A variation in intensity of lighting as perceived by a human
observer. Light flicker can be due to voltage fluctuations.
• Lightning overvoltage A type of transient overvoltage in which a fast front
voltage is produced by lightning or fault [1313.~].
• Load voltage unbalance = voltage unbalance [428].
• Low-frequency transient An oscillatory transient with an oscillation frequency

less than 5 kHz [1159].
• Mains marking signals Mains signaling voltage consisting of superimposed
short-time alterations at selected points of the voltage waveform [EN 50160].
• Mains signaling voltage A signal superimposed on the supply voltage for the
purpose of transmission of information in the public distribution system and to
customer's premises [EN 50160].
• Medium-frequency transient An oscillatory transient with an oscillation fre-
quency between 5 and 500 kHz [1159].
• Microsecond transient An impulsive transient with a duration between 50 ns
and one millisecond [1159].
• Millisecond transient An impulsive transient with a duration longer than one
millisecond [1159].
• Nanosecond transient An impulsive transient with a duration less than 50 ns
[1159].
• Noise Unwanted electrical signals with broadband spectral content lower than
200 kHz superimposed upon the power system voltage or current in phase or
neutral conductors [1159], [1250]. The term noise in this definition is synon-
ymous with the term "electromagnetic interference." Often the term "noise" is
used to refer to those terms of the interference that are not covered by any of
the other terms. The use of the term "noise" should be avoided.
• Notch A voltage disturbance lasting less than one half-cycle, which is initially
of opposite polarity than the waveform [1100], [1250], [1159], [C62.48].
• Oscillatory transient A type of voltage or current transient, during which the
deviation from the normal voltage oscillates around zero: the deviation reaches
positive as well as negative values [1159].
• Percent unbalance of phase voltages The ratio of the maximum deviation of a
phase voltage from the average of the total phases to the average of the phase
voltages, expressed in percent [IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems
Society]. The use of the term "unbalance" as in this definition should be
avoided; the voltage (current) unbalance is normally quantified as the ratio
of negative- and positive-sequence voltage (current).
• Periodic frequency modulation The periodic variation of the output frequency
from its rated value [936].
• Periodic output voltage modulation The periodic variation of output voltage
amplitude at frequencies less than the fundamental output frequency [936].
Note that this term corresponds to the term "voltage fluctuation."
• Power frequency variation = voltage frequency variation [1159].
• Power-line carrier signals Mains signaling voltages in the frequency range
between 3 and 148.5 kHz [EN 50160].
• Radiated radio noise Radio noise that is propagated by radiation from a source
into space in the form of electromagnetic waves [539].
• Radio frequency disturbance An electromagnetic disturbance having compo-
nents in the radio frequency range [539].
• Radio frequency interference = radio frequency disturbance [539].
• Radio noise Radiated electromagnetic disturbances in the radio frequency
range [430].
• Rapid voltage change A single rapid variation of the rms value of a voltage
between two consecutive levels which are sustained for definite but unspecified
durations [EN 50160]. This term corresponds to the term "voltage magnitude
step. "
• Ripple control signals Mains signaling voltages in the frequency range between
110 and 3000 Hz [EN 50160].
• Slew rate
- The rate of change of ac voltage, expressed in volts per second [1159].
- Rate of change of (ac voltage) frequency [1100].
• Solar-induced currents = geomagnetically induced currents.
• Spike = transient overvoltage [241].
• Surge
- A transient wave of current, voltage, or power in an electric circuit [C62.I],
[C62.11], [C62.22], [C62.41].
- A transient voltage or current, which usually rises rapidly to a peak value and
then falls more slowly to zero, occurring in electrical equipment or networks in
service [4].
- A transient wave of voltage or current [1250], [C62.34], [C62.48].
- The term "surge" is also used in the meaning of "short overvoltage"; its use
should be completely avoided.
• Switching overvoltage A transient overvoltage in which a slow front, short
duration, unidirectional or oscillatory, highly damped voltage is generated
by switching or by a fault [1313.1].
• Switching surge = switching overvoltage [524], [524a], [1048], [C62.22].
• Temporary overvoltage An undamped or only slightly damped overvoltage of
relatively long duration [1313.1].
• Three-phase unbalance = voltage unbalance.
• Transient
- = transient (voltage or current) disturbance.
- A change in the steady-state condition of voltage or current, or both [382].
- Any voltage or current event with a duration of less than a few cycles [1250].
- A subcycle disturbance in the ac waveform that is evidenced by a sharp brief
discontinuity of the waveform. May be of either polarity and may be additive
to or subtractive from the nominal waveform [1100].
- A disturbance lasting less than one half-cycle [VIE].
• Transient (voltage or current) disturbance A subcycle disturbance in the ac
waveform that is evidenced by a sharp brief discontinuity of the waveform
[1100].
• Transient overvoltage
- Short-duration oscillatory or non-oscillatory overvoltage usually highly
damped and with a duration of a few milliseconds or less [EN 50160].
- Momentary excursion of voltage outside of the normal 60 Hz voltage wave
[241].
Appendix C • Power Quality Definitions and Terminology 50S
- A voltage event in which the time-domain voltage is outside of the normal

operating range for a very short duration, typically less than a few milliseconds
[1313.1].
• Transverse-mode voltage The voltage between two conductors at a given loca-
tion [C37.90], [C63.31], [C63.32].
• Unbalance = voltage unbalance.
• Unbalance factor The ratio of the negative sequence component to the positive
sequence component of the voltage in a three-phase system [936].
• Unbalance ratio The difference between the highest and the lowest fundamental
rms values in a three-phase system, referred to the average of the three funda-
mental rms values of current or voltages [936]. The use of the term "un-
balance" in this meaning should be avoided.
• Very fast front, short duration overvoltage A transient overvoltage in which a
short duration, usually unidirectional, voltage is generated (often by GIS dis-
connect switch operation or when switching motors). High-frequency oscilla-
tions are often superimposed on the unidirectional wave [1313.1]
• Voltage change A variation of the rms voltage between two consecutive levels
sustained for definite but unspecified durations [1159], [lEe 61000-2-1]. This
term corresponds to the term "voltage magnitude step."
• Voltage flicker Abbreviation of "voltage fluctuation leading to light flicker."
• Voltage fluctuation
- A special type of voltage variation in which the voltage shows changes in
magnitude and/or phase angle on a timescale of seconds or less. Severe voltage
fluctuations lead to light flicker.
- A series of voltage changes or a cyclical variation of the voltage envelope
[1159], [61000-2-1].
- Voltage variations of amplitude less than 100/0 of the nominal voltage [UIE].
• Voltage frequency variation A voltage variation in which the voltage frequency
deviates from its ideal or nominal value (this book).
• Voltage imbalance = voltage unbalance [1159].
• Voltage magnitude step A voltage event in which the rms value of the voltage
shows a fast rise or drop from one constant value to another constant value,
both inside the normal operating range (this book).
• Voltage unbalance A voltage variation in a three-phase system in which the
three voltage magnitudes or the phase-angle differences between them are not
equal. The voltage unbalance is quantified as the ratio of the negative- and
positive-sequence voltage.
• Wave-shape fault A voltage quality event with a duration less than one cycle.
This term is used by some monitoring equipment to classify voltage distur-
bances.
Appendix D: Figures
1.1 Simulated voltage magnitude as a function of time 7

1.2 Probability density function of the voltage magnitude in Fig. 1.1 7
1.3 Probability distribution function of the voltage magnitude in Fig. 1.1. . 8
1.4 Example of distorted voltage, with mainly lower-order harmonic
components [211] II
1.5 Example of distorted voltage, with higher-order harmonic components
[211] 11
1.6 Example of distorted current, leading to the voltage distortion shown in
Fig. 1.4 [211] 12
1.7 Example of distorted current, leading to the voltage distortion shown in
Fig. 1.5 [211] 12
1.8 Example of voltage notching [211] 13
1.9 Example of transient overvoltage event: phase-to-ground voltage due
to fault clearing in one of the other phases. (Data obtained from [16].)..... 15
1.10 Number of transient overvoltage events per year, as a function of
magnitude and voltage integral. (Data obtained from [67].) 15
1.11 Probability distribution function of the magnitude of transient
overvoltage events, according to Fig. 1.10 16
1.12 Probability density function of the magnitude of transient overvoltage
events, according to Fig. 1.10 16
1.13 Probability distribution function of the Vt-integral of transient overvoltage
1.14 Probability density function of the Vt-integral of transient overvoltage
1.15 Example of voltage magnitude steps due to transformer tap-changer
operation, recorded in a 10 kV distribution system in Southern Sweden 18
1.16 Suggested classification of voltage magnitude events 20
1.17 Definitions of voltage magnitude events as used in EN 50160. . 21
1.18 Definitions of voltage magnitude events as used in IEEE Std.1159-1995 22
1.19 Overview of EMC terminology 24
S07
508 Appendix D • Figures
1.20 Probability distribution function for a variation, with the compatibility

level indicated 27
1.21 Time between events as a function of the disturbance level. 28
1.22 Maximum number of transient overvoltage events for 95°/Q of the
low-voltage customers in Norway. (Data obtained from [67].) 28
1.23 Probability density function of the normal distribution 31
2.1 Number of interruptions per customer, average for Great Britain.

(Data obtained from [109].) 38
2.2 Unavailability of the supply, average for Great Britain.
2.3 Distribution of duration of interruption. The Netherlands,
1991-1994. (Reproduced from Hendrik Boers and Frenken [112].) 41
2.4 Probability density function for the average unavailability in Great Britain.
2.5 Extension of Fig. 2.4 toward higher values. . 43
2.6 Contributions to the number of supply interruptions in Great Britain.
2.7 Contributions to the unavailability of the supply in Great Britain.
2.8 Number of interruptions per year for the average low voltage customer
in The Netherlands, 1976-1995, with contributions from low voltage (x),
medium voltage (0), and high voltage (+) systems. (Reproduced from
van Kruining et al. [110].) 45
2.9 Probability density function for duration of interruptions, originating at
three voltage levels in The Netherlands power systems. (Reproduced
from Waumans [111].) 46
2.10 Reliability layers in industrial power systems and their role in system
design 59
2.11 Power system example, for choice of stochastic components. . 63
2.12 Single-line diagram of a supply system 69
2.13 Stochastic network representation of the system shown in Fig. 2.12 70
2.14 Stochastic series connection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.15 Stochastic parallel connection 72
2.16 Example of stochastic network, for explaining the minimum cut-set
method 73
2.17 Alternative drawing of the network in Fig. 2.16: series connection of
parallel connections 73
2.18 Example of public supply, with single redundancy 74
2.19 Network representation of the supply in Fig. 2.18 75
2.20 Network representation of the supply in Fig. 2.18, with minimum cut-sets
indicated as dotted lines 75
2.21 Industrial system with three-bus substation 76
2.22 Network representation of the system in Fig. 2.21 76
2.23 Four-state component model. 77
2.24 Model for protective relay, consisting of one healthy and six nonhealthy
states 78
2.25 Example of industrial supply with double redundancy 79
2.26 States and transitions for the system shown in Fig. 2.25. The solid lines
indicate transitions between healthy states, the dotted lines indicate
Appendix D • Figures 509
transitions between a healthy state and a nonhealthy state, the arrows

indicate transitions associated with a short-circuit event. 80
2.27 Two-state Markov model. 81
2.28 Model for relay with hidden failure (left); the relay is healthy in state 1
and contains a hidden failure in state 2. The figure on the right gives the
two-state model which is obtained by neglecting the repair time tt 83
2.29 Two component, two-state Markov model. 85
2.30 Part of a multistate Markov model. (Reproduced from Fig. 2.26.) 88
2.31 Three sequences of a Monte Carlo simulation. The circles indicate
failures followed by repair; the numbers in between indicate
times-to-failure. . 90
2.32 Outcome of a Monte Carlo simulation. . 95
2.33 Outcome of 10 identical Monte Carlo simulations. . 96
2.34 Convergence parameter for 10 identical Monte Carlo simulations 97
2.35 Convergence parameter for a non-convergence case 98
2.36 Bathtub curve: component failure rate versus age 99
2.37 Failure rate versus time for regular maintenance intervals 99
2.38 Failure rate versus time for two components 100
2.39 Repair as-good-as-new and as-bad-as-old. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 100
2.40 Costs versus reliability: costs of building and operation (dashed curve),
costs of supply interruptions (dotted curve), and total costs (solid curve)... 102
2.41 Interruption costs in $/kW for different customers, for forced
interruptions. (Results from a Swedish study in 1993 [200].) 105
2.42 Interruption costs in $/kW for different customers, for scheduled
interruptions. (Results from a Swedish study in 1993 [200].) 105
2.43 Example of reliability calculation: primary selective supply 107
2.44 Failure rate as a function of time-normal and adverse weather 109
2.45 Two-state model with normal and adverse weather 109
3.1 Overhead distribution network with fuses and reclosers. . 117

