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PROCEEDING INDONESIAN PETROLEUM ASSOCIATION

Thirty-Fourth Annual Convention & Exebition, May 2010

FRACTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY CHARACTERIZATION USING FULL-RESOLUTION 3D

GROUND PENETRATING RADAR (GPR) IN CRETACEOUS CARBONATES

Rizky P. Sekti*
Gregor P. Eberli*
Mark Grasmueck*
Brita Graham-Wall**
Jeffrey Lukasik***

ABSTRACT density (mechanical stratigraphy). A significant

Permeable fracture zones can be the major fluid
conduits in carbonate reservoirs. Yet, assessing
fracture patterns is not an easy task as most fracture
analyses rely on cores/bore walls or two-
dimensional outcrop analogs. Fractures like faults
and deformation bands are, however, three-
dimensional features. A newly developed
acquisition system of full-resolution 3D Ground
Penetrating Radar (GPR) and subsequent migration
of the data allow, to image faults and deformation
bands networks in three dimensions. Moreover,
Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR) has the potential
to help establish the mechanical-stratigraphic
relationships.
Some of the crucial elements of the full-resolution
3D GPR acquisition are a) a rotary laser positioning
system for centimeter precise positioning of the
antenna, b) the simultaneous acquisition of 100 and
200 MHz antenna, and c) a regular and dense grid
acquisition (10 and 20 cm) of GPR profiles for the
high resolution characterization of fractured
carbonates.
In the Madonna della Mazza quarry, Maiella
Mountain-Italy, near- vertical deformation bands
and the cross-cutting relationships are clearly
visible in the GPR data to a depth of 13 m in Late
Cretaceous rudist grainstones. The 3D GPR data
reveal bedding and sedimentary structures that are
not visible on the quarry wall. Likewise, the six sets
of faults and deformation bands observed in the
quarry are imaged by the 3D GPR with great clarity.
In addition, the “Ant Tracking” fracture analysis
shows an important result of relationship between
stratigraphic facies and fracture distribution and
* University of Miami
** StatoilHydro, Oslo, Norway
*** StatoilHydro, Stavanger, Norway
difference in fracture density is observed among the
strata. Deformation bands are more densely
distributed in the massive grainstone lithofacies.
This facies contains almost twice the density of
deformation bands from the adjacent strata below.
INTRODUCTION
The Maiella Mountain (Figure 1) have become an
attractive study area for geologists because the four-
way closure anticline of the Maiella can serve as an
analog for structural deformation of Cretaceous
hydrocarbon reservoirs. This study applied, for the
first time, 3D Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) to
characterize both sedimentology and fracture in the
Upper Cretaceous (Orfento Formation) carbonate
strata. The quarry in the northeastern limb of the
Maiella anticline at Madonna della Mazza has been
selected as the study site.
The lithology of the quarry is a ramp succession
rudist derived grainstone. Tondi et al. (2006) did a
detailed outcrop analysis of the quarry’s structural
features. They observed at least six sets of
deformation bands, which formed pre-, syn-, and
post-tilting of the Maiella Mountains. The oldest set
is the bed parallel deformation bands. Four sets of
deformation bands trending NNW and WNW show
a normal dip-slip component of movement, and
have a mutually cross-cutting relationship, which
suggests that they developed contemporaneously.
The youngest set of deformation bands trends E–W
with an almost vertical dip angle and shows right-
lateral strike-slip movement.
The stratigraphy of the quarry has never been
described in detail. High-precision 3D GPR
provides the third dimension to fracture and
stratigraphy analysis. The main purposes of this
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study are the following; (1) to characterize
sedimentary features in the quarry using radar
stratigraphy, (2) to test the resolution of 3D GPR
data to imaged deformation features in the study
area, (3) to test the “Ant Tracking” fracture analysis
method in 3D GPR data, and (4) to understand the
fracture characteristic in different sedimentary
facies. (5) Finally, this study on identifying the
relationship between stratigraphy and brittle
deformation will lead to a better understanding of
fluid flow, fault mechanics and the development of
three-dimensional structural models in Cretaceous
carbonates strata.
