Gauge Field Equations In Maxwell Form

Abstract
The theory of classical gauge fields is rendered in Maxwell form. The gauge group metric k ab , in the process, is
identified as the generalization of ε 0 , µ 0 , thus providing a direct physical interpretation of the scaling of the gauge
group in terms of a non-trivial dielectric structure of the vacuum, itself, and recovering arguments posed originally by
Maxwell regarding the existence of a dielectric structure within the vacuum. This formalism generalizes Yang-Mills
theory in treating the two sets of Maxwell fields (D, H ) and (B, E) independently, even in vacuo.

The generalization factors out the constitutive relations linking the two sets of fields from the more fundamental
diffeomorphic theory. One application is that gauge theory can be formulated in non-Lorentzian manifolds, including
the Galilean limit of Newton-Cartan spacetimes. Another application is that one can discuss alternatives where the
constitutive relations linking the two sets of fields are no longer linear with fixed coefficients (i.e. where the gauge
metric is variable). In such theories, though Lorentz covariance is still respected, the Green’s functions no longer need
be singular on the light cone and the ultraviolet divergence need no longer be present.

1. Review of Gauge Theory

1.1. The Configuration Variables and Kinematics
The basic actors are the gauge potentials
A = Aµa dx µ ⊗ Ya 1
and field strength
1 c µ
F= Fµν dx ∧ dx ν ⊗ Yc ,
2
where the components F µνc are given in terms of the potentials Aµa by
Fµνc ≡ ∂ µ Aνc − ∂ ν Aµc + f abc Aµa Aνb . (1)

The structure constants f abc are those of a Lie algebra with a basis given by Ya , a Lie bracket given by
[Ya , Yb ] = f abc Yc .
The coefficients thus satisfy the identities
f abc + f bac = 0, f dae f bcd + f dbe f cad + f dce f abd = 0 ,
arising respectively from the Lie identities
[u, v] + [ v, u] = 0, [u, [ v, w ]] + [ v, [w, u]] + [w, [u, v]] = 0 .
Applying these identities, we also obtain the following (the “First Bianchi Identity”)
( )
∂ µ Fνρc + ∂ ν F ρµc + ∂ ρ F µνc + f abc Aµa Fνρb + Aνa F ρµb + A ρa Fµνb = 0 . (2)

1.2. The Lagrangian and Dynamics

We start with a Lagrangian volume form L = L( A, dA, q, dq ) that is assumed to be a function of the gauge potentials A of other
field variables q and their first derivatives dA, dq . A generalization of Utiyama’s Theorem (J. Geom. Phys. 6 (1989) 107-125; see
also “Gauge-Invariant Characterization of Yang-Mills-Higgs Equations”, Ann. Henri. Poincare 8 (2007), 203-217) may then be used
to conclude that if the Lagrangian, itself, is gauge invariant then:
(1) the only dependence on the derivatives dq is through an appropriately defined gauge-covariant derivative D A q ;
(2) the only dependence on the gauge potentials and their derivatives is through the field strength F .

Assuming the underlying spacetime is of n dimensions with local corodinates ( x 0 , K , x n −1 ) , then in the following, we
will write
dV ≡ dx 0 ∧ K ∧ dx n −1 , dS µ ≡ ∂ µ ⋅ dV = (− 1) dx 0 ∧ K ∧ [dx µ ] ∧ K ∧ dx n −1 ;
µ

1
In here, and in the following, the summation convention will be used.
to denote respectively the volume n form and surface n − 1 forms (where the [] means to remove the enclosed item
from the product). Note, in particular, the identity
dx µ ∧ dS ν = δ νµ dV .
We may also define the n − 2 forms
dS µν ≡ ∂ ν ⋅ dS µ ,
which satisfy the identities
(
dx µ ∧ dS νρ = δ ρµ dS ν − δ νµ dS ρ , dx µ ∧ dx ν ∧ dS ρσ = δ ρµ δ σν − δ σµ δ ρν dV .)
Focusing only on the dependence with respect to the gauge potentials and field strength, the Lagrangian will then take
the general form L = L( A, F ) , where the dependence on A occurs only through the covariant derivatives with respect
to the other field variables. Writing L = LdV with L being the corresponding Lagrangian density, we may express the
total variation as
1
δL = − Gcµν δF µνc + J aµ δAµa ,
2
in the process introducing the dual fields Gc and external currents J aµ . Applying the variation, we obtain
µν

