ENG5312 – Mechanics of Solids II 1

6. Energy Methods
6.1 External Work
6.1.1 Work of a Force

 The work done by a force is equivalent to the product of the component of the
force acting in the direction of motion and the distance travelled.
r r
Ue   F  ds 
 If the force acts in the x -direction:
 x
Ue   Fdx
0



If a force is applied to a prismatic beam in a gradual manner, i.e. the magnitude
of the force increases from 0 to P , and the bar stretches by  , when the
  P 
material behaves in a linear-elastic manner F  x then:
  
x
P 1 P2 1
 Ue   xdx 
  2 
 P
2
(6-1)
0

6.1.2 Work of a 
Couple

 A couple moment does work as it goes through a rotation:


Ue   Md
0

 If a moment is applied to a body with linear-elastic material behaviour such that

the magnitude of the couple increases from 0 @   0 to M @    then:


M 1
Ue   d  M
 2
(6-2)
0 



ENG5312 – Mechanics of Solids II 2

6.2 Strain Energy

 External work done by loads applied to a body will be converted into strain
energy. This strain energy is cause by normal and shear stresses that deform
the body.

6.2.1 Normal Stress

 Consider a body deformed by a normal stress EQS:

 The force on the top face is dFz   z dxdy and if it is applied gradually as the
element undergoes deformation d z  z dz the work done by the force is (using
Eq. (6-1)):

 1 1
dU i  dFz d z   z dxdyz dz
 2 2

 Or

 1
dU i   zz dV
2

 So if a body is subjected to uni-axial normal stress, the strain energy is:

 
Ui   2
dV (6-3)
V

 For linear-elastic material behaviour, Hooke’s Law (   / E) applies, and:

 2
Ui   2E dV
V
(6-4) 


ENG5312 – Mechanics of Solids II 3

 Note: U i is always positive.

6.2.2 Shear Stress

  Consider an element subjected to shear stress, :



 The force dF  dxdy on the top face will move dz . Assuming dF is applied
gradually, and using Eq. (6-1):

1 1
 dU i 
 dxdydz  dV
2 2

 Or

 
Ui   2
dV (6-5)
V

 For linear-elastic behaviour, Hooke’s Law (   /G) applies, and:

 2
Ui   2G
dV
V

(6-6)


 ENG5312 – Mechanics of Solids II 4

6.2.3 Multi-axial Stress

 Consider an element subjected to a general state of stress.

 Assuming linear-elastic behaviour and all loads are applied gradually, the strain
energy associated with each normal and shear stress can be added to give:

1 1 1 1 1 1 
Ui    2  
x x   yy   zz   xy  xy   yz yz   xz xz dV (6-7)
2 2 2 2 2 
V

 Using the generalized Hooke’s Law:

 1
x 
E

 x    y   z 
1
y 
E
 zy    x   z 

1
z 
E

 z    x   y 

 xy  xy  xy
 xy  ;  xy  ;  xy 
 G G G

 The strains can be eliminated from Eq. (6-7):

 1   1 2   
U i     x2   y2   z2   xy   yz2   xz2   x y   y z   x z dV (6-8)
V 2E
 2G E 

 And if only the principal stresses act on the element (i.e.  1,  2 and 3)
  1  
U i    12   22   32  1 2   2 3  1 3 dV (6-9)
V 2E
 E 
  


ENG5312 – Mechanics of Solids II 5

6.3 Elastic Strain Energy for Various Types of Loading

6.3.1 Axial Load

 Consider a bar with a slowly changing cross-section that is loaded centroidally.

 The internal load at xfrom one end is N , and the normal stress is N / A .
using Eq. (6-4) the strain energy is:

 x2 N2
Ui   2E
dV   dV
V 2EA
2
 V 
 
The volume dV can be expressed as Adx and:
L
 N2
Ui   2AE
dx (6-10)
0
 
 If the cross-sectional area is constant:

 N 2L
Ui  (6-11)
2AE

 Note:

o L , U i  

o A, Ui 

o E , U i 

o i.e. something that is easy to distort will store more strain energy.