Tools and Methods
The GPR survey covers the main level of the
Madonna della Mazza quarry (26 x 64 m) using
three different antenna frequencies (100 MHz, 200
MHz and 250 MHz). The best data quality and
coverage (resolution and depth penetration) are the
main considerations for acquiring in three different
frequencies (Figure 2).
A common-offset survey methodology was applied,
that deploys a single transmitter and receiver with a
fixed offset or spacing between the transmitter and
receiver antenna at each measurements location.
Such a dense GPR survey is acquired to achieve the
full-resolution 3D GPR imaging (at least a quarter
of wavelength grid spacing in all direction).
Consequently, positioning precision needs to be
better than an eighth of a wavelength (Nyquist,
1928) for correct grid assignment. A Rotary Laser
Positioning System (RLPS) is used to enable the
acquisition of high precision positioning
coordinates, which is assigned in each of the radar
traces (Figure 2b). The Rotary Laser Positioning
System (RLPS) enables the acquisition of
continuous x, y, and z coordinates, with accuracy to
the centimeter, from a small laser detector
(Grasmueck and Viggiano, 2007). This system
consists of three or more rotating laser with range of
50-100 m and a laser/infrared detector capable of
producing 20 position updates/second with sub-
centimeter precision (Grasmueck and Viggiano,
2007).
Finally, the data processing steps are generally
consist of data fusion, regularization, zero time
correction, dewow and gain, velocity analysis,
NMO, and 3D migration. The processing step was
done using the combination of ReflexW software
and software modules that developed at University
of Miami. Finally, the Promax3D software
(landmark) is used for the 3D migration.
Stratigraphic Analysis
The Madonna della Mazza quarry is cut into the
upper part of the Orfento Formation (Campanian–
Maastrichtian age). The quarry is 64 m long (east–
west), and 50 m wide (north–south) with walls
rising to a maximum height of about 12 m. The
outcrop in the quarry is rather uniform and bedding
planes are not easily recognized. The bedding
surfaces are often represented by thin fine-grained
layer, or by coarse-grained lenticular carbonate
breccias (0.2cm – 7cm clast size) (Figure 3).
In general, the strata are composed of rudist
grainstone to rudstone, with some interclast
breccias. The litho-facies varies from skeletal
wacke-packstone to grainstone composed mostly of
rudist fragments and some other skeletal debris such
as echinoderms, mollusk, sponge spicules,
calcispheres and small benthic foramifera. Four
different litho-facies units are distinguished within
the strata (Figure 3):
Lithofacies A: Grainstone with lithoclast
This lithofacies unit consists of irregularly
distributed clasts in a matrix of medium to coarse
bioclastic grainstone. The clasts are either large
rudist-bivalve shell fragments or rounded fine-
grained packstone-grainstone, range from 2 to 70
mm in size. They are sub-angular to sub-rounded.
The clasts are irregularly distributed and have the
same grain composition as the strata it self (from
the thin section, Figure 3). This suggests that they
were ripped up from previously deposited strata
within the same sequence (intra-formation
lithoclasts) by a strong wave current. The grainstone
matrix also indicates a high-energy environment.
Lithofacies B: Thin-bedded wackestones –
packstones
It consists of white to cream-colored wackestone-
packstone form a thin (1-5 cm thick) and irregular
layer. The grains mostly consist of fine-grained
rudist fragments with muddy in the matrix. In
outcrop, this thin carbonate layer is on the top thick
grainstones packages, thus forming visible bedding
surfaces. In some places, the fine-grained
wackestone is bioturbated into the underlying
grainstones. This thin, fine-grained carbonate layer
is interpreted to be deposited under low-energy
conditions in a hemipelagic environment from
suspension. In other location where the grainstones
are graded, the facies is considered to be the
background sediment to redeposited bed (Mutti et
al, 1996).
