Big Bang

The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological model for the universe[1] from the earliest
known periods through its subsequent large-scale evolution.[2][3][4] The model describes how the
universe expanded from a very high-density and high-temperature state,[5][6] and offers a
comprehensive explanation for a broad range of phenomena, including the abundance of light
elements, the cosmic microwave background (CMB), large scale structure and Hubble's law.[7] If
the known laws of physics are extrapolated to the highest density regime, the result is
a singularity which is typically associated with the Big Bang. Physicists are undecided whether
this means the universe began from a singularity, or that current knowledge is insufficient to
describe the universe at that time. Detailed measurements of the expansion rate of the universe
place the Big Bang at around 13.8 billion years ago, which is thus considered the age of the
universe.[8] After the initial expansion, the universe cooled sufficiently to allow the formation
of subatomic particles, and later simple atoms. Giant clouds of these primordial elements later
coalesced through gravity in halos of dark matter, eventually forming
the stars and galaxies visible today.
In medieval philosophy, there was much debate over whether the universe had a finite or infinite
past (see Temporal finitism). The philosophy of Aristotle held that the universe had an infinite
past, which caused problems for medieval Jewish and Islamic philosophers who were unable to
reconcile the Aristotelian conception of the eternal with the Abrahamic view of creation.[1] As a
result, a variety of logical arguments for the universe having a finite past were developed by John
Philoponus, Al-Kindi, Saadia Gaon, Al-Ghazali and Immanuel Kant, among others.[2]
In his 1225 treatise De Luce (On Light), English theologian Robert Grosseteste explored the
nature of matter and the cosmos. He described the birth of the universe in an explosion and the
crystallization of matter to form stars and planets in a set of nested spheres around Earth. De
Luce is the first attempt to describe the heavens and Earth using a single set of physical laws.[3]
In 1610, Johannes Kepler used the dark night sky to argue for a finite universe. Seventy-seven
years later, Isaac Newton described large-scale motion throughout the universe.

Steady State theory

In cosmology, the Steady State theory is an alternative to the Big Bang model of the evolution
of our universe. In the steady-state theory, the density of matter in the expanding
universe remains unchanged due to a continuous creation of matter, thus adhering to the perfect
cosmological principle, a principle that asserts that the observable universe is basically the same
at any time as well as at any place.
While the steady state model enjoyed some popularity in the mid-20th century (though less
popularity than the Big Bang theory), it is now rejected by the vast majority
of cosmologists, astrophysicists and astronomers, as the observational evidence points to a hot
Big Bang cosmology with a finite age of the universe, which the Steady State model does not
predict.

In the 13th century, Siger of Brabant authored the thesis The Eternity of the World, which argued
that there was no first man, and no first specimen of any particular: the physical universe is thus
without any first beginning, and therefore eternal. Siger's views were condemned by the Pope in
1277.
Cosmological expansion was originally discovered through observations by Edwin Hubble.
Theoretical calculations also showed that the static universe as modeled by Einstein (1917) was
unstable and contradicted general relativity. The modern Big Bang theory is one in which the
universe has a finite age and has evolved over time through cooling, expansion, and the
formation of structures through gravitational collapse.
The steady state theory asserts that although the universe is expanding, it nevertheless does not
change its appearance over time (the perfect cosmological principle); the universe has no
beginning and no end. This requires that matter be continually created in order to keep the
universe's density from decreasing. Influential papers on steady state cosmologies were
published by Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, and Fred Hoyle in 1948.[3][4]
It is now known that Albert Einstein considered a steady-state model of the expanding universe,
as indicated in a 1931 manuscript, many years before Hoyle, Bondi and Gold. However, he
quickly abandoned the idea.

Non-Scientific Methods

‘Non-science’ means more than that which is antithetical to science. As sources of human
knowledge, non-scientific approaches such as philosophy, theology, and art have usefully guided
visions of the ‘why’ of our existence, our interactions with one another, or defined
morality/ethics. By contrast, the label ‘pseudo-science’ encompasses attempts at claiming a
mantle of truth by endeavors that, although to the layman might seem scientific, lack testability
and the vigorous peer-review inherent in the scientific process. Astrology, for example, has a set
of rules and underlying concepts which cannot be tested. The vagueness of its predictions avoid
falsification precisely because they are ambiguous.