3.2 RMS voltage during a reclosure sequence on the faulted feeder (solid line)
and on the nonfaulted feeder (dashed line). A = fault-clearing time;
B = reclosing interval. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.3 Recorded rms voltage during a short interruption. (Reproduced from Dugan
etal. [II].) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.4 Recorded voltage during the initiation of a short interruption.
(Reproduced from IEEE Std.1159 [3].) 120
3.5 Interruption frequency (number of interruptions per year) as a function
of interruption duration. (After data obtained from Dorr [68] 121
3.6 Probability distribution function of interruption duration. (From the data
in Fig. 3.5.) '.' 122
3.7 Number of interruptions lasting longer than the indicated value. (From the
data in Fig. 3.5.) 123
3.8 Effect of a "five-minute filter" on the voltage magnitude events. The figures
on the left show the recorded rms voltages; the figures .on the right show
the equivalent event after the filter 125
3.9 Phase-to-neutral voltages for single-phase tripping 128
3.10 Phase-to-phase voltages for single-phase tripping 129
3.11 Sequence networks for the analysis of single-phase open-circuit faults:

positive sequence (top), negative sequence (center), and zero sequence
(bottom).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
3.12 Connection of the sequence networks in Fig. 3.11 for a single-phase
open circuit 131
3.13 Phase-to-ground voltages during single-phase reclosure with
delta-connected load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3.14 Phase-to-phase voltages during single-phase reclosure with
delta-connected load 132
3.15 Single-phase tripping with the short circuit still present. 135
3.16 Example of overhead distribution feeder, for stochastic prediction study 136
4.1 A voltage sag due to a short-circuit fault-voltage in one phase in time

domain. (Data obtained from [16].) 140
4.2 A voltage sag due to induction motor starting. (Data obtained from
Electrotek Concepts [19].) 140
4.3 One-cycle rms voltage for the voltage sag shown in Fig. 4.1. . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.4 Half-cycle rms voltage for the voltage sag shown in Fig. 4.1 141
4.5 Magnitude of the fundamental component of the voltage sag in Fig. 4.1 143
4.6 Magnitude of the fundamental component of the voltage sag"in Fig. 4.1,
obtained by using a half-cycle window. . 143
4.7 Half-cycle peak voltage for the voltage sag shown in Fig. 4.1. . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.8 Comparison between half-cycle peak (solid line) and half-cycle rms voltage
(dashed line) for the voltage sag shown in Fig. 4.1 144
4.9 Time-domain plot of a one-cycle sag, plots of the three phase voltages.
4.10 Half-cycle rms voltages for the voltage sag shown in Fig. 4.9 145
4.11 Half-cycle peak voltage for phase b of the sag shown in Fig. 4.9 146
4.12 Half-cycle fundamental voltage for phase b of the sag shown in Fig. 4.9 146
4.13 Distribution network with load positions and fault positions 147
4.14 Voltage divider model for a voltage sag " 148
4.15 Sag magnitude as a function of the distance to the fault, for faults on
an 11 kV, 150 mrrr' overhead line 149
4.16 Sag magnitude versus distance, for 11 kV overhead lines with different
cross section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
4.17 Sag magnitude versus distance, for 11 kV underground cables with different
cross sections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
4.18 Power system with faults at two voltage levels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.19 Comparison of sag magnitude for 132kV and 33 kV faults 151
4.20 Number of sags versus magnitude: theoretical results (solid line) versus
monitoring results (dots) 153
4.21 Example of power supply to be used ~or voltage sag calculations.. . . . . . . . 154
4.22 Magnitude versus distance for faults at various voltage levels in the supply
in Fig. 4.21. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
4.23 Connection of a local generator to a distribution bus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
4.24 Equivalent circuit for system with local generation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4.25 Industrial distribution system with on-site generation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
4.26 Sag magnitude versus distance, with and without on-site generator 158
4.27 Circuit diagram representation of two transmission substations.
The sensitive load is fed from the substation on the left. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Appendix D • Figures S11
4.28 Sag magnitude as a function of the distance to the fault, for transmission
systems.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
4.29 Example of subtransmission loop. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.30 Equivalent circuit for subtransmission loop 160
4.31 Loop system operating at 132kV 161
4.32 Sag magnitudes for faults on a 132kV loop 161
4.33 Sag magnitude versus distance, for faults on loops (solid and dashed lines)
and on a radial feeder (dotted line) 161
4.34 Most shallow sag for a fault in a loop, as a function of the impedance of
the non-faulted branch for various values of the impedance of the faulted
branch 162
4.35 Most shallow sag for a fault in a loop, as a function of the impedance
of the faulted branch, for various values of the impedance of the
non-faulted branch 163
4.36 System with a branch away from a loop 163
4.37 Equivalent circuit for system with a branch away from a loop, as in
Fig. 4.36 164
4.38 Industrial system with breaker at intermediate voltage level closed (left)
and open (right) 164
4.39 Sag magnitude versus distance to the fault, for an industrial system
with and without bus-splitting applied to the 11 kV bus 165
4.40 Parallel operation of transmission and subtransmission systems 165
4.41 Circuit diagram representation of part of a 400/275 kV system 167
4.42 Sags of different origin in a magnitude-duration plot. 169
4.43 General structure of power system, with distribution and transmission
networks.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
4.44 Estimation of sag duration by power quality monitor for a two-cycle sag:
overestimation by one cycle (upper graph); correct estimation
(lower graph). .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
4.45 Half-cycle rms voltage together with absolute value of the voltage
(dashed line) of the sag shown in Fig. 4.1 171
4.46 Error in sag duration due to post-fault sag. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
4.47 Measured sag with a clear post-fault component. (Data obtained from
Scottish Power.) 173
4.48 RMS voltages versus time for the sag shown in Fig. 4.47 173
4.49 Sag duration versus threshold setting for the three phases of the sag
shown in Figs. 4.47 and 4.48. . 173
4.50 Positive- (top), negative- (center), and zero- (bottom) sequence networks
for the voltage divider shown in Fig. 4.14 174
4.51 Equivalent circuit for a single-phase fault 175
4.52 Phase-to-ground voltages during a single-phase fault. 176
4.53 Three-phase voltage divider model. 178
4.54 Voltage in the faulted phase for single-phase and three-phase faults on a
132 kV feeder in Fig. 4.21 179
4.55 Voltage in the faulted phase for single-phase and three-phase faults on an
11 kV feeder in Fig. 4.21 180
4.56 Voltage in the faulted and non-faulted phases for a single-phase fault on
an 11 kV feeder in Fig. 4.21, as a function of the distance to the fault. 180
4.57 Complex voltages due to a fault on an 11 kV feeder in Fig. 4.21 180
4.58 Phase-to-phase voltages due to a single-phase fault on an 11 kV feeder

in Fig. 4.21, as a function of the distance to the fault. 181
4.59 Phase-to-ground (dashed) and phase-to-phase (solid) voltages due to
single-phase faults on an l1kV feeder in Fig. 4.21 181
4.60 Equivalent circuit for a phase-to-phase fault. 182
4.61 Complex voltages due to a phase-to-phase fault (solid line) 183
4.62 Equivalent circuit for a two-phase-to-ground fault. 184
4.63 Voltage drops in the faulted phase during a two-phase-to-ground fault.
A: second term in (4.48); B: third term for ZSI = Zso; C: third term
for ZSI « Zso · ·.· 185
4.64 Three-phase voltage divider model for a two-phase-to-ground fault. ' . 186
4.65 Phase-to-neutral voltages in the faulted phases for a two-phase-to-
ground fault. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
4.66 Phase-to-neutral voltages before (dashed line) and during (solid line) a
phase-to-ground fault. 188
4.67 Phase-to-phase voltages before (dashed line) and during (solid line) a
phase-to-ground fault. 189
4.68 Phase-to-neutral voltages before (dashed line) and during (solid line) a
phase-to-phase fault. 189
4.69 Phase-to-phase voltages before (dashed line) and during (solid line) a
phase-to-phase fault. 190
4.70 Four types of sag in phasor-diagram form 194
4.71 Three-phase unbalanced sags due to two-phase-to-ground faults 195
4.72 Comparison of three-phase unbalanced sags due to two-phase-to-ground
faults (F and G) with three-phase unbalanced sags due to phase-to-phase
and single-phase-to-ground faults (C and D). The arrows indicate the
direction of change in the three complex voltages for the different sag
types 196
4.73 Example of sag transformation, for star-connected load ". . . 197
4.74 Synthetic sag with a magnitude of 70% and a phase-angle jump of +45° 198
4.75 Synthetic sag with a magnitude of 70% and a phase-angle jump of -45° 199
4.76 Amplitude of the fundamental voltage versus time for the voltage sag
shown in Fig. 4.1-a half-cycle window has been used. . 200
4.77 Argument of the fundamental voltage versus time for the voltage sag
shown in Fig. 4.1-a half-cycle window has been used. . 200
4.78 Amplitude of the fundamental voltage versus time for the voltage sag
shown in Fig. 4.1-a one-cycle window has been used 200
4.79 Argument of the fundamental voltage versus time for the voltage sag
shown in Fig. 4.1-a one-cycle window has been used 201
4.80 Phase-angle jump versus distance, for faults on a 150 mm 2 11 kV overhead
feeder, with different source strength 202
4.81 Phase-angle jump versus distance, for overhead lines with cross section
300mm2 (solid line), 150mm2 (dashed line), and 50mm2 (dotted line)..... 202
4.82 Phase-angle jump versus distance, for underground cables with cross
section 300mm2 (solid line), 150mm2 (dashed line), and 50mm2
(dotted line) 203
4.83 Path of the voltage in the complex plane when the distance to the fault
changes, for underground cables with cross section 300mm2 (solid line);
150mm2 (dashed line); and 50mm2 (dotted line) 203
4.84 Magnitude versus phase-angle jump, for underground cables with cross
section 300mm2 (solid line), 150mm 2 (dashed line), and 50 mnr' (dotted
line) 203
4.85 Phasor diagram for calculation of magnitude and phase-angle jump. . 204
4.86 Relation between magnitude and phase-angle jump for three-phase faults:
impedance angles: = -60 (solid curve); -35 (dashed); -10 (dotted);
0 0 0
+10 0 (dash-dot) 206