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Lithofacies C: Massive grainstone
The massive bioclastic grainstone consists of up to
10 m thick beds that are separated by the thin fine-
grained carbonate layer of lithofacies B. The
massive grainstone facies is poorly sorted. Rudist-
bivalve and some echinoderm fragments dominate
the grain composition. Besides faint bedding, no
sedimentary structure is observed in the massive
unit, which is interpreted as the result from an
extensive bioturbation.
Lithofacies D: Bioturbated packstone –
grainstone
The bioturbated packstone to granstone lithofacies
of mostly fine to medium grained rudist fragments
is relatively thin bedded (5-10 cm thick). A low-
angle unidirectional cross-bedding is observed
within the beds. The bedding interface is usually
overprinted by bed-parallel stylolites due to the
tectonic compaction and overburden. The low angle
cross-beding indicates deposition from traction, by
unidirectional current flow.
Radar Facies
The internal structure of the sediment and bedding
interface create a distinctive reflection pattern in the
GPR data (Figure 4). The third-dimensional of
sedimentary structures are depicted from the 3D
GPR data. The truncation surfaces reflect a strong
and discontinuous reflection in the GPR data.
Reflection termination (onlap, downlap, and toplap)
are used to determine the bedding surface in the
GPR data. GPR facies analysis is performed for
further characterization of the sedimentary features
in the quarry. Three radar facies are identified:
inclined reflection, parallel-continuous reflection
and transparent reflection radar facies (Figure 4).
a. Inclined Reflection Radar Facies
Description: This radar facies is about 5 m thick of
stack inclined (fore-set) reflection that are bounded
at the bottom and the top by near horizontal
reflections. The bounding reflections are often
sigmoidal cutting unconformity across the fore-set
beds. Interpretation: The inclined reflections are
interpreted as a progradational set of carbonate sand
that deposit by unidirectional current regime. Each
of this progradation set was stacked vertically and
formed lobate geometry. Each set of the
progradation is bounded by high amplitude
reflection of sigmoidal envelope as an unconformity
surface. One dominant current make the bedform
migrates in one direction producing unidirectional
fore-set bedding.
b. High Amplitude-Continuous Radar Facies:
Description: This GPR facies is characterized by
parallel, high-amplitude, continuous reflections.
Some of the reflections are truncated but the overall
patterns of the reflections are very continuous. The
thickness of the reflections is variable; some of the
layers are thinning towards the present north.
Interpretation: The high amplitude reflection
indicates strong contrast in water content within the
thin-bedded strata. Beds separated by fine-grainned
carbonate layer (lithofacies B) correspond to this
facies in outcrop. The bedding surfaces (lithofacies
B) are identified as bright reflection amplitude in
the GPR data. Based on this outcrop correlation, it
is postulated that each of the high amplitude
continuous reflection is the thin layer wacke-
packstone lithofacies (lithofacies B), which is
interbedded within the grainstone with lithoclast
lithofacies. The thinning of the reflection is
interpreted as a typical reflection and geometry of
the distal bottom set sediments.
c. Transparent Reflection Radar Facies:
Description: The transparent reflection GPR facies
was a massive unit, relatively thick (3-6 m)
separated by high amplitude reflection.
Interpretation: Theoretically, the transparent
reflection (reflection-free) GPR facies configuration
may signify: (a) massive homogeneous lithological
unit, (b) the presence of highly conductive dissolve
materials in ground water, (c) the presence of
sediments containing high amount of clay that
attenuate EM signal (Van Heteren et al, 1998). The
transparent reflection (reflection free) GPR facies in
the quarry is correlated to the massive
homogeneous high porosity grainstone unit. The
thin bright amplitude reflection that separates the
massive transparent reflection is correlated to the
bedding surface (lithofacies B) in the outcrop.
Depositional geometry and facies association
The 3D geometry of the GPR facies provides
significant insights into the depositional geometries
of the Orfento Formation in the quarry. In
particular, the sediment transport mechanism and
direction can be assessed. The flattened volume of
3D GPR data reveals the depositional geometry of
the strata. The lineation of the inclined beddings
indicates the strike direction of the progradation
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sets. The geometry of the prograding set units tend
to be straight to slightly curve in strike direction
(Figure 5). Based on the GPR data, the maximum
dip angles of the prograding sets are from 15 to 20°.