ENG5312 – Mechanics of Solids II 6

6.3.2 Bending Moment

 Application of a bending moment to a straight prismatic member results in a

normal stress.

 Consider the element of area dA , y from the neutral axis, then (  My /I) ,
and using Eq. (6-4):
2
2 1 My 
Ui   2E
dV     dV 
2E  I 
 V V

 The volume dV can be written as dV  dAdx , so:

 L
M2
Ui   2EI  y dAdx
2
2

0 A
 
 Will give the strain energy in the member, and since y 2
dA  I :
A

L
M2
Ui   dx
2EI
(6-12)
0

 Note: The bending moment needs to be expressed as a function of x , then Eq.

(6-12) can be integrated.



 ENG5312 – Mechanics of Solids II 7

6.3.3 Transverse Shear

 Consider a prismatic beam with an axis of symmetry y.



 The internal shear force at x is V , and the shear stress on the element of area
VQ
dA is  
It
. Using Eq. (6-6) the strain energy is:

2
2 1 VQ 
 U i   2G
dV     dAdx
2G  It 
   V V

 Or

 L
V2 Q2
Ui   2GI 2
 t2
dAdx (6-13)
0 A

 Defining the form factor, f s , which is a function of geometry:

 A Q2
fs 
I2
 t2
dA (6-14)
A

 The strain energy can be written as;

 L
f sV 2
Ui   2GA
dx (6-15)
0

 An example of the form factor calculation is given in the text. For a rectangular
cross-section f s  6 /5 .



ENG5312 – Mechanics of Solids II 8

 Note: U i due to shear is usually much less than U i for bending (se e.g.14.4,
Hibbeler, 6e) and the shear strain energy stored in beams is usually neglected.

6.3.4 Torsional Moment

 
 Consider a shaft with a gradually changing cross-section:

 If the shaft is subjected to an internal torque T at from one end, the shear x
stress on the element dA at  from the centroid is   T / J , and using Eq. (6-
6) the strain energy is;
2
 1 T 
Ui   
2G
dV     dAdx
2G  J 
  V
 V

 Or

 L
T 2  
Ui   2GJ   dAdx
2
2
(6-16)
0 A

 But the polar moment of inertia, J, is defined as:

 J  2
dA (6-17)
A

 Using Eq. (6-17) the strain energy can be written:

 L
T2
Ui   2GJ
dx (6-18)
0

 If the shaft (or tube) has constant cross-sectional area:

 T 2L
Ui  (6-19)
2GJ


 ENG5312 – Mechanics of Solids II 9

6.4 Conservation of Energy

 The principal of conservation of energy states: Energy is a conserved property.

It can neither be created nor destroyed; only its form can be altered from one
form of energy to another.

 Only mechanical energy will be considered, but kinetic energy will be neglected
since all loadings will be gradual.

 Conservation of energy would require that the external work done by applied
loads (i.e. applied loads that cause deflections) must be equivalent to the strain
energy developed in a body as it deforms.

Ue  Ui (6-20)

 If the loads are removed the stored strain energy will restore the body to its
undeformed state (if the elastic limit has not been exceeded).


6.4.1 Trusses

 Consider a truss subjected to the load P.



 If the point of application of the load P deflects  in the direction of P , and

the load is increased gradually from 0 to P , then from Eq. (6-1):

1
Ue  P (6-21)
2
  
 the body is stored as strain energy. If, due to P , the
This external work done on
axial force N develops in a member, the strain energy stored in that member is
N 2L 
from Eq. (6-11). To determine the total strain energy stored in the truss:
2AE



ENG5312 – Mechanics of Solids II 10

N 2L
Ui   (6-22)
2AE

 Where the summation is over all the members in the truss.

  requires
Conservation of energy U e  U i , therefore:

1 N 2L
P   (6-23)
2 2AE

 The deflection  caused by P can be evaluated after the axial forces in each
member of the truss has been determined using statics.