4.87 Magnitude and phase-angle jump for three-phase sags in the example
supply in Fig. 4.21-solid line: 11 kV; dashed line: 33kV; dotted line:
132kV; dash-dot line: 400 kV 206
4.88 The rms values of the phase-to-ground voltages for the sag shown in
Fig. 4.1.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
4.89 The rms values of phase-to-phase (dashed lines) and phase-to-ground
voltages after removal of the zero-sequence component (solid lines) for
the sag shown in Fig. 4.1 209
4.90 Phasor diagram for a sag of type C with characteristic magnitude V
and characteristic phase-angle jump t/J. . • • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 210
4.91 Magnitude (top) and phase-angle jump (bottom) for sags of type C due to
phase-to-phase faults. Dashed line: zero impedance angle (no characteristic
phase-angle jump). Solid line: -60 0 , impedance angle (large characteristic
phase-angle jump) 211
4.92 Magnitude versus phase-angle jump for sag type C due to phase-to-phase
faults for impedance angle -60 0 (solid line), -40 0 (dashed), -20 0 (dotted),
o (dash-dot) 211
4.93 Phasor diagram for a sag of type D, with characteristic magnitude V and
phase-angle jump t/J• • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . 212
4.94 Magnitude (top) and phase-angle jump (bottom) for sags of type D due to
phase-to-phase faults. Dashed line: zero impedance angle. Solid line:
impedance angle of -60 0
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 213
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
4.95 Magnitude versus phase-angle jump for sag type D due to phase-to-phase
faults: impedance angle -600 (solid line), -400 (dashed), -20 0 (dotted),
o (dash-dot) 213
4.96 Range of sags due to phase-to-phase faults, as experienced by single-phase
equipment 214
4.97 Characteristic magnitude and phase-angle jump for sags due to
phase-to-phase faults in the example supply in Fig. 4.21-solid line:
type C sags, dashed line: type D sags. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
4.98 Magnitude and phase-angle jump at the equipment terminals due to
phase-to-phase faults in the supply in Fig. 4.21, experienced by single-phase
load connected phase-to-ground at 420 V-solid line: 11 kV, dashed line:
33kV, dotted line: 132kV, dash-dot line: 400kV 215
4.99 Transformation of sags due to single-phase faults--error in approximate
expressions for characteristic magnitude. Impedance angle: -60 0 (solid line);
-40 0 (dashed); -20 0 (dotted) 217
4.100 Transformation of sags due to single-phase faults-error in approximate
expressions for characteristic phase-angle jump. Impedance angle: -60 0
(solid line); -400 (dashed); -200 (dotted) 217
4.101 Relation between phase-angle jump and magnitude of sags due to
single-phase faults: characteristic values (dashed curve) and initial values
(solid curve) 218
4.102 Range of sags experienced by single-phase equipment for sag type C and
single-phase fault, impedance angle: -60 0 (solid line), -40 0 (dashed),
-20 0 (dotted), 0 (dash-dot) 218
4.103 Range of sags experienced by single-phase equipment for sag type D and
single-phase fault, impedance angle:-60° (solid line), -40 0 (dashed),
-20 0 (dotted), 0 (dash-dot) 219
4.104 Range of sags due to single-phase faults (solid curve) and due to
phase-to-phase faults (dashed curve) 219
4.105 Characteristic magnitude and phase-angle jump for sags due to
single-phase faults in the example supply in Fig. 4.21, experienced by
three-phase load connected phase-to-phase at 660 V-solid line: 11kV,
dashed line: 33 kV, dotted line: 132kV, dash-dot line: 400 kV. . 220
4.106 Characteristic magnitude and phase-angle jump for three-phase
unbalanced sags in Fig. 4.21, experienced by three-phase delta-connected
load-solid line: type C, dashed line: type D 221
4.107 Magnitude and phase-angle jump for sags due to single-phase faults
in the example supply in Fig. 4.21, experienced by single..phase load-
connected phase-to-ground at 420 V-solid line: II kV, dashed line:
33 kV, dotted line: 132kV, dash-dot line: 400 kV 222
4.108 Magnitude and phase-angle jump for all sags in the example supply in
Fig. 4.21, experienced by single-phase load-connected phase-to-ground
at 420 V-solid line: 11 kV, dashed line: 33kV, dotted line: 132kV,
dash-dot line: 400 kV 222
4.109 Phasor diagram for three-phase unbalanced sag of type F with
characteristic magnitude V and characteristic phase-angle jump t/J. . ..... 223
4.110 Magnitude and phase-angle jump at the equipment terminals for a
type F sag, due to a two-phase-to-ground fault. The curves are given
for an impedance angle of 0 (dashed line) and -60 0 (solid line) 224
4.111 Detailed phasor diagram for three-phase unbalanced sag of type G with
characteristic magnitude V and characteristic phase-angle jump t/J. . ..... 224
4.112 Magnitude and phase-angle jump at the equipment terminals for a
type G sag, due to a two-phase-to-ground fault. The curves are given
for an impedance angle of 0 (dashed line) and -60 0 (solid line) 225
4.113 Range of magnitude and phase-angle jump at the equipment terminals
due to phase-to-phase (dashed curve) and two-phase-to-ground faults
(solid curve) 226
4.114 Magnitude and phase-angle jump at the equipment terminals due to
two-phase-to-ground faults in Fig. 4.21, experienced by single-phase
load-connected phase-to-ground at 420 V-solid line: 11 kV, dashed line:
33 kV, dotted line: 132 kV, dash-dot line: 400 kV 227
4.115 Sag magnitude versus distance for three-phase faults with fault resistances
equal to zero (solid line), 10% (dashed line), 200/0 (dash-dot line), and
30% (dotted line) of the source impedance 228
4.116 Sag magnitude versus phase-angle jump for three-phase faults with fault
resistances equal to zero (solid line), 10% (dashed line), 200/0
(dash-dot line), and 300/0 (dotted line) of the source impedance 229
4.117 Magnitude versus phase-angle jump at the equipment terminals for
single-phase faults in a solidly grounded system, sag type C; fault
resistances equal to zero (solid line), 10% (dashed line), 20%
(dash-dot line), and 30% (dotted line) of the source impedance 229
Appendix D • Figures 51S
4.118 Magnitude versus phase-angle jump at the equipment terminals for

single-phase faults in a solidly grounded system, sag type D, fault
resistances equal to zero (solid line), 10% (dashed line), 20%
(dash-dot line), and 300~ (dotted line) of the source impedance. . . . . . . . . 230
4.119 Magnitude versus phase-angle jumps at the equipment terminals for
single-phase faults in a resistance-grounded system, sag type D, fault
resistances equal to zero (solid line), 500/0 (dashed line), 100%
(dash-dot line), and 150% (dotted line) of the source impedance 230
4.120 Enlargement of the sag shown in Fig. 4.1 indicating the point-on-wave
of sag initiation 232
4.121 Event initiation in the three phases, compared to the last upward
voltage zero crossing. . 232
4.122 Enlargement of Fig. 4.1 showing the point-on-wave of voltage recovery.
The smooth curve is the continuation of the pre-sag fundamental
voltage 233
4.123 Time-domain voltage measurement together with pre-event fundamental
voltage (top curve) and the time-domain missing voltage being the
difference of those two (bottom curve) 235
4.124 Measured voltage with pre-event fundamental voltage (top curve) and
missing voltage (bottom curve) during a voltage swell event. 236
4.125 Missing voltage for the three phases of a sag due to a single-phase fault. .. 236
4.126 Absolute value of the missing voltage (top curve) and the distribution
of the missing voltage (bottom curve) for the sag shown in Fig. 4.1 237
4.127 Missing voltage distribution for phase a (solid curve), phase b
(dashed curve), and phase c (dash-dot curve) 238
4.128 Induction motor impedance versus slip; the impedance at nominal slip is
1 pu; 3 hp 220 V (solid line), 50 hp 460 V (dashed line), 250 hp 2300 V
(dotted line), 1500 hp 2300 V (dash-dot line) 240
4.129 Change in induction motor current with increasing slip; the current at
nominal slip is 1 pu; 3 hp 220 V (solid line), 50 hp 460 V (dashed line),
250 hp 2300 V (dotted line), 1500 hp 2300 V (dashed line). . 240
4.130 Voltage sag (top) and induction motor slip (bottom) for three busses
in an industrial power system. (Reproduced from Yalcinkaya [136].)..... 241
4.131 Voltages at the motor terminals, due to a single-phase-to-ground fault
in the supply. (Reproduced from Yalcinkaya [136].) 242
4.132 Induction motor currents during and after a single-line-to-ground fault
in the supply. This motor showed only a small decrease in speed.
(Reproduced from Yalcinkaya [136].) 244
4.133 Induction motor currents during and after a single-line-to-ground fault
in the supply. This motor showed a large decrease in speed.
4.134 Symmetrical components for the voltages shown in Fig. 4.131.
4.135 Symmetricai components for the currents shown in Fig. 4.132.
4.136 Positive- and negative-sequence impedance for an induction motor during
a sag. (Reproduced from Yalcinkaya [136].) 246
4.137 Positive-, negative.., and zero-sequence voltages for the three-phase
unbalanced sag shown in Fig. 4.47 246
4.138 Voltages at the equipment terminals, for three stages of induction motor
influence for type C sags. The solid lines are without induction motor
influence, the dashed lines with 247
4.139 Voltages at the equipment terminals, for three stages of induction motor
influence for type D sags. The solid lines are without induction motor
influence, the dashed lines with 247
4.140 Equivalent circuit for voltage sag due to induction motor starting 249
4.141 Induction motor starting with dedicated transformer for the sensitive
load 250
5.1 Voltage-tolerance requirement for power stations. (Data obtained

from [149].) 254
5.2 Computer power supply 257
5.3 Effect of a voltage sag on dc bus voltage for a single-phase rectifier:
absolute value of the ac voltage (dashed line) and de bus voltage
(solid line) 258
5.4 Voltage sag at ac side (dashed line) and at the de bus (solid line) for a sag
down to 500A1 (top) and for a sag down to 70°A» (bottom) 259
5.5 Voltage-tolerance curve of a computer: an example of a rectangular
voltage-tolerance curve 261
5.6 Regulated and non-regulated de voltages for a personal computer,
during a 200 ms sag down to 50%: (top-to-bottom) ac voltages;
ac current; regulated de voltage; non-regulated de voltage.
(Reproduced from EPRI Power Quality Database [28].) ' 261
5.7 Voltage-tolerance curves for personal computers. (Data obtained
from EPRI Power Quality Database [29].) 262
5.8 Voltage-tolerance curves for personal computers-Japanese tests
(Data obtained .from [49]) 262
5.9 Voltage-tolerance requirements for computing equipment: CBEMA
curve (solid line) and ITIC curve (dashed line) 263
5.10 Voltage-tolerance curves for programmable logic controllers (PLCs).
5.11 Voltage-tolerance curves for various process control equipment [41] 265
5.12 Typical ac drive configuration 266
5.13 Voltage and frequency as a function of speed for an ac adjustable-speed
drive 267
5.14 Voltage sags which led to drive tripping (0) and voltage sags which did
not lead to drive tripping (x). (Data obtained from Sarmiento [40].) 268
5.15 Three types of motor speed behavior for an adjustable-speed drive due
to a sag 268
5.16 Average voltage-tolerance curve for adjustable-speed drives. Note the
non-linear horizontal scale 270
5.17 Adjustable-speed drive voltage tolerance, according to the drive
manufacturer.• = Magnitude and duration; A = duration only.
5.18 Voltage tolerance of adjustable-speed drives for different capacitor sizes.
Solid line: 75 ttF/kW; dashed line: 165 ttF/kW; dotted line: 360 IJ,F/kW... 273
5.19 DC bus voltage behind a three-phase rectifier during normal operation,
for large capacitor (solid line), small capacitor (dashed line), and no
capacitor connected to the de bus (dotted line) 275
5.20 Voltage during a three-phase unbalanced sag of type C: ac side voltage

(top) and de side voltages (bottom) for large capacitor (solid line), small
capacitor (dashed line), and nocapacitor connected to the de bus
(dotted line) 276
5.21 Voltage during a three-phase unbalanced sag of type D: ac side voltage
(top) and dc side voltages (bottom) for large capacitor (solid line), small
capacitor (dashed line), and no capacitor connected to the de bus
(dotted line) 276
5.22 DC bus voltage during a three-phase unbalanced sag of type D, with
characteristic magnitude 500/0 and characteristic phase-angle jump zero
(top left), 10° (top right), 20° (bottom left), and 30° (bottom right).
Solid line: large capacitance; dashed line: small capacitance; dotted line:
no capacitance connected to the de bus 277
5.23 Minimum de bus voltage as a function of the characteristic magnitude
of three-phase unbalanced sags of type C. Solid line: large capacitance;
dashed line: small capacitance; dotted line: no capacitance connected to
the dc bus.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
5.24 Voltage ripple at the de bus as a function of the characteristic magnitude
the de bus.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
5.25 Average de bus voltage as a function of the characteristic magnitude of
three-phase unbalanced sags of type C. Solid line: large capacitance;
the de bus.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
5.26 The rms of the de bus voltage as a function of the characteristic magnitude
the de bus.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
5.27 Minimum de bus voltage as a function of the characteristic magnitude
of three-phase unbalanced sags of type D. Solid line: large capacitance;
the de bus.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
5.28 Voltage ripple at the dc bus as a function of the characteristic magnitude
the dc bus.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
5.29' Average de bus voltage as a function of the characteristic magnitude
the de bus.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
5.30 The rms of the de bus voltage as a function of the characteristic magnitude
the de bus.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
5.31 Induction motor influence on minimum dc bus voltage for sags of type C.
Solid line: large capacitor; dashed line: small capacitor; dotted line: no
capacitor connected to the dc bus 283
5.32 Induction motor influence on average de bus voltage for sags of type C.
capacitor connected to the de bus 284
5.33 Induction motor influence on minimum de bus voltage for sags of type D.
5.34 Induction motor influence on average de bus voltage for sags of type D.
5.35 Configuration of the power supply to the control circuitry in an
adjustable-speed drive. . 285
5.36 AC side voltage (top) and currents (phase a, b, and c from top to bottom)
for a three-phase unbalanced sag of type D 286
5.37 AC side voltage (top) and currents (phase a, b, and c from top to bottom)
for a three-phase unbalanced sag of type C 287
5.38 Input current for an ac drive in normal operation. (Reproduced from
Mansoor [27].) 287
5.39 Input current for an ac drive with voltage unbalance. (Reproduced from
Mansoor [27].) 288
5.40 Input current for an ac drive during a single-phase fault. (Reproduced
from Mansoor [27].) 288
5.41 Principle of pulse-width modulation: carrier signal with reference signal
(dashed) in the top figure; the pulse-width modulated signal in the
bottom figure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
5.42 Motor terminal voltage due to a three-phase unbalanced sag of type C
with a characteristic magnitude of 50%, for a motor frequency of 50 Hz.
The dc bus voltage is shown as a dashed curve for reference 290
5.43 Motor terminal voltage due to a three-phase unbalanced sag of type D
with a characteristic magnitude of 50%, for a motor frequency of 50 Hz.
The de bus voltage is shown as a dashed curve for reference 291
5.44 Motor terminal voltages due to a three-phase unbalanced sag of type C
with a characteristic magnitude of 50%, for a motor speed of 40 Hz 291
5.45 Positive- (solid) and negative-sequence component (dashed) of the motor
terminal voltages as a function of the motor speed. A saga of type C
with a characteristic magnitude of 500/0 was applied at the supply terminals
of the adjustable-speed drive 291
5.46 Increase in motor slip as a function of the sag magnitude for different sag
duration: 50ms (solid curve), lOOms (dashed), 150ms (dash-dot), and
200ms (dotted) 293
5.47 Voltage-tolerance curves for adjustable-speed drives, for three-phase
balanced sags, for different values of the slip tolerance 294
5.48 Voltage-tolerance curves for sag type C, no capacitance connected to the
de bus, for different values of the slip tolerance 295
5.49 Voltage-tolerance curves for sag type C, small capacitance connected to
the dc bus, for different values of the slip tolerance 295
5.50 Voltage-tolerance curves for sag type C, large (solid line), small (dashed),
and no (dotted) capacitance connected to the de bus 295
5.51 Voltage-tolerance curves for sag type D, for two values of the slip
tolerance, large (solid line), small (dashed), and no (dotted) capacitance
connected to the de bus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
5.52 Drive response with synchronous restart. (Reproduced from