There are no significant changes in the strike
directions of the inclined bedding, and therefore, no
changes in the transport direction (N18 - 23°E). The
prograding sets are bounded by an unconformity
surface and a reactivation surface that is observable
in the GPR data. The lithofacies A was interpreted
as the bottomset of the prograding bioclastic sand.
The stack of prograding sand most likely migrated
to the South (Figure 6) (platform-ward). A
simplified depositional geometry of the strata in the
quarry is illustrated in figure 6.
Fracture Characteristics in Study Area
Previous studies have documented the significance
of correctly identifying fractures and their mode of
formation in carbonate rocks (Graham et al, 2003;
Tondi et al, 2006). Different fracture types have
unique fluid flow properties and shape/size
distributions, and they obey distinct density
(spacing) laws (Aydin, 2000). The spatial properties
of a fracture system are the result from several
interacting attributes, and each of these attributes
must be incorporated in quantitative analysis
(Gillespie et al., 1993). These fracture attributes are
described by: (1) the size distribution and
orientation of the fracture population of fractures on
each stratigraphic unit. (2) fracture density and
spacing, (3) Fracture displacement, and (4) linkage
and cross-cutting relationships of each fracture set.
The GPR data is for the first time capable of 3-D
imaging of deformation band systems and extends
the 2D outcrop study by Tondi et al (2006) in to the
three-dimensional realm. The three-dimensional
fracture analysis performed by manual data
interpretation and “Ant Tracking” method in Petrel
2008 (Schlumberger Software). Deformation bands
are very important because of their potential role as
barrier or baffles to fluid flow (Fossen et al, 2007)
and because they commonly indicate proximity to
larger offset faults. Deformation bands are
developed as three-dimensional network of finely
spaced, intersecting planes throughout the porous
material bodies (Davis, 1999).
The outcrop observation reveals three deformation
features are observed in the Madonna della Mazza
quarry; deformation bands, stylolites, and fault, and
are explained as follows:
a. Fault is defined as deformation features that
offset the bedding (Figure 7a and 7b). These
features are reminiscent of those faulted
deformation bands in sandstone described by
Fossen et al. (2007) and also sheared-
deformation bands described by Tondi et al
(2006) from a previous study. They developed
in pairs of conjugate sets conjugate sets,
striking N-NW direction. These conjugate sets
have normal dip-slip movement with offsets
ranging from 3 – 40 cm. The E-W trending
faults show a right-lateral strike slip offset with
near-vertical dip angle. This fault set is the
youngest because it displaces all the
deformation features in the quarry.
b. Stylolite in the quarry consists of three types:
bed-parallel, bed-perpendicular, and sheared
solution surfaces (Figure 7). Sets of sheared
stylolites oblique (between 30°-55°) to the
bedding are identified and cross-cut both the
bed-parallel solution surfaces and the bed-
perpendicular solution surfaces, which indicates
the younger (Figure 7c and 7d). The pressure
solution seams are developed extensively in the
thin-bedded bioturbated packstone-grainstone
lihofacies (lithofacies D).
c. Deformation band is form as sub-mm-thick
(0.5–3 mm) single bands or zones of several
individual bands in a braided pattern (Figure 7e
and 7f). Deformation bands are the most
common strain localization features that are
found in porous granular material (Tindall,
2003). A deformation band does not represent a
slip surface. However, slip can occur within
zones of bands, usually during more mature
stages of the development of deformation
bands. Deformation bands often produce a
reduction in permeability and porosity, whereas
other fractures are usually associated with
permeability increase. The deformation bands
in the study area are dominantly developed in a
WNW to NNW orientation with no offset to
bed. Most of them are observed in the quarry
floor within the massive grainstone lithofacies
unit (lithofacies C).