( ) (
δL = ∂ ν Gcµν Aµc + J aµ − ∂ ν Gaµν − f abc Aνb Gcµν δA µa , )
thus leading to the identification of the fundamental form
θ ≡ Gcµν Aµc dS ν ,
and, as the Euler-Lagrange equations, the field law
∂ ν Gaµν + f abc Aνb Gcµν = J aµ . (3)
From this, we may also derive the conservation law (the “Second Bianchi identity”)
1
∂ µ J aµ + f abc Aµb J cµ = f abc F µνb Gcµν . (4)
2
An exact conservation law may be posed for a current that includes a purely field-theoretic contribution quadratic in the
fields
( )
∂ µ J aµ − f abc Aνb G cµν = 0 .

At this point, a dual basis Y c may be introduced. It is related to the basis through the inner product
1 (a = c )
Y c ⋅ Ya = δ ac ≡ 
0 (a ≠ c)
and the coadjoint action, given by
[Ya , Y c ] = − f abc Y b .

Expressing the field quantities in the form

A µ ≡ Aµa Ya , F µν ≡ Fµνa Ya , G µν ≡ Gaµν Y a , J µ ≡ J aµ Y a ,
we may write
1
δL = − G µν ⋅ δF µν + J µ ⋅ δA µ ,
2
F µν = ∂ µ A ν − ∂ ν A µ + [ A µ , A ν ], ∂ µ Fνρ + ∂ ν F ρµ + ∂ ρ F µν + [ A µ , Fνρ ] + [ A ν , F ρµ ] + [ A ρ , F µν ] = 0,
1
∂ ν G µν + [ A ν , G µν ] = J µ , ∂ µ J µ + [ A µ , J µ ] = [Fµν , G µν ].
2

Alternatively, we may write

1 c µ 1
A a ≡ Aµa dx µ , F c ≡ Fµν dx ∧ dx ν , G c ≡ Gcµν dS µν , J a ≡ J aµ dS µ ,
2 2
and express the relations in the form
 δL = − δF a ∧ G a + δA a ∧ J a ,
1 c a
F c = dA c + f ab A ∧ A b , dF c + f abc A a ∧ F b = 0,
2
dG a + f abc A b ∧ G c = J a , dJ a + f abc A b ∧ J c = f abc F b ∧ G c .

Finally, if we embed the Lie algebra of the gauge group in a universal enveloping algebra such that
(
[Ya , Yb ] = Ya Yb − Yb Ya , [Ya , Y c ] = Ya Y c − Y c Ya , Tr Y c Ya = δ ac )
then we may combine the two products and write
δL = Tr (− (δF )G + (δA)J ),
F = dA + A 2 , dF + AF − FA = 0,
dG + AG − (− 1) GA = J , dJ + AJ + (− 1) JA = FG − GF .
n n

1.3. Constitutive Relations, Yang-Mills Theories and Breakdown of the Vacuum

The two sets of fields need not be directly related to one another – not even at the microscopic level. However, the
special case of a linear relation is most often considered (and often cast as a definition or ab initio assumption at the
microscopic level) which comprise a set of constitutive relations,
Gcµν = g k cd g µρ g νσ Fρσd .
This involves the dual spacetime metric g µν and a metric for the underlying Lie algebra k ab . In addition, one generally
assumes the Lie metric to be adjoint-invariant, which amounts to the condition that
k ad f bcd + f abd k dc = 0 .
For simple gauge groups, this reduces the metric to a single coupling constant. For semi-simple gauge groups, there
will be one coupling associated with each component simple subgroup. In the presence of these linear constitutive
relations with an adjoint-invariant metric, one also has [Fµν , G µν ] = 0 so that one may write the conservation law in the
form
∂ µ J µ + [A µ , J µ ] = 0 .