Mansoor [32].) 298
5.53 Drive response with non-synchronous restart. (Reproduced from
Mansoor [32].) 298
5.54 Modern de drive with separately excited armature and field winding 300
5.55 Equivalent scheme for de motor during normal operation 301
5.56 Output voltage of controlled rectifier with a firing angle of 50°. No
capacitance is connected to the de bus. Note the difference in vertical
scale compared to Fig. 5.19 302
5.57 Equivalent circuit for a de motor during transients 304
5.58 DC motor armature current during balanced sag 306
5.59 DC motor field current during balanced sag 306
5.60 Torque produced by de motor during balanced sag 307
5.61 Speed of de motor during balanced sag 307
5.62 Field current for sag type D, with large drop in field voltage 309
5.63 Armature current for sag type D, with large drop in field voltage. . 309
5.64 Motor torque for sag type D, with large drop in field voltage 310
5.65 Motor speed for sag type D, with large drop in field voltage 310
5.66 Field current for sag type D, with small drop in field voltage. . 310
5.67 Armature current for sag type D, with small drop in field voltage 311
5.68 Motor torque for sag type D, with small drop in field voltage 311
5.69 Motor speed for sag type D, with small drop in field voltage 311
5.70 Step response of a conventional digital phase-locked loop.
(Reproduced from Wang [57].) 312
5.71 Influence of phase-locked loop on firing angle 313
5.72 Influence of phase-locked loop on firing angle: with actual voltage
as a reference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
5.73 Influence of phase-angle jump on the armature voltage, for different
firing angles 314
5.74 DC voltage for sag type D, with rectifier operating at 10° firing angle 315
5.75 DC voltage for sag type C, with rectifier operating at 10° firing angle 315
5.76 Origin of commutation delay 316
5.77 Power transfer to a synchronous motor as a function of the rotor angle 320
5.78 Power transfer in normal situation and for a deep sag 320
5.79 Power transfer in normal situation and for the deepest long-duration sag 321
5.80 Voltage-tolerance curve for a contactor. (Data obtained from [34].) 322
5.81 Voltage-tolerance of high-pressure sodium lamps. (Data obtained from
Dorr et at. [36].). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
6.1 Comparison of two supply alternatives (solid curve: supply I, dashed

curve: supply II) and two equipment tolerances (solid vertical line:
device A, dashed line: device B). . 326
6.2 Probability density function of the number of sags per year for four
design alternatives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
6.3 Probability density function of the costs per year for four design
alternatives 328
6.4 Scatter diagram obtained by one year of monitoring at an industrial site 329
6.5 Scatter diagram as obtained from a large power quality survey 329
6.6 Two-dimensional bar chart of the sag density function shown in Table 6.3.. 331
6.7 Bar chart of the cumulative voltage sag table shown in Table 6.4 332
6.8 Contour chart of the cumulative sag function, based on Table 6.4 333
6.9 Voltage sag coordination chart, reproduced from Fig. 6.8, with
two equipment voltage-tolerance curves 334
6.10 Voltage sag coordination chart, reproduced from Fig. 6.8, with
non-rectangular equipment voltage-tolerance curve 334
6.11 Sag density for the average low-voltage supply in the United States
and Canada. (Data obtained from Dorr [68].) 335
6.12 Voltage sag coordination chart for the average low-voltage supply in the
United States and Canada. (Obtained from the sag density chart in
Fig. 6.11.) 336
6.13 Update of cumulative table for rectangular sag. . 337
6.14 Update of cumulative table for non-rectangular sag 337
6.15 Problems in updating the cumulative table for a very non-rectangular sag.. 338
6.16 Use of the voltage sag coordination chart when three-phase unbalance
needs to be considered 339
6.17 Hypothetical example of the voltage-tolerance curve for magnitude against
phase-angle jump. The sag duration is considered constant. 340
6.18 Hypothetical example of the fraction of sags with a given point-on-wave
value 341
6.19 Hypothetical example of the voltage-tolerance curves for different
point-on-wave of sag initiation 341
6.20 Sag density function for CEA secondary side data, corresponding to
Table 6.6. . 344
6.21 Voltage sag coordination chart for CEA secondary side data,
corresponding to Table 6.6 344
6.22 Sag density of primary side CEA data, corresponding to Table 6.7 345
6.23 Sag density of NPL data, no filter, corresponding to Table 6.8 346
6.24 Sag density of NPL data, 5-minute filter, corresponding to Table 6.9 347
6.25 NPL data: voltage sag coordination chart, 5-minute filter, corresponding
to Table 6.9 347
6.26 EPRI feeder data: sag density function, corresponding to Table 6.10 349
6.27 EPRI feeder data: voltage sag coordination chart, corresponding
to Table 6.10 349
6.28 EPRI substation data: sag density function, corresponding to Table 6.11 350
6.29 EPRI substation data: voltage sag coordination chart, corresponding
to Table 6.11 350
6.30 Sag density for EFI low-voltage networks, corresponding to Table 6.13 353
6.31 Sag density for EFI distribution networks, corresponding to Table 6.14 353
6.32 Sag density for 950/0 percentile of EFI low-voltage networks,
6.33 Sag density for 95% percentile of EFI distribution networks,
6.34 Variation of voltage sag frequency through the year. (Data obtained
from Dorr [68].) 355
6.35 Part of power system with fault positions. . 361
6.36 Voltage as a function of the distance to the fault. ~ 363
6.37 Approximated voltage as a function of the distance to the fault. 364
6.38 Faults in a radial system 364
6.39 Network meshed across voltage levels, with suggested fault positions 365
6.40 Reliability test system. (Reproduced from Qader [71].) '.' 367
6.41 Voltage sags at different busses due to a fault halfway between bus 2
and bus 4 in Fig. 6.40. (Reproduced from Qader [71].) 368
6.42 Exposed area contours for bus 4. (Reproduced from Qader [71].) 369
6.43 Voltage sag frequency for all busses in the RTS: number of sags
below 80%. (Reproduced from Qader [71].) 371
6.44 Voltage sag frequency (number of sags per year) for all busses in the
reliability test system when the 138kV generators are out of
operation. (Reproduced from Qader [71].) 372
6.45 An 11 kV network used as an example for the method of critical distances.. 374
6.46 Critical distance as a function of the critical voltage for impedance
angle 00 (solid line), -30 0 (dashed line), -60 0 (dash-dot line) 376
6.47 Error made in the simplified expression of critical distance; impedance
angle: -20 0 (solid line), -40 0 (dashed line), and -60 0 (dash-dot line) 377
6.48 Error made by using a first-order approximation for the critical distance;
impedance angle:-20° (solid line), -40 (dashed line), and -60
0 0
(dash-dot line) 377

6.49 Exposed length for nine 400 kV substations: comparison between the
method of fault positions (crosses) and the method of critical distances
(diamonds) 386
7.1 The voltage quality problem and ways of mitigation 390

7.2 Distribution system with one circuit breaker protecting the whole feeder
(top) and with a number of substations (bottom) 392
7.3 Overview of sags and interruptions 396
7.4 Power system without redundancy 398
7.5 Distribution system with redundancy through manual switching 399
7.6 Restoration procedure in a distribution system with normally open
points. (a) Normal operation, (b) fault clearing, (c) interruption,
(d) isolating the fault, (e) restoring the supply. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
7.7 Industrial power system with redundancy through automatic switching 401
7.8 Primary selective supply 403
7.9 Secondary selective supply 403
7.10 Construction and principle of operation of a static transfer switch 404
7.11 Distribution network with redundancy through parallel operation 406
7.12 Three supply alternatives for an industrial plant: radial (left), looped
(center), and parallel (right) 408
7.13 Sag magnitude as a function of fault position for faults in the system
shown in Fig. 7.12. Solid line: faults on the 25km branch of a 125km loop;
dashed line: faults on the 100km branch of a 125km loop; dotted line:
faults on a radial feeder 408
7.14 Busbar fed from two different busbars at a higher voltage level. 410
7.15 Sag magnitude as a distance to the fault, without (solid line) and with
(dashed line) a connection to a second substation at a higher voltage level. . 411
7.16 Exposed length for radial supply (solid line) and for a connection to a
second substation at a higher voltage level: same number of feeders
from both substations (dashed line); twice as many feeders from the
second substation (dash-dot line) 411
7.17 Low-voltage spot network 412
7.18 Low-voltage distributed grid 413
7.19 Industrial spot network 413
0 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
7.20 Spot network at subtransmission level: 400 kV (thick lines) and 275kV
(thin lines) system in the North of England. (Data obtained from [177].) ... 414
7.21 Sag magnitude in transmission and subtransmission systems. Solid line:
transmission substation 1, dashed line: transmission substation 2,
dotted line: subtransmission 415
7.22 Sag magnitude versus distance for different generator sizes. The ratio
between transformer and generator impedance used was 0 (solid line), 0.2
(dashed line), 0.4 (dash-dot line), and 0.8 (dotted line) 416
7.23 Critical distance versus magnitude for different generator sizes. The ratio
between transformer and generator impedance used was 0 (solid line),
0.2 (dashed line), 0.4 (dash-dot line), and 0.8 (dotted line) 417
7.24 Reduction in sag frequency due to the installation of an on-site generator.
The ratio between transformer and generator impedance used was 0.2
(dashed line), 0.4 (dash-dot line), and 0.8 (dotted line) 418
7.25 Industrial power system with islanding option 418
7.26 Three-phase voltage-source converter 419
7.27 Series voltage controller 420
7.28 Circuit diagram with power system, series controller, and load 421
7.29 Active power requirement for a series voltage controller, for different
impedance angles (ex = 0, -20°, -40°, -60°) and different lagging power
factors: 1.0 (solid lines), 0.9 (dashed lines), 0.8 (dash-dot lines),
O. 7 (dotted lines) 422
7.30 Phasor diagram for a series voltage controller. Dashed line: with negative
phase-angle jump. Solid line: without phase-angle jump. . 422
7.31 Active power requirement for a series voltage controller, for different
impedance angles (ex=O, -20°, -40°, -60°) and different leading power
factors: t.O (solid lines), 0.9 (dashed lines), 0.8 (dash-dot lines),
0.7 (dotted lines) 423
7.32 Active power requirements for a single-phase series voltage controller, for.
two phases of a type C unbalanced sag, for impedance angle zero (left)
and -30° (right). Power factor 1.0 (solid lines), 0.9 (dashed),
0.8 (dash-dot), 0.7 (dotted) 425
7.33 Active power requirements for a single-phase series voltage controller for
two phases of a type D unbalanced sag, for impedance angle zero
(left) and -30° (right). Power factor 1.0 (solid lines), 0.9 (dashed),
0.8 (dash-dot), 0.7 (dotted) 425
7.34 Active power requirements for a single-phase series voltage controller
as a function of the sag magnitude-for zero impedance angle and four
values of the power factor of the load current. 426
7.35 Active power requirements for a single-phase series voltage controller as
a function of the sag magnitude-for an impedance angle equal to -30°
and four values of the power factor of the load current. 426
as a function of the missing voltage-for zero impedance angle and four
as a function of the missing voltage-for an impedance angle equal to
-30 and four values of the power factor of the load current
0
427
7.38 Part of the complex (voltage) plane protected by a series voltage controller
with the indicated voltage rating 428
7.39 Voltage-tolerance curve without (dashed line) and with (solid line) series
voltage controller. The design point gives the lowest magnitude and the
longest duration which the load-controller combination is able to tolerate. . 428
7.40 Series voltage controller with upstream load during an interruption 429
7.41 Shunt voltage controller 430
7.42 Circuit diagram with power system, series controller, and load. Full circuit
(top), voltages without controller (center), effect of the controller (bottom). 431
7.43 Active power injected by a shunt voltage controller, for different
impedance angles (0, -20° -40°, -60°) and different source impedances:
0.1 pu (solid line), 0.05 pu (dashed line), 0.033 pu (dash-dot line), 0.025 pu
(dotted line). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
7.44 Reactive power injected by a shunt voltage controller, for different
impedance angles (0, -20°, -40°, -60°) and different source impedances:
0.1 pu (solid line), 0.05 pu (dashed line), 0.033 pu (dash-dot line), 0.025 pu
(dotted line). . 432
7.45 Magnitude of the current injected by a shunt voltage controller, for
different impedance angles (0, -20°, -40°, ~600) and different source
impedances: 0.1 pu (solid line), 0.05 pu (dashed line), 0.033 pu
(dash-dot line), 0.025 pu (dotted line). . 433
7.46 Phasor diagram for shunt voltage controller. Solid lines: without
phase-angle jump. Dashed lines: with phase-angle jump. . 433
7.47 Shunt-series-connected voltage controller: the shunt-connected converter
is placed on system side of the series controller 435
7.48 Shunt current for a shunt-series voltage controller, for different impedance
angles (0, -20°, -40°, -60°) and different leading power factors:
1.0 (solid lines), 0.9 (dashed lines), 0.8 (dash-dot lines), 0.7 (dotted lines)... 436
7.49 Shunt-series connected voltage controller: the shunt-connected converter
is placed on load side of the series controller 437
7.50 Shunt current for a single-phase shunt-series voltage controller as a
function of the sag magnitude, for zero impedance angle and four
7.51 Shunt current for a single-phase shunt-series voltage controller as a
function of the sag magnitude, for impedance angle -30° and four
7.52 Shunt-connected backup power source 439
7.53 Series-connected backup power source 439
7.54 Typical configuration of an uninterruptable power supply (UPS) 440
7.55 Power conversions for a UPS powering a computer, and for an
alternative solution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
7.56 UPS combined with backup generation to mitigate voltage sags,
short and long interruptions 442
7.57 Principle of motor-generator set. 443
7.58 Configuration of off-line UPS with diesel engine backup 443
7.59 Power electronic converters in combination with a motor-generator set. 444
7.60 Basic principle of the construction of an electronic tap changer 444
7.61 Basic principle of the construction of a ferroresonant transformer 445
7.62 Voltage versus current diagram for a saturable inductor (solid line)
and for a capacitor (dashed line) 445
7.63 Energy extraction from de storage capacitors 446
7.64 Configuration of a flywheel energy storage system and its interface to