In general, the main fractures observed using 3-D
GPR agree with results from the outcrop studies.
However, the GPR data depict the fracture features
in the quarry more accurately by adding a third
dimension to the fracture analysis. The 3-D GPR
data were analyzed using both manual and
automated (“Ant Tracking”) approaches. The
manual interpretation of fractures in the GPR data
could only pick the faults, which were observed to
have two dominant orientations (N-NW and E-W)
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(Figure 8). The automated “Ant Tracking” analysis
of the GPR data was performed to generate a more
detailed fracture analysis based on discontinuity
attributes. Using the automated “Ant Tracking”
method, our picture of the fracture system in the
quarry becomes significantly more complex. Using
this method, we observed both faults and
deformation bands, and revealed four dominant
fracture orientations (N-NW, NW, W-NW, and
EW) instead of the two orientations that we
observed based on the manual interpretation (Figure
9). These additional orientations likely represent the
deformation bands.
DISCUSSION
Depositional Environment and Processes
Mutti et al. (1996) describe that the Orfento
Formation is deposited within the progradational
shoreface units, bounded by erosional
unconformities and their down slope correlative
surfaces. The pulses of progradation in the Maiella
platform are controlled by sea level changes.
The internal geometry of the Uppermost Cretaceous
sediment wedge (Orfento Formation) constitutes
stacks of bioclastic sand lobes (Vecsei, 1998). The
large scale Orfento Formation sediment wedge is
built from vertically and laterally overlapping lobes.
The thinner lobes overlay each other vertically and
fill the depression. Each of these lobes forms a
composite of relatively thin, prograding sigmoidal
beds, with foresets reaching dip angles of 25°
(Vecsei, 1998). These lobes stacked vertically,
which altogether comprise a feature 10 – 20m thick.
Similar geometries are observed in the inclined
reflection GPR facies, however, the stacked inclined
reflection in the quarry reaches only about 4 - 6 m
thickness. Vecsei (1998) described unidirectional
prograding sand lobes as the products of tidal
current with reverse flows too weak to move
sediments. This observation likely applies to the
flow mechanism controlling the sedimentation of
the quarry strata as well, based on the 3-D geometry
of the GPR data and the outcrop data.
The Outer Ramp (Toe of slope) coarse grain dunes
in Menorca, Spain (Pomar et al., 2002) also have
similar geometry to the study site. Large-scale
subaqueous dunes with large cross-beds of
moderate dips are formed in the outer ramp
carbonate system. The cross-beds are 1 – 2 m thick,
mostly planar in depositional strike direction with
laminae dipping 10 – 20°. In the direction of the
depositional dip, the cross-beds display convex-up
cross lamination. The current winnowed sands
consist of platform/slope-derived sediment. They
represent extensive along-slope transport and
accumulation of carbonates sands by bottom
currents flowing to the basin-ward.
The outcrop analogs from the previous study bring
significant insights for sedimentology and
depositional environment interpretation of the strata
in the quarry. The depositional processes observed
in the Madonna della Mazza quarry can be
summarized as follows: (1) the inclined reflection
facies was first deposited as foresets of prograding
bioclastic sand; (2) the Lithofacies A was then
deposited as a distal bottom set of prograding
bioclastic sand, followed by deposition of; (3)
Lithofacies C, the massive grainstone. A fine-
grained carbonate, Lithofacies B, appears
intermittently throughout the whole strata. These
interbedded layers were deposited during slack tides
(a short time period when there is no flow, which
occurs when tidal current changes direction). The
inclined reflection GPR facies and Lithofacies A are
interpreted as the result of tidal current, which has a
dominant flood tidal flow. Alternatively, these
facies could have been deposited as progradational
sets by unidirectional bottom currents in the outer
ramp (toe of slope) environment (or ‘sub-aqueous
dunes’). Extensive bioturbation in Lithofacies C
kept the sedimentary structure from being preserved
and therefore, the depositional process cannot be
determined for this facies.