In the Lorentzian case, using 3-dimensional vector notation, the invariants are of the general forms
1 1
( ) (
I ab = E a ⋅ E b − c 2 B a ⋅ B b J ab = E a ⋅ B b + B a ⋅ E b .
2 2
)
Substituting this into the Lagrangian L = L ( I ab , J ab ) , we then find the relations
D a = ε ab E b + θ ab B b , H a = ε ab c 2 B b − θ ab E b , ε ab = ε ba , θ ab = θ ba ,
where
∂L ∂L
ε ab = ab
, θ ab = ab .
∂I ∂J
Through these relations, defining also µ = ε −1 c −2 , a gauge group metric and its dual emerge with
k ab = ε ab c, k ab = µ ab c .
The coefficients θ ab are specific to 4 dimensions and appear in the effective Lagrangian for QCD. Further invariants
exist at higher order. The cubic invariants are
1
(
Λabc = E a × E b ⋅ B c + E a × B b ⋅ E c + B a × E b ⋅ E c − c 2 B a × B b ⋅ B c ,
6
)
1
(
Μ = E a × Eb ⋅ Ec − c 2E a × B b ⋅ B c − c 2B a × Eb ⋅ B c − c 2B a × Bb ⋅ Ec .
abc

6
)
We will not deal with these any further here.

With the linear constitutive relation, where θ ab = 0 and k ab constant, the fundamental form reduces trivially to an
exact form and the field Lagrangian may be integrated to
 1 1
L F = − Gcµν F µνc = − g k cd g µρ g νσ F µνc F ρσd ,
4 4
which is often, naively, adopted ab initio. These conditions define the variety of the gauge fields known as the Yang-
Mills field.

However, the necessity of keeping the two sets of fields separate is readily apparent in the force law K µ = J aν F µνa . If
one assumes a point-like source for J aµ , the fields Gcµν will become singular near the source. Given a linear constitutive
relation, this also makes the field strengths F µνc singular near the source. But then the force law diverges and ceases to
be well-defined. In order that such a law should be well-defined near point-like sources, it is necessary that linear
constitutive relations with constant coefficients break down near sources. Of necessity, this entails a non-trivial
dielectric structure in the vacuum, itself, as one approaches a point-like source and renders necessary a distinction
between the actual versus the screened charge and current.

In “Generalizations of Yang-Mills theories with nonlinear constitutive relations” (Gerald A. Goldin, Vladimir M
Shtelen, J. Phys. A 37 2004 10711-10718), the most general non-linear relations compatible with the local spacetime
symmetry group (Lorentzian or even Galilean) is worked out. Compare, also, to Lee (1979), Weisskopf (1981), who
raise the idea of treating the QCD vacuum semiclassically as a dielectric medium with an effective ε (r ) for point-like
sources.

The general argument predates the emergence of the renormalization programme in the 1940’s, going all the way back
to Maxwell, himself. A central hypothesis of his treatment of the electromagnetic field was that the vacuum had to be a
polarizing medium in order to smear out the infinity associated with classical point (and line) sources. Out of this came
the definition of the “dressed” charge/current densities
1 ∂E
ρˆ ≡ ε 0 ∇ ⋅ E, Jˆ ≡ ∇ × B − ε0 .
µ0 ∂t
Similarly, effective (“dressed”) magnetic charge/current densities could have been defined by
σˆ ≡ µ 0 ∇ ⋅ H, K ˆ ≡ − 1 ∇ × D − µ ∂H .
0
ε0 ∂t
Both sets of sources satisfy their own conservation laws.

Thus, it is only fitting that we should incorporate Maxwell’s observations in the process of rendering the Yang-Mills
equations in Maxwell form, while also linking the Lie group metric to the dielectric properties of the vacuum. This will
become particularly clear as we write out the foregoing in Maxwell form, with the result falling out that the dual metric
k ab is just a generalization of the constant µ 0 . This, in turn, will identify the square charge magnitude as a
generalization of the fine structure constant.