the power system.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "448
7.65 Energy storage in a superconducting coil and interface with the power
system 450
7.66 Costs of superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) including
the power system interface, as a function of the amount of stored energy.
Appendix E: Tables
1.1 Harmonic Voltage Limits According to EN 50160 29

1.2 Harmonic Voltage Levels in Europe [83] ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.3 Probability of Voltage Exceeding Certain Levels 32
1.4 Voltage Characteristics as Published by Goteborg Energi 33
2.1 Distribution of Interruption Duration, 1996/97 Values for Various British

Utilities: Theory and Practice. Data obtained from [109] 40
2.2 Number of Interruptions per Customer per Year Xfor Some British
Utilities. Data obtained from [109] 41
2.3 Supply Unavailability q for Some British Utilities. Data obtained from
[109] 41
2.4 Contributions to the Supply Performance in Great Britain, 1995/96.
Data obtained from [109] 42
2.5 Supply Performance in The Netherlands, 1991-1995. Data obtained
from [110] 45
2.6 Suggest Values for Number of Component Outages and Failures [107] 47
2.7 Performance of U.K. Utilities over 1996/97. Data obtained from [109] 49
2.8 Design Recommendations for the U.K. Supply System. U.K.
Engineering Recommendation P2/5 [119] 49
2.9 Various Contributions to the Outage Rate of Transmission and
Distribution Components. Data obtained from [199] 56
2.10 Shape Factor for Weibull Distribution of Interruption Duration 68
2.11 Monte Carlo Simulation with 50% Probabilities 89
2.12 Influence of Number of Parallel Components on Interruption Rate 110
2.13 Influence of Aging and Maintenance Model on Interruption Rate . . . . . . . 113
3.1 Interruption Frequency (number of events per year) for Three Points in
the U.S. Distribution System. After data obtained from [54] 123
3.2 Interruption Frequency (per year) for Primary and Secondary Systems in
Canada. After data obtained from [69] 124
S2S
526 Appendix E • Tables
3.3 Interruption Frequency (per year) for Distribution and Low-Voltage

Systems in Norway. After data obtained from [67] 124
3.4 Number of Single and Multiple Interruptions per Year. NPL Low-Voltage
Survey. After data obtained from [54] 125
3.5 Voltages Due to Single-Phase Tripping, for Various Types of Load 134
3.6 Number of Short and Long Interruptions per Year on an Overhead
Distribution Feeder, With and Without Automatic Reclosure 138
4.1 Line and Cable Impedances for 11 kV Feeders Used in Figs. 4.16 and 4.17.
4.2 Upward Propagation of Sags 152
4.3 Source Impedance for the Supply Shown in Fig. 4.21, at a 100MVA Base. 155
4.4 Feeder Data for the Supply Shown in Fig. 4.21 155
4.5 Transformer Connections and Neutral Grounding for the Supply Shown
in Fig. 4.21 155
4.6 Critical Distance Calculation for the Network Shown in Fig. 4.21,
According to (4.14) 155
4.7 Voltage Sags in the System Shown in Fig. 4.41 168
4.8 Further Propagation of Sags 192
4.9 Four Types of Sags in Equation Form 194
4.10 Fault Type, Sag Type, and Load Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
4.11 Transformation of Sag Type to Lower Voltage Levels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
4.12 Sags Due to Two-Phase-to-ground Faults 196
4.13 Origin of Three-Phase Unbalanced Sags " 196
4.14 Transformation of Sag Type to Lower Voltage Levels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
5.1 Voltage-Tolerance Ranges of Various Equipment Presently in Use. As

given data obtained from IEEE Std. 1346 [22]. 255
5.2 Preferred Magnitudes and Duration for Equipment Immunity Testing
According to IEC-61000-4-11 [25] 256
5.3 Voltage Tolerance of Computers and Consumer Electronics Equipment:
Maximum-Allowable Duration of a Voltage Sag for a Given Minimum
Value of the DC Bus Voltage, for Two Values of the DC Voltage Ripple .. 260
5.4 Results of Voltage-Tolerance Testing of Adjustable-Speed Drives:
Number of Drives with the Indicated Performance. I: Only Drop in Speed;
II: Automatic Restart; III: Manual Restart. Data obtained from [47]. . ... 269
5.5 Influence of Loading on Drive Voltage Tolerance: Number of Drives
with the Indicated Performance. I: Only Drop in Speed; II: Automatic
Restart; III: Manual Restart. Data obtained from [47] 269
5.6 Results of Voltage-Tolerance Tests on Adjustable-Speed Drives. Data
obtained from [32] 270
5.7 Acceptance Criteria for Drives According to IEC 61800-3 [52] 271
5.8 Motor Terminal and DC Bus Voltages for AC Drives Due to a 50%
Type C Sag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
5.9 DC Drive Performance During Unbalanced Sags in Different Phases ..... 312
6.1 Number of Spurious Trips per Year for Four Design Alternatives 327
6.2 Total Costs per Year for Four Design Alternatives 327
Appendix E • Tables 527
6.3 Example of Sag Density Table: Number of Sags per Year. Data obtained
from [20] 330
6.4 Example of Cumulative Sag Table, Number of Sags per Year. Data.
obtained from Table 6.3 332
6.5 Comparison of Four Design Options for the Power Supply of a Personal
Computer 336
6.6 Cumulative Voltage Sag Table for CEA Secondary Side Data: Number
of Sags per Year. Data obtained from Dorr et al. [54] 343
6.7 Cumulative Voltage Sag Table for CEA Primary Side Data: Number of
Sags per Year. Data obtained from Dorr et al. [54] 343
6.8 Cumulative Voltage Sag Table for NPL Data Without Filter: Number of
Sags per Year. Data obtained from Dorr et al. [54] 346
6.9 Cumulative Voltage Sag Table for NPL Data with 5-minute Filter:
Number of Sags per Year. Data obtained from Dorr et al. [54] 346
6.10 Cumulative Voltage Sag Table for EPRI Feeder Data with 5-minute
Filter: Number of Sags per Year. Data obtained from Dorr et al. [54] .... 348
6.11 Cumulative Voltage Sag Table for EPRI Substation Data with 5-minute
Filter: Number of Sags per Year. Data obtained from Dorr et al. [54] .... 348
6.12 Number of Events with a Duration Less than 20 Cycles: NPL Survey (LV)
and EPRI Survey (Feeder, Substation). Data obtained from Dorr et al.
[54] 351
6.13 Cumulative Voltage Sag Table for EFI Data, All Low-Voltage Networks:
Number of Sags per Year. Data obtained from Seljeseth [67] 351
6.14 Cumulative Voltage Sag Table for EFI Data, All Distribution Networks:
Number of Sags per Year. Data obtained from Seljeseth [67] 352
6.15 Cumulative Voltage Sag Table for EFI Data, 95% Percentile for
Low-Voltage Networks: Number of Sags per Year. Data obtained from
Seljeseth [67] 352
6.16 Cumulative Voltage Sag Table for EFI Data, 95% Percentile for
Distribution Networks: Number of Sags per Year. Data obtained from
Seljeseth [67] 352
6.17 Distribution Over the Sites of the Number of Sags and Interruptions.
6.18 Minimum Monitoring Period Needed to Obtain a Given Accuracy 358
6.19 Fault Positions with Resulting Sag Magnitude and Duration 361
6.20 Fault Positions Sorted for Magnitude and Duration Bins 362
6.21 Table with Event Frequencies for Example of Method of Fault Positions .. 362
6.22 Cumulative Table for Example of Method of Fault Positions 362
6.23 Percentiles of the Sag Frequency Distribution Over the Busses in the
Reliability Test System 370
6.24 Influence of Generator Scheduling on the Sag Frequency in the Reliability
Test System, Number of Sags per Year below 65% 372
6.25 Results of Method of Critical Distances, Three-Phase Faults .. " 375
6.26 Method of Critical Distances-Phase-to-Phase Faults, Type C Sags 379
6.27 Method of Critical Distances-Phase-to-Phase Faults, Type D Sags 380
6.28 Method of Critical Distances-Single-Phase Faults, Solidly Grounded
System 382
6.29 Method of Critical Distances-Single-Phase Faults, Resistance-Grounded
System 384
528 Appendix E • Tables
7.1 Various Types of Redundancy in Power System Design 397

7.2 Exposed Length for Various Equipment Voltage Tolerances for Radial
Operation in Fig. 7.12 408
7.3 Exposed Length for Various Equipment Voltage Tolerances for Looped
7.4 Exposed Length for Various Equipment Voltage Tolerances for Parallel
7.5 Number of Batteries (in brackets) and Costs Needed to Power
Several Load Sizes for Several Ridethrough Times 448
7.6 Costs Comparison of SMES, BESS, and Capacitors 451
Index
(n - 1) criterion, 53, 406, 409 Advanced Static Var Compensator, see

II kV overhead line, voltage sag due to ASVC
fault at, 149-150, 201-202 Adverse weather, 55-56, 58
11 kV underground cable, voltage sag due effect on reliability, 58, 108-110
to fault at, 150, 202-204 effect on sag frequency, 359
11 kV, voltage sag due to fault at, 164-165, Aging, 98-101
374 component data, 101
132 k V, voltage sag due to fault at, effect on reliability, 111-113
150-151, 161 Air conditioning, voltage tolerance, 296
275/400 kV, voltage sag due to fault at, Alternative supply, 57
167-177 Annual peak load, 51
33 kV system, design, 405 Arc furnace, 9
33 kV, voltage sag due to fault at, 150-151 source of interharmonics, 12-13
400 kV, exposed length, 386-387 source of noise, 14
400 kV, voltage sag due to fault at, 159-160 Arcing fault, 117
Armature capacitance, sag mitigation
through, 317
A Armature voltage control range, 302
AC control relay, voltage tolerance, 255, As-bad-as-old, 100
264 ASD
AC drive, 266-300, 459. See also ASD acceptance criterion for testing, 271
operation principle, 266-267 average voltage tolerance, 270
theoretical analysis of balanced sags, manufacturers data on voltage tolerance,
272-274 270-271
theoretical analysis of utibalanced sags, measurement of voltage tolerance,
274-292 267-270
voltage tolerance, 255, 265-300 source of harmonics, 12
voltage-tolerance curve, 294-296 source of voltage notching, 13
Adequacy, 54 voltage tolerance, 126, 338, 395
Adjustable-speed AC drive, see AC drive As-good-as-new, 100
Adjustable-speed DC drive, see DC drive ASVC, 430
Adjustable-speed drive, see ASD Asynchronous transfer, 402
529
530 Index
Automatic reclosing, 115, 117, 350, 398,456 Compatibility