Mechanical Stratigraphy
Mechanical units are successive layers (beds or
bedsets) with fracture behavior (e.g., fracture
densities, terminations) that is distinct from the
adjacent layer. Often fracture terminations and
densities are used as criteria to distinguish
mechanical units (Nelson, 1985; Gross, 1995).
Based on these two criteria, no mechanical
boundaries are observed in the outcrop (Tondi et al,
1996) or in the 3D GPR data. However, the “Ant
Tracking” fracture analysis reveals a mechanical
unit boundary in the strata, based on a change in
deformation band density.
Taken together, the stratigraphic analysis with the
automated (“Ant Tracking”) 3D GPR analysis,
indicate a mechanical unit boundary within the
quarry. A significant difference in fracture density
is observed among the strata. The distribution of
denser deformation band is visible above the E
horizon of the automated fracture interpretation of
“Ant Tracking” (Figure 10); these denser
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deformation bands occur in the massive grainstone
lithofacies. The fracture density calculation from
the fault extraction “Ant Tracking” volume shows
that the massive grainstone lithofacies has 50%
denser deformation bands (1.3 – 1.4 Fr/m) than the
facies below it (0.7 – 0.8 Fr/m, Figure 4). Most of
the deformation bands terminate at the boundary
between Facies A (grainstone with lithoclast) and
Facies C (massive grainstone). In the outcrop, this
difference of deformation band density is observed
in the quarry floor but was not as apparent in the
quarry walls. Mechanical boundaries can be defined
as layer boundaries at which a minimum of 50% of
the fractures terminated (Underwood et al, 2003).
Based on this criterion, layer E is a significant
mechanical boundary.
Stratigraphic controls in fracture development are
evident in the quarry. Deformation bands
preferentially occur in the high porosity and
permeability massive grainstone unit. Bands that
nucleate in this unit appear to have difficulty
propagating to the adjacent lower porosity facies
unit. Instead, they tend to keep growing horizontally
until a through-going slip surface forms and cuts
through the adjacent stratigraphic unit. The
distribution and density of the deformation bands
depend on factors such as porosity, grain sorting,
grain size and grain mineralogy. If the contrast of
those factors is high enough, deformation bands
may terminate between two layers or may form slip
surfaces in the adjacent lithofacies units (Schlutz
and Fossen, 2002). Porosity is the main factor that
controls the deformation bands occurrence, where
increased porosity leads to high grain contact stress,
and thus, favors the formation of cataclastic
deformation bands (Flodin et al, 2003).
On the contrary, stylolites are extensively
developed in the thin-bedded packstone-grainstone
lithofacies D, including bed-parallel stylolites, bed-
perpendicular stylolites and sheared stylolites. The
presence of each of these sets of stylolites is
indicative of progressive developmental stages of
normal-fault in a compressive tectonic setting
(Graham et al, 2003).
Fracture Development Sequences in
Carbonate Rock
The progressive stages of fracture development in
carbonates within the compressive tectonic setting
are observed in the quarry (Figure 11), which
indicates, by development of sylolites and the
subsequent shearing stylolites and. The bed-parallel
and bed-perpendicular stylolites developed first. As
compression continued, sheared stylolites appeared.
With further compression stress, these sheared
stylolites produced a fault with offset. The
development of individual bands, zones of
deformation bands, and fault might indicate the
progressive stages fracture development in the study
area as well (Figure 11). Deformation bands occur
hierarchically as individual bands, as zones of
bands, and/or as faulted deformation bands (Fossen
et al, 2007). In the quarry, the deformation bands
developed in a braided pattern of crushed zones that
were imaged by “Ant Tracking” analysis. These
individual deformation bands and zones of
deformation bands were developed in the early
stages of fault development. The faults in the quarry
are associated with slip surfaces, which formed due
to significant porosity reduction within deformation
band zones. These faults are interpreted as the later
stage of the deformation bands.
CONCLUSION
Based on these results, by combining 2D outcrop
study, 3D GPR manual interpretation and the “Ant
Tracking” automated fracture analysis of the GPR
data, the optimum result was achieved in order to
characterize the fracture system in carbonate rocks.