1.4. Equations of Motion for Point-Like Sources

For a point-like source J aµ ( x) = e a x& µ ( s )δ ( x − x( s )) , with a Lie-valued charge e ≡ e a Y a , the interaction Lagrangian
reduces to the form
L I ≡ e a Aµa x& µ δ ( x − x( s ))
yielding an action
S I ` ≡ ∫ L I d 4 x = ∫ L I ds, L I ( x, x& ) ≡ e a Aµa ( x ) x& µ .
When combined with the matter portion of the point-source Lagrangian
1
L M ≡ mg µν x& µ x& ν
2
this yields the equations of motion
∂L ∂L
p µ ≡ Mµ = mg µν x& ν + e a Aµa , p& µ ≡ Mµ = e a ∂ µ Aνa x& ν .
∂x& ∂x
Substituting J µ = ex& µ δ ( x − x( s )) into the conservation law ∂ µ J µ + [ A µ , J µ ] = 0 , one may also show that the charge
vector associated with the point source satisfies Wong’s equation
e& a = − f abc Aνb e c x& ν ,
or e& = [ A ν x& ν , e] . The result yields the force law given by
mg µν &x&ν = e c Fµνc x& ν = e ⋅ Fµν x& ν .

1
An additional contribution −
2
( )
∂ µ k ab e a eb on the right results, in terms of the dual Lie metric k ab , if the Lie metric is
variable. In the absence of this contribution, the square charge magnitude
1 ab
k ea eb
2
will be conserved.

It is significant to note here that no such quadratic invariants can be posed for the particle spectrum for the Yang-Mills
force representing the U (1) Y × SU (2) W × SU (3) QCD . However, quadratic invariants exist for the larger group
U (1) Y × SU (2) W × SU (3) QCD × U (1) G
where G denotes the baryon (- lepton) number, and there are, in fact, two invariants associated separately with the two
subgroups formed from the decomposition
( )
(U (1) Y −G × SU (2) W )× SU (3) QCD × U (1) G ≅ U (2) Y −G ,W × U (3) QCD,G
which, in turn, is strongly suggestive of an inclusion into the symmetry group
U (2) Y −G ,W × U (3) QCD ,G ⊆ (SU (2) W × SU (2) Y − G )× U (3) QCD ,G .

2. Reduction To 3+1 Dimensional Form

We assume here and throughout an underlying Minkowski space with a coordinate representation
∂
r = ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ), x 0 = t , ∇ = (∂ 1 , ∂ 2 , ∂ 3 ), ∂ 0 =
∂t
and metric
g 00 = −c 2 , g i 0 = 0 = g 0 j ,
1 (i = j )
g ij = δ ij = 
0 (i ≠ j )
with indices i, j , k , K ranging over 1,2,3 . Ordinary 3-vector notation is used throughout with the following
decompositions
J a ≡ ( J a1 , J a2 , J a3 ), ρ a ≡ J a0 , A a ≡ ( A1a , A2a , A3a ), φ a ≡ − A0a ,
1 01 02 03
Dc ≡ (Gc , Gc , Gc ), H c ≡ (Gc23 , Gc31 , Gc12 ), E c ≡ ( F10c , F20c , F30c ), B c ≡ ( F23c , F31c , F12c ) .
c

In the presence of linear constitutive relations with the Lie metric, we may write
1 1
ε ab = k ab , µ ab = k ab
c c
and write in matrix-vector form
D = εE, B = µH .
For compact semi-simple groups, the metric may be reduced to constant diagonal form (if we assume the metric is
spacetime-independent), in which case the constitutive relations reduce to scalar multiplication by ε 0 , µ 0 . The
associated fine structure constant is
2
e2 c µ 0e k ab e a e b
α k ,e ≡ = = ,
4πε 0 hc h 2 2h
which is, up to proportionality, just the quadratic charge invariant, itself. More generally, “constitutive constants” will
satisfy the relations
1
ε = 2 µ −1 , ε ad f bcd + f abd ε dc = 0 ,
c
the last relation being the expression of adjoint-invariance of the gauge metric, itself. If S1 , K , S n are compact non-
κ1 κn
Abelian groups, then this determines the choice of the metric of S = S1 × K × S n as k = ⊕K⊕ , up to a
(g 1 ) 2
(g n )2
selection of coupling factors g 1 , K , g n , where κ 1 , K , κ n are the Killing metric associated respectively with S1 , K , S n .
I1 Ik
For S × U (1) k , the metric can be normalized to k ⊕ ⊕K⊕ where I 1 , K , I k are the unit metrics on the
(g 1′ ) 2
(g ′k )2
respective U (1) factors. This requires adding appropriate linear combinations of the U (1) generators into S (which
will not affect the Lie algebra), and performing a suitable k × k linear transformation on U (1) k . The coupling factors
may be absorbed into a rescaling of the fields and structure constants.