Automatic restart equipment and supply, 325-328
adjustable-speed drive, 126, 296-299 levels, 25
induction motor, 126 stochastic assessment, 325
Automatic restoration, duration or event, 20 Complex missing voltage, 234
Auxiliary supply, reliability, 50 Complex voltage, range due to three-phase
Availability, 65, 69 faults, 206
Complex voltage at the equipment
terminals, 207
B range due to phase-to-phase faults,
Backup power source, 438-439 213-214
Backup protection, 393 range due to single-phase faults, 219
Bad weather, see Adverse weather range due to two-phase-to-ground faults,
Bathtub curve, 67, 98, 99 226
circuit breaker, 101 Component age, effect on failure rate,
transformer, 101 98-99
Battery, use as energy reservoir, 447 Computer
Battery energy storage system, see BESS alternative design, 441
Belgium, 150 kV, 165, 414 Japanese voltage tolerance study, 262
BESS, 438-439, 447 measurement of voltage tolerance,
Blinking-clock syndrome, 127 261-263
Branch from loop, effect on sag magnitude,
theoretical analysis of voltage tolerance,
163-165
257-261
Break-before-make, 401, 405
typical power supply, 257
Bus splitting, 164-165, 394
U.S. voltage tolerance study, 262
voltage tolerance, 255, 335, 338
C Computer Business Equipment
Canada, See also CEA survey, EPRI survey Manufacturers Association, see
lightning, 347 CDEMA
Canadian Electrical Assocation, see CEA Conducted disturbances, 24
Capacitor, DC storage, 446 Constant-voltage transformer, 445
Capacitor bank switching, 8, 9, 32, 390 Consumer electronics, voltage tolerance,
cause of voltage sag, 249 256-257, 260, 338, 395
cause of voltage step, 18 Contactor, voltage tolerance, 321-322, 395
eBEMA 263 Contour chart, 333
curve, 254, 263 Contract, between utilities and customers,
CEA survey, 124, 342, 343-345, 347 48,337,456
Central-limit theorem, 96 Control system, DC drives, 307-308,
Characteristic complex voltage, 207, 458 317-318
Characteristic phase-angle jump, 207 Controlled rectifier, 248
single-phase fault, 216-218 sag mitigation through, 299
Characteristic sag magnitude, 207 Controller for AC drive, voltage tolerance,
from monitoring, 207-209 285
single-phase fault, 216-218 Convergence parameter, 97-98
CHP, 58, 120, 394, 415 Coordination chart, see Voltage sag,
CIGRE, 30, 47 coordination chart
Circuit breaker Cosine rule, 204, 210, 212, 223, 225
bathtub curve, 101 Costs of interruption, 101-106
failure, 69-70 costs versus reliability, 102
Combined heat and power, see CHP rated to the annual consumption, 104
Common-mode noise, 14 rated to the peak load, 104
Common-mode outages, 55 Swedish data, 105
Commutation, 248 Costs per interrupted kW, 104
failure, 315-317 Costs per kWh not delivered, 104
Index 531
Covered wires, 391 Distorted type C sag, 283

Critical distance, 152-153, 373 Distributed grid network, 412
embedded generation, 417 Distribution system
in spot networks, 410 contribution to unavailability, 43
method of, 373-387, 460 effect of single-phase tripping, 128
Critical fraction, 385 sag due to fault in, 168, 169, 396
Critical phase-angle jump, 385 short interruption, 123
Critical voltage, 152, 373 Distribution system design, 8, 400, 405. See
Cumulative sag table, 331-332 also Power system design
Current event, 6. See also Voltage event books on, 397
Current-limiting fuse, 168, 169, 391, 394, protection, 392
412 reliability, 56-58, 61
Current magnitude variation, 8-9 Dormant fail-to-trip, 78
Current phase variation, 9 dq frame, 303
Current quality, 5, 453 Duration
effect of voltage controller, 435, 438 definition, 336
Current unbalance, 9 voltage sag, 168-173
in AC drive, due to voltage unbalance, Duration of interruption, 115, 121
285-289 distribution system, 57
Current variation, 6-14. See also Voltage DVR, 420-430
variation Dynamic system behavior, effect on
Custom power, 420, 454 reliability, 54-55
Cut-set, 72 Dynamic voltage restorer, see DVR
Cycloconverters, source of interharmonics,
12
II
EFI survey, 15, 24, 27-29, 124, 343,
D 351-352, 356
DC bus capacitance with AC drives Electric Power Research Institute, see EPRI
effect on DC bus voltage, 275-281 Electromagnetic compatibility, see EMC
effect on motor speed, 295 Electromagnetic environment, 24, 25-26, 32
effect on voltage tolerance, 273-274 Norway, 352
typical values, 273 Electromechanical transient, 407
DC drive, 303-318, 459. See also ASD Electronic alarm, voltage tolerance, 127
effect of balanced sags, 303-308 Electronic equipment, voltage tolerance, 127
effect of unbalanced sags, 308-312 Electronic load, effect on voltage sag, 458
immunity against notching, 303 Electronic tap-changer, 444-445
operation principles, 300-303 Embedded generation, 120, 415-419
voltage tolerance, 300--318 critical distance, 384
DC network, 441 effect on reliability, 50, 58, 415
Dead time, see Reclosing interval effect on voltage sag, 156-160, 371,
Delayed automatic restart, AC drives, 297 393-394,415-417, 458
Delta-connected load, effect on voltages EMC, 6, 24-29, 453
during single-phase tripping, 131-132 definition, 5, 24
Dependability, 54 events, 27-29
Derated state, effect on reliability, 52 terminology, 24-26
Deregulation, 3 variations, 26-27
Desktop computer, voltage tolerance, 253, Emergency generator, 418
256 mitigation of interruptions through, 396
Diesel generator, use for voltage-tolerance Emission, 3, 6, 24, 25
testing, 256 level, 25
Differential-mode noise, 14 EMTP, 242
Differential protection, 168 EN 50160, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29-34, 116, 455
Direct costs, 102 95% limits, 31-32
Distance protection, 168 events, 30
532 Index
EN 50160 (cont'd) F
future developments, 33-34 FACTS, 10,420
interruptions, 48 Fail-to-trip, 83
limitations, 32-33 Failure, definition, 36
measurements, 33 Failure data
scope, 32-33 large surveys, 47
voltage variations, 29-30 suggested values, 47
Energy storage, sag mitigation through, 299, Failure event, 63
446 Failure rate, 64, 65, 66
EPRI survey, 123, 342-343, 348-351 contributions, 56
Equal-area-criterion, 321 time dependencies, 98-100
Equipment Fast Fourier transform, see FFT
emission, see Emission Fast reclosing, short interruption due to,
failure, effect on reliability, 62 329
immunity, see Immunity Fast voltage event, 19
malfunction due to harmonic distortion, Fault clearing, 115
11 Fault level
maltrip, 389 effect on sag magnitude, 151-152
specification, sag mitigation through, 395 typical values in the U.K., 152
testing, 205, 459-460 Fault location, 400
voltage tolerance, see Voltage tolerance Fault positions, method of, 359-373, 387,
ETBF, see Expected time between failures 460
ETTF, see Expected time to failure Fault-clearing time, 118, 168
Event, 453 sag mitigation through reduced, 391-393
compatibility level, 27-29 Fault-current limiters, 391
duration, generalized definition, 237 Ferroresonance, 19
list, 93-95 Ferroresonant transformer, 445
Example supply FFT, 142, 143, 199
11 kV fault, 179-182 Field weakening range, 302
132 kV fault, 178-179 Firing angle, 302, 314, 315
33 kV fault, 183-184, 239 Five-minute filter, 125, 345
400 kV fault, 159-160 Flexible AC transmission systems, see
critical distance, 154-155 FACTS
description, 153-156 Flicker, see Light flicker
phase-angle jump, 206 Flywheels, 448-449
phase-to-phase fault, 183-184, 214-216 Forced braking, 297
sag magnitude, 153-156 Forced outage, 36
Forced unavailability, 51
single-phase fault, 178-179, 179-182,
Fourier transform, see FFT
219-222
Free-firing point, 302
single-phase load, 215-216, 221-222,
Frequency deviation, see Voltage frequency
226-227
variation
three-phase fault, 153-156
Frequency transients, 8
three-phase load, 214-215, 219-221
Fundamental voltage, use for sag
two-phase-to-ground fault, 226-227
characterization, 142-143, 146, 171,
Expected time between failures, 65
200
Expected time to failure, 64, 65
Fuse clearing, cause of voltage event, 19,
Expected time to repair, 64, 65
396
Exponential distribution, 40, 93
Fuse saving, 117-118
use for life time distributions, 67-68
use for repair time distributions, 68
Exposed area, 374 G
Exposed length, 374 Generation, see Embedded generation
in spot network, 411 Generation reliability, 51-53, 59-60
Expulsion fuse, 117, 168, 392, 412 Geomagnetically-induced currents, 13
Index 533
Gold Book, see IEEE Std. 493 IEEE Std. 493, 50, 68, 146, 333, 337, 360,
Goteborg Energi, 33 455
Guaranteed standards of service, 49 IEEE Std. 519,23,26
IEEE Std. 859, 116
IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 50
H IGBT, 299
Harmonic distortion, 3, 10-12, 23, 25 Imbalance, see Voltage unbalance
books on, 11 Immunity, 2, 6, 24, 25. See also Voltage
burst of, 61 tolerance
compatibility level, 26 level, 25
due to voltage-source converter, 419 sag mitigation through improved, 395,
effect of voltage controller, 435 460
EN 50160, 29 Impedance angle, 204--205
European levels, 29, 30 effect on critical distance, 375-377
example, 11, 12 Impedance-grounded system, voltage sag
mitigation by power electronics, 420 due to fault in, 177-178
monitoring, 357 Impulsive transient, 19
Healthy state, 62 Incorrect protection intervention, see
Heating controllers, source of Protection maltrip
interharmonics, 12
Indirect costs, 102
Hidden failure, 78
Induction generator, effect on short
Monte Carlo model, 94
interruption, 120
Hierarchical levels, 50, 457
Induction machine, effect on load transfer,
industrial systems, 59,457
401
High-frequency conducted disturbances, 61
Induction motor current, 244
High-frequency voltage noise, 14
Induction motor
High-impedance fault, voltage sag due to,
immunity against single-phase tripping,
227-230
128
High-pressure sodium lamps, voltage
immunity against unbalance, 9
tolerance, 322-323
voltage' tolerance, 126, 318-319
HVDC, source of harmonics, 10
Induction motor load
effect on AC drives, 282-285
I effect on short interruption, 120
IEC 61000-1-1, 5 effect on voltage sags, 157, 172, 238, 336
IEC 61000-2-3, 23 effect on voltages during single-phase
IEC 61000-3-2, 25, 454, 455 tripping, 132-133
IEC 61000-3-3, 25 Industrial power system, 115, 158, 164-165,
IEC 61000-3-4, 454 240
IEC 61000-3-5, 25 design, 40 I, 406, 413
IEC 61000-3-6, 25 protection, 392
IEC 61000-3-7, 25 reliability, 58-62, 397,457
IEC 61000-4-1, 25 Industrial site, scatter diagram, 329
IEC 61000-4-11, 255-256 Information Technology Industry Council,
IEC 61800-3, 271 see ITIC
IEEE Industry Applications Society, 47, Initial complex voltage, 207
397 Initial phase-angle jump, 207
IEEE Power Engineering Society, 397 single-phase fault, 216-218
IEEE project group, 1159.2,455 Initial sag magnitude, 207
IEEE SCC22, 4, 5 single-phase fault, 216-218
IEEE Std. 1100, 5 INSPEC, 2
IEEE Std. 1159, 21, 23, 35, 116, 146 Inspection frequency, 391
IEEE Std. 1250, 35, 116 Instantaneous interruption, 116
IEEE Std. 1346, 23, 146, 254, 255, 256, 333, Institute of Electrical Engineers, 397
455 Insulation level, 391
534 Index
Interharmonics, 12-13 Load shedding scheme, 401