Automated analysis of the 3D GPR data using “Ant
Tracking” is essential for accurately quantifying the
entire fracture population in the study area. Total
fracture diversity and abundance has previously
been underestimated by 2D outcrop mapping and is
also not completely depicted using manual
interpretation of 3D GPR data. Our study indicates
that deformation bands may be more common in the
Maiella than previously resolved.
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Vecsei, A., 1998, Bioclastic sediment lobes on a
supply dominated Upper Cretaceous carbonate
platform margin, Montagna della Maiella, Italy.
Sedimentology, vol. 45, p. 473-487.
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Figure 1 - Quarry location. (a) The Maiella inticline located in central Italy (blue). (b) Geological map of the
Maiella showing the location of the quarry (red). (c) Schematic cross-section across the Maiella
anticline. (d) Madonna della mazza quarry’s photograph. The three quarry walls (northern,
western and southern) for the outcrop measured section. 3D GPR survey is acquired in the main
quarry floor.
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Figure 2 - 3D GPR survey and tools. (a) The aerial photograph of the main quarry floor. The GPR data is
acquired in two separate cubes (cube 1 and 2). Different laser transmitter configuration was
required for each cube (cube 1 in blue and cube 2 in red). (b) 3D GPR tools. Three laser
transmitters are needed. LED guidance is used to give the direction for the person who pushes
the antenna. Laser detector is mounted in the antenna.
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Figure 3 - Composite measured section, outcrop photos, and thin section photos of the Madonna della
Mazza quarry. Four different facies types were observed. The bedding planes (in green) are
traced into the 3-D GPR survey and are labeled in red (A-I).
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Figure 4 - Three radar facies (inclined reflection, parallel-continous reflection, and transparent reflection
GPR facies) were identified based reflection patterns in the GPR data. Outcrop litho-facies B (a
thin, fine-grained carbonate layer) imaged as a bright parallel reflection in the parallel-
continuous reflection GPR facies. The Massive grainstone litho-facies was correlated to the
transparent reflection GPR facies. Unfortunately the inclined reflection GPR facies was not
outcropped.
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Figure 5 - Flattened cube of 200 MHz GPR data shows the inclined reflection radar facies. The lineation of
the inclined bedding (yellow dashed arrows) in the time-slice shows the strike direction N18°-
23°E.

Figure 6 - Simplified depositional geometry of the strata in the Madonna della Mazza quarry.
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Figure 7 - Deformation features in the quarry. (a) and (b) Fault with normal dip-slip movement. (c) and (d)
Bed-parallel, bed-perpendicular and the sheared stylolites (yellow arrow). (e) and (f)
Anastomosing pattern of deformation bands.
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Figure 8 - 3D view of manual fault interpretation results. All the interpretation was plotted in to the roset
diagram and stereonet. There are two dominant orientation of the faults, and both are developed
as conjugate sets.

Figure 9 - Automated fracture interpretation result by “Ant Tracking”. Four dominant fracture orientations:
N-NW (red arrow), NW (blue arrow), W-NW (green arrow), and E-W (pink arrow).
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Figure 10 - Correlation of stratigraphic units in the Ant Tracking cube. (a) The stratigraphic unit boundary E
is depicted as a red striped line. The strata below this surface (in light blue) has a deformation
band density 0.7 – 0.8 Fr/m. Above (in massive grainstone lithofacies), it is 1.3 – 1.4 fr/m.
However, the rosette diagram plots depict the dominant fracture orientations of the strata above
and below the “E” horizon. (b) Time slice of the “Ant Tracking” volume obviously shows the
different deformation bands density and the (c) extracted fault of the “Ant Tracking” cube.
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Figure 11 - Summarized conceptual model of fracture development in different lithofacies units. (a) stages
of development of fracture in each lithofacies. Different types of fracture were developed in
different lithofacies. (b) Significant mechanical boundary was observed within the strata.