The most effective way of stating the relations is through the universal enveloping algebra of the gauge group’s Lie
algebra. Therefore, we will write the fields φ, A, E, B as Lie-valued forms and the fields ρ, J , D, H as dual Lie-valued
forms. The Lagrangian, written in 3+1 form, becomes
δL = Tr (D ⋅ δE − H ⋅ δB + J ⋅ δA − ρδφ ) .
The resulting equations become
∂A
E = −∇φ − + φA − Aφ, B = ∇ × A + A × A ,
∂t
∂B
∇ ⋅ B + A ⋅ B − B ⋅ A = 0, ∇ × E + + A × E + E × A + B φ − φB = 0 ,
∂t
∂D
∇ ⋅ D + A ⋅ D − D ⋅ A = ρ, ∇ × H − + A × H + H × A + Dφ − φD = J ,
∂t
∂ρ
+ ∇ ⋅ J + A ⋅ J − J ⋅ A + ρφ − φρ = D ⋅ E − E ⋅ D + B ⋅ H − H ⋅ B .
∂t

The last equation may be written in the form of an exact conservation law as
∂
( ρ + D ⋅ A − A ⋅ D) + ∇ ⋅ (J − A × H − H × A + φD − Dφ) = 0 .
∂t
If the gauge group metric is adjoint invariant, the conservation law reduces to the form
∂ρ
+ ∇ ⋅ J + A ⋅ J − J ⋅ A + ρφ − φρ = 0 .
∂t
Under this assumption, for point sources, the equation of motion for the charge e = e a Y a will become
de
= e(φ − v ⋅ A ) − (φ − v ⋅ A )e .
dt
For the gauge group comprising the electroweak force, the charge component eQ corresponding to the electromagnetic
force has a non-zero expression on the right, because for some of the structure constants
f cQb ≠ 0 b, c range over SU(2) sector .

We see here that what's conserved is not ρ and J , but the total charge and current densities
ρ + D ⋅ A − A ⋅ D, J − A × H − H × A + Dφ − φD
as well as the corresponding magnetic charge and current densities
B ⋅ A − A ⋅ B , A × E + E × A + B φ − φB .
The significance of this is that the electromagnetic field has non-zero magnetic monopole terms associated with the
non-linear contribution arising from the component of the weak nuclear force associated with the W particle and anti-
particle. No contribution arises from the force associated with the Z particle.

Though they are a consequence of the Yang-Mills electroweak force equations, and though one can actually write down
exact classical magnetic monopole solutions constructed solely from the fields, no monopoles have yet been observed.

3. Maxwell On Abelian Yang-Mills Fields; Yang-Mills Complexion

Another little-known feature of Maxwell’s treatise is its brief excursion into what, in modern language, comprises the
theory of Abelian Yang-Mills fields. This took place in sections 36 and 37 of his treastise and was a critical review of some of
the then-current theories, rather than the posing of his own.

Reviewing this line of thought will provide us with a natural interpretation of the Lie indexing associated with the
fields.

The two contexts where these considerations arose were (1) the discussion concerning then-topical one-fluid vs. two-
fluid theories of electricity and (2) the discussion of the possibility of incorporating gravitation and electromagnetism
within a unified framework.

At the time, it was not known whether there were two fundamental types of charge, each associated with its own type
of force, each being attracted to the other type of charge. If one steps back, it becomes readily apparent that the two
distinctions may be subsumed under a more general concept of a vector-valued charge. The question really being
addressed is whether these two charge-vectors are on a linearly dependent (but oppositely directed) scale, or actually on
linearly independent scales. That is, the question Maxwell posed is: is the difference in charges merely a difference in
sign or a difference in complexion?