Interruption, 17-18, 453 Load switching
accidental, 17 cause of overvoltage, 19
average duration, 39 cause of voltage sag, 249, 345-346
criterion, 63-64 cause of voltage step, 18
data collection, 38 multiple events, 345-346
definition, 20, 36 Load transfer, 400-405
duration, 39, 391 motor load, 401
distribution of, 40-41, 46 Load variation, 8
distribution systems, 57 LOLE, 51, 52
Great Britain, 40, 42, 48, 49 Long event, 20
limits, 48-50 Long interruption, 35-50, 456
The Netherlands, 40-41, 45 causes, 36-37
frequency, see Number of interruptions definition, 35, 116
scheduled, 17, 37 EN 50160, 30
Interruptor, 392 standards, 48-50
Inverse-time overcurrent relay, 393 statistics, 37-47
Inverter, sag mitigation through improved, stochastic prediction, 359
299-300 Loop system, effect on voltage sag,
Island operation, 120,417-418,441 160-163, 405-409
Italy, 150 kV, 414 Loss-of-grid protection, 120
ITIC, 263 Loss of load expectation, see LOLE
ITIC curve, 263 Low voltage system
contribution to unavailability, 43
design," 400, 412
J
effect of single-phase tripping, 128
Japan, supply performance, 356
reliability, 397
rural area, 397
K short interruptions, 123
Kirchhoff's current law, 166, 185
M
L Magnitude-duration bin, 330
Laptop computers, voltage tolerance, 253 Magnitude-duration plot, 20, 169-170, 328
Laterals, 117 Magnitude unbalance, 9
Level I reliability, see Generation reliability Mains marking signals, 13
Level II reliability, see Transmission system Mains signalling voltage, 13
reliability Maintenance, 36, 37
Level III reliability, see Distribution system as-good-as-new or as-bad-as-old, 100
reliability effect on failure rate, 100-101
Life time, exponential distribution, 67-68 effect on reliability, 51-52
probability density function, 66 frequency, 391
probability distribution function, 66 generator reliability, 51
Light flicker, 9, 26 Monte Carlo model, 94-95
due to interharmonics, 13 protection, 78, 84
Lightning, 116-117 time, effect of aging, 99
Canada, 347 Major storm disaster, 55
voltage tolerance, 322-323 Make-before-break, 401, 403, 405
Lightning stroke Maltrip, Monte Carlo model, 94
cause of overvoltage, 19, 355 Manual restart, AC drives, 296
voltage sags due to, 352, 391 Manual restoration, duration of event, 20
Line overloading, 55 Markov model, 80-89,99,457
Load-duration curve, effect on reliability, 52 approximated solution for large systems,
Load flow calculation, importance in . 87-89
transmission reliability, 53 exact solution for large systems, 86-87
Index 535
general expressions, 81 voltage sag due to, 139, 248-251, 329,

hidden failures in a protective relay, 357,390,407
82-84 Motor terminal voltages, in AC drive
operating reserve, 82 during voltage sag, 290-292
steady-state calculation, 82 Multiple events
two-component model, 84-85 counting, 124--125
Mechanical load transfer, 401 effect on event frequency, 345-347
Medium-voltage system, see Distribution
system
Meshed system, sag calculations in, N
166-168, 230-231 National Power Laboratory, see NPL
Method of critical distance, see Critical Negative-exponential distribution, see
distance Exponential distribution
Method of fault positions, see Fault Negative-sequence network, 130, 174
positions Negative-sequence unbalance, 9
Microwave oven, voltage tolerance, 127, 256 Negative-sequence voltage, drop in, 283
Minimum cut-set, 72-77 Network protector, 412
Minutes lost per customer, see Node admittance matrix, 167
Unavailability Node impedance matrix, 166, 167
Missing pulses, 314, 317 Nominal environment, 22
Missing voltage, 234-238, 404, 458 Non-characteristic harmonics, 248
distribution of, 237-238 Non-controlled rectifiers, voltage tolerance,
in time domain, 234-237 338
Momentary interruption, 116. See also short Nonexponential distribution, 457
interruption Nonhealthy state, 62
Monitoring, 342-359, 458, 461 Nonlinear load, cause of harmonics, 10
compatibility levels, 27 Nonlinearity, cause of overvoltage, 19
events, 16 Non-material inconvenience, 102
Non-rectangular equipment voltage
period, required, 357-359
tolerance, 333, 338
short period, 355-356
Non-rectangular sag, 330
variations, 6
stochastic prediction, 360
voltage sag, 140-147, 170-173, 199-201,
in voltage sag coordination chart,
208-209, 231-238, 244, 246
336-338
Monte Carlo simulation, 6, 89-99, 457
Non-regulated DC voltage, 257, 261
convergence test, 97-98
Nonsinusoidal, see Harmonic distortion
errors, 95-96
Nonsynchronous restart, AC drives,
hidden failure event, 94 297-298
maintenance events, 94-95 Nordic transmission system, 254
maltrip event, 94 Normal distribution, 31, 96,358
protection intervention event, 94 Normal weather, 55, 109
repair event, 94 Normally open point, 398-399
short circuit event, 94 Norway, see also EFI survey
stopping criterion, 96-97 electromagnetic environment, 342
time distribution, 92--93 transient overvoltages, 15, 27-29
use for voltage sags, 360 Notching, see Voltage notching
Motor-generator set, 394, 442-444 NPL survey, 121, 123, 125, 335, 342,
Motor load, effect on voltage sag, 458 345-348, 355
Motor speed for AC drives Number of interruptions, 37, 39, 121, 123,
effect of balanced sags, 292-294 125, 390
effect of unbalanced sags, 294-296 Great Britain, 38, 41, 42, 43
Motor starter, voltage tolerance, 255 limits, 48
Motor starting, 248-251 publication of, 456
place in magnitude-duration plot, 169 The Netherlands, 37, 45
536 Index
o effect on equipment, 459

OFFER, 37,48,49 effect on missing voltage, 234
Office of electricity regulation, see OFFER effect on voltage controller, 422, 428, 433,
On-site generation, see Embedded 436
generation at the equipment terminals, due to phase-
Open circuit, see Single-phase open circuit to-phase fault, 210-211
fault stochastic prediction, 360, 384-385
Operating reserve Phase-locked loop, see PLL
Markov model, 82 Phase-to-phase fault
stochastic assessment, 52-53 critical distance, 378-381
Operator intervention, 17, 37 voltage sag due to, 182-184, 189-190,
Oscillatory transient, 19 209-216, 222-227
Outage, 36 Planned interruption, see Scheduled
Outage rate, see Failure rate interruption
Outage state, see Nonhealthy state Planning levels, 26
Overall standards of service, 40, 48 PLC, voltage tolerance, 255
Overcurrent protection, 168, 399 PLL, 303, 312-313, 318
of AC drives, 272 Point-of-common coupling, see PCC
time grading, 392 Point-on-wave, 231-234, 322, 458
Overhead distribution network, 115, 116 coordination chart, 341
Overhead feeders, system design, 398-399 Poisson distribution, 327, 357
Overhead line Positive-sequence network, 130, 147
protection, 392 Post-fault voltage sag, 172, 237, 240-241,
replace by underground cable, 391 336
Overload, cause of voltage sags, 139 Potential maltrip, 78
Overload models, use in transmission Power electronic converters, voltage
reliability, 53 tolerance, 198
Overloading of lines, effect on reliability, 53 Power electronic load, effect on voltage sag,
Overvoltage, 18-19, 20 248
Power frequency variation, see Voltage
p frequency variation
Paper mill, 139 Power-line-carrier signals, 13
Parallel components, reliability evaluation, Power quality, 1-34, 453
110-111 books on, I
Parallel feeder contract, see Contract
critical distance for, 385 definitions, 5
voltage sag due to fault at, 163, 405-409 early publications, 2
Parallel operation across voltage levels, 165, future, 454
365 including in reliability evaluation, 61-62,
PCC, 148-149, 152 461
Peak voltage, use for sag characterization, interest in, 2
143-144, 145, 171 monitors, see Monitoring
Performance criterion, 25, 271 number of publications, 2
Permanent outage, 116 phenomena, overview, 6-22
Personal computer, see Computer responsibility for, 3
Phase unbalance, 9 standards, 22-34
Phase-angle jump, 19, 198-207 standards, purpose, 3, 22-23
at the equipment terminals, 207 survey, see Monitoring
coordination chart, 339-340 Power station, voltage tolerance, 254
critical distance for, 384-385 Power system design, 397-419, 462
due to load transfer, 405 U.K. recommendations, 49
effect on ac drives, 277 Power system protection, see Protection
effect on critical distance, 375--377 Power system reliability, see Reliability
effect on de drives, 312-315 evaluation
Index 537
Pre-event voltage, 235-236 Rectangular voltage-tolerance curve, 338.

Preventive maintenance, see Maintenance See a/so voltage-tolerance curve
Primary selective supply, 107-108, 403 Rectifier for DC drives, sag mitigation
Probability density function, 7, 16, 17 through improved, 318
average unavaila bility, 43 Redundancy, types of, 397-398
component life time, 66 Regenerative mode, DC drive, 316
interruption duration, 41, 46 Regulated DC voltage, 257, 261
number of equipment trips, 327-328 Relays, voltage tolerance, 395
short interruptions, 122 Reliability evaluation, 47, 325, 359, 457
Probability distribution function, 7, 16, 17, adverse weather, 108-110
27 aging and maintenance, 111-113
component life time, 66 basic techniques, 62-101
short interruptions, 122 books, 50
Process control equipment, voltage comparison with observation, 106-107,
tolerance, 256, 264-265 457
Protection, 391-393, 407
event-based approach, 77-80
DC drives, 308
example calculations, 107-113
fail to operate, 54, 366
extention to power quality, 16, 61-62
failure, 55, 366
Markov models, 80-89
grading margin, 393
Monte Carlo simulation, 89-98
intervention by the, 17, 36
loss of selectivity, 393 network approach, 69-77
maltrip, 17, 36-37, 54, 115, 120 overview, 50-62
Markov model for hidden failures, 82-84 parallel components, 110-111
Monte Carlo model, 94 publication overviews, 50
reliability, 53-54 short interruptions, 136-138
state-based stochastic model, 78 standardized, 457
transmission system, 393 state-based approach, 77-80
Pseudo-random number generator, 91 Reliability test system, 367
Pull-out torque, 318 Remote switching, 400
Pulse area modulation, 300 Renewal theory, 99
Pulse width modulation, see PWM Repair
PWM, 266, 289, 300,419,459 duration of event, 20
Monte Carlo model, 94
Repair event, 63
Q Repair rate, 64, 65
Quality of consumption, 6 Repair time
Quality of power supply, see Quality of effect of aging, 99
supply
exponential distribution, 68
Quality of service, 5
Weibull distribution, 68
Quality of supply, 5, 46
Repetitive events, problems with
characterization, 21
R Replacement, duration of event, 20
Radial system, reliability evaluation, 56-57 Resistance-grounded system. See a/so
Radiated disturbances, 24 Impedance-grounded system
Railway traction supply, 9 critical distance, 382
Random failures, 98 voltage sag due to fault in, 179-182, 186,
Random Monte Carlo simulation, 89, 91-92 229-230
Random number generator, 89,90-91 Restore event, 63
Rapid voltage change, see Voltage Ripple control signals, 13
magnitude step RMS voltage, 19,453
Reclosing. See also Automatic reclosing use for sag characterization, 141-142,
effect on fault-clearing time, 392 145, 171
Reclosing interval, 117, 118 Root mean square, see RMS
538 Index
S Signalling voltages, EN 50160, 30

Safety considerations, with automatic Sine rule, 212, 223
restart of drives, 297 Single redundancy, 406
Sag, see voltage sag Single-phase fault
Sag density table, 330-331 cause of overvoltage, 19
Sag initiation, 171,231-233 critical distance, 381-384
Sag magnitude voltage sag due to, 174-182, 187-190,
calculation, 147-168 216-222, 228-230, 242-244, 288, 350
definition, 206-207, 331, 336 Single-phase open circuit fault, 129-133
at the equipment terminals, 207 Single-phase rectifier
due to phase-to-phase fault, 210-211 de bus voltage during voltage sag,
from monitoring, 145-147 258-259
in non-radial system, 156-168 voltage tolerance, 256-265
in radial system, 147-156 Single-phase tripping, 127-135, 456
voltage divider, 148-149 SINTEF Energy Research, see EFI
Sag mitigation through improved ac drives, SMES, 438-439,450
298-300 Solar cell, 441
Sag mitigation through improved de drives, Solidly grounded system, 178
317-318 critical distance, 381
Scatter diagram, 328-330 voltage sag due to fault in, 177, 178,
power quality survey, 329 228-229
Scheduled interruption, 17, 37 Spark gap, triggering due to lightning, 355
Scheduled outage, 36 Spot network, effect on voltage sag,
Scheduled unavailability, 51 409--415
Scottish Power, 173 Standard deviation, 97
Secondary network, 4 12 Standby generation, 418
Secondary-selective supply, 108, 403 Star-connected load, effect on voltages
Security, 54, 60 during single-phase tripping, 131
Self-commutating device, 299, 318 StatCom, 430-435
Self-restoring events, 20 StatCon, 430
Sensors, voltage tolerance, 395 Static circuit breaker, 391
Sequential Monte Carlo distribution, 90, Static Compensator, 430
93-95 Static Condensor, 430
Shielding wires, 391 Static load, effect on voltages during single-
Short circuit, 36 phase tripping, 131-132
cause of equipment maltrip, 389 Static switch, 444
cause of voltage sag, 139, 140, 329 use in UPS, 443
frequency, 390 Static transfer switch, 2, 404
Monte Carlo model, 94 Stochastic assessment, voltage sags,
Short event, 20 325-387, 460
Short interruption, 115-138, 456 Stochastic component, 62-63
definition, 35, 116 detailed model, 66
due to single-phase tripping, 127-135 four-state model, 77
effect on equipment, 125-127 general model, 64-66
EN 50160, 30 two-component model, 84-85
mitigation, 394 two-state model, 80-82
monitoring, 121-125, 330 Stochastic network, 69-77
multiple events, 345-346 Stochastic parallel connection, 71-72, 86
need for backup power source, 439 Stochastic prediction, see Reliability
origin, 116-121 evaluation
place in magnitude-duration chart, 169, Stochastic series connection, 71, 85-86
329 Subharmonic distortion, 12
stochastic assessment, 136-138 Subtransmission system
terminology, 115-116 design, 406
Index 539
sag due to fault in, 396 effect on de drive, 309-312