6.4.2  Beams
Vertically Loaded

 Consider a beam loaded with the vertical force P.

 The deflection at the point of application of P can be determined from the

conservation of energy, Eq. (6-20), using Eqs. (6-1) and (6-12), for U e and Ui ,
respectively:
L
1 M2
2
P   2EI
dx
 
(6-24)
0

 The bending moment would be written as a function of x.

 
Note: the beam deflects due to bending moment and shear, however, the strain
energy due to shear is usually neglected, thus the deflection can be written as a
function of bending moment only.


 ENG5312 – Mechanics of Solids II 11

6.4.3 Beams Loaded with a Couple

 Consider a cantilever beam subjected to an applied moment Mo .



 The couple moment will cause the rotation  at the point of application, and it
does work due to this rotation: U e  M o /2 from Eq. (6-2).

 The strain energy would be caused by the bending moment M , and

L
M 2

Ui   2EI dx fromEq. (6-12).
0

 
Conservation of energy, Eq. (6-20), would require:
L
 1 M2
2
M 0   2EI dx (6-25)
0

 Where M is a function of x.
 the conservation of energy is limited to situations where only
Note: Application of
one applied load exists. For multiple applied loads, each load would have an
associated external work and deflection, but there is only one conservation
 equation, so only one unknown deflection can be solved.

ENG5312 – Mechanics of Solids II 12

6.5 Impact Loading

 Remember Mechanics II? Remember work-energy and conservation of energy

methods?

 E.g. A weight is dropped from rest from a height h on to a linear spring, with
spring constant k . What is the maximum deflection of the spring?

o Conservation of energy:



T1  V1  T2  V2
1 2
W h   max   k max
2




o Or Work-Energy: U e  U i  strain energy in the spring.

 max
1
W h   max    kxdx  k2max
2
0

o The result can be rearranged to give:

 2W 2W
2max   max  h0
k k

o The quadratic equation can be solved to give the maximum root:

 W W 2 W 

 max      2 h  (6-26)
k  k   k 

o If the weight is applied statically (i.e. gradually) W  k st or  st  W /k , and

Eq. (6-26) can be written as:

 max   st  2st  2 st h
 
o Or

  h 
 max   st 1 1 2  (6-27)
  st 


ENG5312 – Mechanics of Solids II 13

o Where the term in the square root is the extra displacement due to dynamic
loading.

o Note: if h  0 , i.e. the weight W is released while it just touches the spring,
 max  2 st .

 E.g. A weight W travelling with velocity v

on a frictionless horizontal surface
impacts
 a linear spring, with spring constant k . What is the maximum deflection
 of the spring?

o Conservation of Energy;

T1  V1  T2  V
2


1 W  2 1 2
 v  k max
2  g  2




o Or

Wv 2
2max  (6-28)
gk

o A statically loaded spring would deflect  st  W /k , so Eq. (6-28) can be

written as: 

 st v 2
 max  (6-29)
 g

 How to convert this information into deflections of dynamically loaded members?

i.e. How is impact loading simulated?

 Assume:

i. The moving body is rigid.

ii. The stationary body deforms in a linear-elastic manner (i.e. it behaves as

a linear spring).

iii. No energy is lost during the collision.

iv. The bodies remain in contact during the collision.

ENG5312 – Mechanics of Solids II 14

 These are conservative assumptions, which lead to overestimates of forces (i.e.

good for design purposes).

 With these assumptions, the deformable body behaves like a linear spring.

 i.e. an effective spring constant can be defined and Eqs. (6-27) or (6-29) can be
used to determine  max .

 An equivalent spring constant is not required. All that is needed is the static
deflection,  st , for use in Eq. (6-27).  st can be obtained from the equation of
 curve, Hooke’s Law, Appendix C, or conservation of energy and strain
the elastic
energy.


 An impact factor, n , canbe defined from Eq. (6-27):
 h 
n  1 1 2  (6-30)
 st 

 So:

 

 max  n st  n W k

 And

Pmax  nW  k max

 And the maximum stress is then:  max  n st .