In the latter case, one might imagine different couplings associated with each type of charge, respectively,
g + + , g + − = g − + , g − − for positive-positive, positive-negative and negative-negative interactions. One imagines that
g + + , g − − > 0, g + − < 0 with g + + ≈ g − − ≈ − g + − , but that slight deviations may be possible. Then, for two sources
respectively of positive/negative-complexion charges e ± , e ′± ≥ 0 we find a static force law of the form
rˆ
F = ( g + + e + e + + g + − (e + e − + e − e + ) + g − − e − e − ) 2
r
where r̂ is the unit radial vector separating the two sources and r their separation. By the appropriate choice of a
mixing angle θ M ,
g +− + g −+
tan 2θ M = ,
g ++ + g −−
one may write new coupling constants
g ++ + g −− + (g + + − g − − )2 + ( g + − + g − + ) 2 g ++ + g −− − (g + + − g − − )2 + ( g + − + g − + ) 2
g≡ , G≡
4 4
with the associated charges
e ≡ 2 (e + cos θ − e − sin θ ), m = 2 (e − cos θ + e + sin θ ) .
A slight deviation of θ M from π 4 yields a residual force with a coupling G ≈ ∆ (4e) whose charge, m , is essentially
the absolute value of the electrical charge and is positive definite. The attractive or repulsive nature of the
corresponding force is determined by sign of the determinant
g g +−
∆ ≡ ++ ,
g −+ g −−
enabling either a gravitational or anti-gravitational force. If we assume that the positive and negative charges making
up ordinary matter are proportionate in number to the total mass (actually, protons and neutrons will be in a rough 5 : 4
ratio, assuming their underlying quark constituency), then the second charge m is essentially the mass, itself.
We recognize, in modern terms, that what Maxwell did was generalize the notion of charge sign to that of charge
complexion considering, in his example, a 2-dimensional complexion given by an underlying U (1) × U (1) Yang-Mills
theory, decomposing it into its charge eigenstates, identifying the two forces with the two known forces at that time.
The closest equivalent, at present, is the embedding of U (1) Y ⊆ U (1) Y −G × U (1) G suggested at the end of the first
section. Here, the (as-of-yet unconfirmed) interaction U (1) G , associated with the quantum number baryon-lepton, plays
the role of a residual [anti-]gravity-like force. In fact, this force, itself, is sometimes known as the “5th force”, and there
have been sporadic, but unconfirmed, signals over the past 20 years of a baryon-number dependent 5th force.

In the revised light offered by Maxwell’s speculations, a Lie-valued charge may be regarded as a more general
complexion which is identified by a set of complexion angles (i.e. a unit Lie-valued vector) and a magnitude. Here,
then, the Wong equation
de a
= − f abc e c (φ b − v ⋅ A b )
dt
2
describes the precession of the charge’s complexion, with the “fine structure” invariant e ≡ k ab e a eb yielding the
charge’s magnitude. This, in turn, lends a whole new significance to the two quadratic invariants actually observed for
the fermion spectrum
2 2
I Y  3
  + 3 − G  =
 
g  g ′  4
2
,
 Λ 3
  + 6G 2 =
g  2
 s
since one observes that the total isospin I, hypercharge Y, baryon-lepton number G, color charge Λ assume the
following values over the particle spectrum:
3
• I 2 = g 2 for left-handed particles/right-handed antiparticles; I 2 = 0 otherwise
4
2 2
Y  1 Y 
•  − G  = for right-handed particles/left-handed particles,  − G  = 0 otherwise
 g′  4  g′ 
4 2
• Λ2 = g s for quarks, Λ2 = 0 for leptons
3
2 1
• G = for leptons, G 2 = 0 for quarks.
4
It’s ironic that history should repeat itself here, with the “right neutrino” sector playing the analogous role of Maxwell’s
“displacement current”, and charge conservation lying at the center of it all

References
• K. Moriyasu, An Elementary Primer for Gauge Theory, World Scientific, 1983
• T. D. Lee, Is the Physical Vacuum a Medium? (Columbia University, CU-TP-170, 1979)
• V. Weisskopf, Physics Today, 34, 69 (1981)
• N. K. Nielsen and P. Olesen, Nucl. Phys., B144, 376 (1978); semiclassical calculation that reproduces the effective
ε (r ) arising from Quantum Field Theory
• N. K. Nielsen, Am. Jour. Phys., 49, 1171 (1982); continuation of the 1978 reference.