Supercapacitors, 448 induction motor influence, 241-248
Superconducting coil, 449-452 origin of different types, 194, 196
Supply interruption, see Interruption propagation to lower voltage levels,
Supply performance, Japan, 356 190-193, 194, 197
Surge suppressor, 454 stochastic prediction, 360
Sustained interruption, 116. See a/so long Tie switch, see Normally open point
interruption Time-frequency analysis, 142
Sweden Time since maintenance, effect on failure
130 kV, 165, 414 rate, 99, 100
costs of interruption, 105 Time since repair, effect on failure rate, 99
Swell, see Voltage swell Total harmonic distortion, see THO, 26
Switching, cause of fast voltage event, 19 Transfer switch, failure, 108
Switching transient, 454 Transfer time, maximum, 400
Symmetrical component analysis, 129, 174, Transformer impedance, effect on sag
208, 243-247, 282-283, 291, 292 magnitude, 374
Synchronous generator, effect on short Transformer overloading, 36
interruption, 120 Transformer saturation
Synchronous machine cause of harmonics, 10
effect of subharmonics, 12 due to subharmonics, 12
effect of unbalance, 9 Transformer tap-changer, 8, 32
effect on load transfer, 402 cause of voltage steps, 18
source of harmonics, 10 Transformers
Synchronous motor bathtub curve, 101
effect on short interruption, 120 effect on sag magnitude, 150-151, 152
voltage tolerance, 126, 319-321 effect on three-phase unbalanced sags,
Synchronous restart, ac drive, 297-298 190-193, 194, 197
Synchronous transfer scheme, 402 Transient, see transient overvoltage
Transient event, 20
T Transient fault, 116
Television, voltage tolerance, 256 Transient outage, definition, 116
Temporary interruption, definition, 116 Transient overvoltage, 14-16, 18, 61, 355
Temporary outage, definition, 116 compatibility level, 27-29
Temporary power frequency overvoltage, duration, 14
see voltage swell EN 50160,30
THO, 26 magnitude, 14
The Netherlands probability density function, 16, 17
150 kV, 414 probability distribution function, 16, 17
interruption data, 40-41, 45 statistics for Norway, 15, 27-29
Thevenin's superposition theorem, 166 Vt integral, 15
Three-phase diode rectifier, 266 Transient recovery voltage, 233
Three-phase fault Transient stability, 393
effect on ac drives, 272-274 effect on reliability, 60-61
voltage sag due to, 147-168, 198-206, Transmission system
227-228, 233, 238-248 protection, 393
Three-phase rectifier reliability, 53-56, 59, 397
effect on voltage sag, 248 U.S., 365, 414
immunity against unbalance, 9 voltage sags due to faults in, 3, 168, 169,
Three-phase unbalanced sag, 174-198, 396
206-231 Tree trimming, 391
characterization, 206-231 Two-phase-to-ground fault, voltage sag due
classification, 187-198 to, 184-187, 195-196, 222-227, 233
coordination chart, 339 Type A sag, 194
effect on ac drive, 274-292 Type B sag, 194
540 Index
Type C sag, 194, 196, 210-211, 218-219, Voltage characteristics, 26, 32

290-292,293,423,458 European standard, see EN 50160
critical distance, 378 Gothenburg, 33
effect on ac drives, 275-276, 278-279, 286 Voltage controller
effect on dc drives, 309, 312 interruptions, 429
Type D sag, 194, 196, 212-213, 218-219, series connection, 420-430
283, 291, 424, 458 shunt and series connection, 435-438
critical distance, 378 shunt connection, 430-435
effect on ac drives, 276-277, 279-281, 286 voltage tolerance, 427
sag, effect on de drives, 309-312 Voltage dip, see Voltage sag
Type E sag, 195, 196 Voltage disturbance, generated by
Type F sag, 195, 196, 222....224 equipment, see Emission
Type G sag, 195, 224-226 Voltage divider
for sag magnitude calculation, 148-149
U for single-phase faults, 174-175
U.K. three-phase model, t 78, 186
275 kV, 165, 414 Voltage event, 6, 14-22
fault levels, 152 EN 50160, 30
interruption data, 37, 38, 40-43, 48, 49 monitoring, 16
power system design recommendations Voltage flicker, 9
u.s. See also NPL survey; EPRI survey Voltage fluctuation, 9, 25, 357, 407
lightning, 347 compatibility level, 26
transmission system, 356, 414 effect of voltage controller, 435
Unavailability, 38, 39, 65, 69 EN 50160, 30
Great Britain, 38, 41, 42, 43 mitigation, 420
The Netherlands, 45 Voltage frequency variation, 8
Underfrequency, 36 EN 50160,30
Underground network, protection, 392 Voltage interruption, see Interruption
Undervoltage, 18, 20 Voltage magnitude event, 19-22, 389, 453
Undervoltage protection classification, 20-:21
ac drives, 272 due to reclosing, 118-119
induction motors, 126 duration, 20
synchronous motors, 126 rec classification, 21
Undervoltage relays, voltage tolerance, 338 IEEE classification, 22
Uniform distribution, 92 magnitude, 20
Uninterruptable power supply, see ups Voltage magnitude step, 17, 18,249
UNIPEDE, 146,394,396,404,439--442, EN 50160,30
454 Voltage magnitude variation, 7, 8
UPS 439-442 EN 50160, 29,31-32
against short interruptions, 127 probability density function, 7
combination with standby generation, probability distribution function, 7, 8
441-442 Voltage notching, 13, 61, 248, 303, 405
Useful operating time, 67, 98 Voltage quality, 25, 453
Utility, 3 definition, 5
number of publications, 2
V Voltage recovery, 171, 233, 238, 248, 261
Value of lost load, 104 synchronization of shunt voltage
Variation', 453. See also voltage variation controller, 434
Very long event, 20 Voltage sag, 18, 61, 118, 453, 458
Very long interruption, 57, 325 calculations, 147-168, 174-187, 201-206,
Very short event, 20 209-227, 244-248
Very short interruption, 122, 123-124, 269 characterization, 139-252, 458
Video recorder, voltage tolerance, 127, 256 compatibility level, 26
Voltage change, see Voltage magnitude step coordination chart, 254, 332-336, 460
Index 541
non-rectangular sags, 336-338 large installation, 256

duration, 168-173 Voltage transient, see Transient overvoltage
effect on equipment, 459 Voltage unbalance, 9, 19, 287-288
EN 50160,30 effect on ac drives, 287-288
equipment behavior, 253-324 EN 50160,30
frequency, 390 Voltage variation, 6-14
rsc definition, 18 monitoring, 6
IEEE definition, 18
load influence, 238-248, 458 W
magnitude, 140-168 Wave-shape fault, see Fast voltage event
Voltage-source converter, 419-420, 462 Wear-in period, 98 '
sag mitigation through, 394 Wear-out period, 98
source of harmonics, 419 Weather-related outages, see Adverse
Voltage spike, see Transient overvoltage weather
Voltage surge, see Transient overvoltage Weibull distribution, 66-67, 68, 93
Voltage swell, 18, 61, 144 Wind turbine, 120
EN 50160,30 Window length, 19
place in magnitude-duration chart, 329 Worst-case scenario, 325
Voltage tolerance, 253-256, 326, 333. See Worst-served customers, 456
also Immunity Written pole motor, 443
Voltage-tolerance curve, 253-255, 459
phase-angle jump, 340 Z
point-on-wave, 341 Zero-sequence network, 130, 174
Voltage-tolerance Zero-sequence voltage
performance, 254 effect on characteristic magnitude, 208
requirement, 254, 461 effect on voltage controller, 424
Voltage-tolerance test, 255-256 ZnO varistor, 355
About the Author
Math H. J. Bollen received an M.Sc. in electrical engineering and a Ph.D. in technical

science from Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands, in 1985 and 1989,
respectively.
From September 1989 to August 1992, Dr. Bollen was a research associate in the
Group of Electrical Energy Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, funded in
cooperation with Tilburg University. Research included such areas as reliability, pro-
tection, and design of industrial power systems, with the main emphasis on reliability
assessment. From September to December 1992, he was a visiting lecturer at the
University of The Netherlands Antilles, Curacao, Netherlands Antilles, where he
researched the reliability aspects of insular power systems. Dr. Bollen lectured on
PASCAL programming, telecommunications, and power system reliability. From
January to June 1993, he continued research with the Group of Electrical Energy
Systems funded by the University Board as a "highly-promising young researcher."
From July 1993 to August 1996, Dr. Bollen was a lecturer in the Department of
Electrical Engineering and Electronics, Electrical Energy and Power Systems Group,
University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology (UMIST), Manchester,
U.K. He lectured in such areas as electrical machines for mechanical engineering, power
quality, insular power systems, and reliability of power systems. His research consisted
of voltage sags in transmission and distribution systems, reliability, and power quality.
Since September 1996, he has been an associate professor in the Department of Electric
Power Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden.
A senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE),
Dr. Bollen is a member of "both the IEEE Power Engineering Society and the IEEE
Industrial Applications Society. He is chairman of Reliability Analysis Techniques
Working Group, co-chairman of the Gold Book Working Group and Power System
Reliability Subcommittee, and vice-chairman of the Voltage Sag Working Group in
IEEE's Industrial Applications Society. In October 1998, he was the recipient of the
ABB Energy Prize (Gunnar Engstrom Stipendiet) for work on power quality and
toward understanding of voltage sags.
543

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UNDERSTANDING POWER

IEEE Press Editorial Board

J. B. Anderson S. Furui P. Laplante

Kenneth Moore, Director ofI,EEE Press .

IEEE Industry Applications Society, Sponsor

IEEE Power Electronics Society, Sponsor

IEEE Power Engineering Society, Sponsor

Cover design: William T. Donnelly, WT Design

IEEE PRESS SERIES ON POWER ENGINEERING

Series Editorial Advisory Committee

Roy Billington Stephen A. Sebo George G. Karady

IEEE Industry Applications Society, Sponsor

IEEE Power Electronics Society, Sponsor

IEEE Power Engineering Society, Sponsor

P. M. Anderson, Series Editor

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronicformats. Some content

Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Confucius, The Analects, Book One, verse I

ELECTRIC POWER APPLICATIONS OF FUZZY SYSTEMS

RATING Of' ELECTRIC POWER CABLES: Ampacity Computations/or Transmission,

ANALYSIS OF FAULTED POWER SYSTEMS, Revised Printing

ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS: Design and Analysis, Revised Printing

POWER SYSTEM STABILITY, Volumes I, II, III

ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC MACHINERY

SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS

POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

POWER AND COMMUNICATION CABLES: Theory and Applications

CHAPTER 1 Overvlew of Power Quality and Power Quality

CHAPTER 2 Long Interruptions and Reliability Evaluation 35

2.2.4 Origin of Interruptions 43

CHAPTER 3 Short Interruptions 115

CHAPTER 4 Voltage Sags-Characterization 139

CHAPTER S Voltage Sags-Equipment Behavior 253

5.3.4 DC Voltage for Three-Phase Unbalanced Sags 274

CHAPTER 6 Voltage Sags-Stochastic Assessment 325

CHAPTER 7 Mitigation of Interruptions and Voltage Sags 389

CHAPTER 8 Summary and Conclusions 453

8.7.3 Power Quality Surveys 461

APPENDIX A Overview of EMC Standards 477

APPENDIX B IEEE Standards on Power Quality 481

APPENDIX C Power Quality Definitions and Terminology 485

APPENDIX D List of Figures 507

APPENDIX E List of Tables 525

ABOUT THE AUTHOR 543

'Eindhoven University of Technology, University of the Netherlands Antilles, University of

Chapter 1 of this book gives an introduction to the subject. After a systematic

What is new is theemphasisthat is placedon this interaction,and the treatmentof it as

1.1 INTEREST IN POWER QUALITY

The fact that powerquality hasbecomean issuerecently,doesnot meanthat it was not

• Equipment has become more sensitive to voltage disturbances.

Clemmensenof EPRI as estimating that "power-relatedproblems cost U.S.

local distributionwould only betowardsthe generationcompanieswith whom

1.2 POWER QUALITY, VOLTAQE QUALITY

The definition of power quality given in theIEEE dictionary [119] originatesin

• Voltage quality (the FrenchQualite de latension)is concernedwith deviations

o ~ _' L _L __'