A common thread unifying non-scientific theories of the world is the reliance upon unseen (ie,
unmeasurable by any known instrumentation) forces to form their explanations. There being no
objective means by which to quantify or qualify these unknown variables, there can be no
independent test of their validity, and there is also no consistency of experience among
practitioners. Theological arguments such as the existence and nature of God are beyond the
scope of evaluation by science because the subject transcends the natural world and is not
testable by any empirical means. Science cannot develop means of either verifying or falsifying
this religious construct.

Creation science attempts to use observation of the natural world to support its theorem that the
world was designed by God. In ‘Intelligent Design is Empirically Testable and Makes
Predictions’ (available from evolutionnews.org/2006/01), J. Richards and J. Witt, proponents of
creation science, suggest the bacterial flagellum [a ‘tail’] as a clear example of design. The
‘irreducible complexity’ of this structure is offered as proof that it was designed. Yet ‘irreducible
complexity’ is a value judgment without an objective basis, and so is not a scientific hypothesis.
It is pseudo-science. (The potential for falsification they offer is in that evolutionary precursors
to the flagellum have not been identified. Finding such an evolutionary path, they argue, would
render their hypothesis false; thus to them their theory is scientific because it is empirically
testable.)
Pitch
In music the pitch of a note means how high or low a note is. The pitch of a note can be
measured in a unit called Hertz. A note that is vibrating at 256 Hz will be caused by sound waves
that vibrate at 256 times a second.

Dynamics
In music, the dynamics of a piece is the variation in loudness between notes or phrases.
Dynamics are indicated by specific musical notation, often in some detail. However, dynamics
markings still require interpretation by the performer depending on the musical context: for
instance a piano (quiet) marking in one part of a piece might have quite different objective
loudness in another piece, or even a different section of the same piece. The execution of
dynamics also extends beyond loudness to include changes in timbre and sometimes tempo
rubato.

Melody
A melody also tune, voice, or line, is a linear succession of musical tones that the listener
perceives as a single entity. In its most literal sense, a melody is a combination
of pitch and rhythm, while more figuratively, the term can include successions of other musical
elements such as tonal color. It may be considered the foreground to the
background accompaniment. A line or part need not be a foreground melody.
Melodies often consist of one or more musical phrases or motifs, and are usually repeated
throughout a composition in various forms. Melodies may also be described by their melodic
motion or the pitches or the intervals between pitches (predominantly conjunct or disjunct or
with further restrictions), pitch range, tension and release, continuity and coherence, cadence,
and shape.

Tempo
In musical terminology, tempo is the speed or pace of a given piece.
In classical music, tempo is usually indicated with an instruction at the start of a piece (often
using conventional Italian terms). Tempo is usually measured in beats per minute (bpm). In
modern classical compositions a "metronome mark" in beats per minute may supplement or
replace the normal tempo marking, while in modern genres like electronic dance music, tempo
will typically simply be stated in bpm.
Tempo may be separated from articulation and meter, or these aspects may be indicated along
with tempo, all contributing to the overall texture. While the ability to hold a steady tempo is a
vital skill for a musical performer, tempo is changeable. Depending on the genre of a piece of
music and the performers' interpretation, a piece may be played with slight tempo rubato or
drastic accelerando. In ensembles, the tempo is often indicated by a conductor or by one of the
instrumentalists, for instance the drummer.

Beat
In music and music theory, the beat is the basic unit of time, the pulse (regularly repeating
event), of the mensural level[1] (or beat level).[2] The beat is often defined as the rhythm listeners
would tap their toes to when listening to a piece of music, or the numbers a
musician counts while performing, though in practice this may be technically incorrect (often the
first multiple level). In popular use, beat can refer to a variety of related concepts
including: pulse, tempo, meter, specific rhythms, and groove.
Rhythm in music is characterized by a repeating sequence of stressed and unstressed beats (often
called "strong" and "weak") and divided into bars organized by time
signature and tempo indications.

Meter
Meter is a recurring pattern of stresses or accents that provide the pulse or beat
of music. Meter is notated at the beginning of a composition with a time signature. Time
signatures are always notated with two numbers, one on top of the other, much like a fraction in
math.