Physics Semiconductors Project PDF

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Semiconductors…
Physics Project..
http://www.slideshare.net/AashirwadJindal/physicssemiconductorsproject 1/25
‐Aashirwad
jindal
4 of 27

to – heema mam

“If we knew what it was we were doing, it would not be called research,
would it?”
― Albert Einstein
1|physics project.
Welcome to this basic

tour of semiconductor
physics! Two of our
most excellent guides,
Sally Con and Jerry
Manium, will take you
through.
Sally and Jerry explain

Physics semiconductors project things in different ways.
Sally tries to be correct,
and likes to stick to the
31,640
facts. Jerry is easy-going,
Share and uses examples from
Like the everyday world
Download around us. let Sally and
Jerry explain a few
things!
Aashirwad Jindal, schooling at school
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Published on Jan 31, 2014
its a complete project on semi conductors ...u just ned to save it and have fun its perfect at its
... 2|physics project.

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History..
Vishal Trivedi , C.E.O. at Nike
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Jhapranav
1 month ago
Let's begin this journey into the world of semiconductors with a look at
the history books. In the early 1900s, not much was known of the world
at an atomic level, and even less so at the subatomic level. Physics, to a
large extent, still calmly followed classical rules. But new discoveries
Harit Sharma like Röntgen's x rays, Thomson's electron and Rutherford's discovery
-
2 months ago of the atomic nucleus made it clear that new rules were needed. Scientists
like Planck, Einstein, Bohr,Pauli and Heisenberg, to name a few, all
contributed to the development and understanding necessary for the
creation of the new paradigm of quantum physics. The development of
vermaakash1999quantum physics also laid the ground for 'Solid State Physics' which is a
3 months ago discipline explaining the internal atomic structure and the electronic
properties of the materials that we see in our everyday life such as
Show More metals, plastics, glass, etc.
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History..
[Type sidebar content. A sidebar is a standalone supplement to
the main document. It is often aligned on the left or right of the
Physics semiconductors project
page, or located at the top or bottom. Use the Text Box Tools tab
1. 1. Semiconductors… Physics Project.. Aashirwad jindal to – heema mam “If we knew what it was
to change the formatting of the sidebar text box.]
we were doing, it would not be called research, would it?” ― Albert Einstein 1|physics project.
2. 2. Welcome to this basic tour of semiconductor physics! Two of our most excellent guides, Sally
Con and Jerry Manium, will take you through. Sally and Jerry explain things in different ways.
Sally tries to be correct, and likes to stick to the facts. Jerry is easygoing, and uses examples from
the everyday world around us. let Sally and Jerry explain a few things! 2|physics project.
3. 3. Introduction… 3|physics project.
4. 4. History.. Let's begin this journey into the world of semiconductors with a look at the history
books. In the early 1900s, not much was known of the world at an atomic level, and even less so at
the subatomic level. Physics, to a large extent, still calmly followed classical rules. But new
discoveries like Röntgen's xrays, Thomson's electron and Rutherford's discovery of the atomic
nucleus made it clear that new rules were needed. Scientists like Planck, Einstein, Bohr,Pauli and
Heisenberg, to name a few, all contributed to the development and understanding necessary for the
creation of the new paradigm of quantum physics. The development of quantum physics also laid
the ground for 'Solid State Physics' which is a discipline explaining the internal atomic structure
and the electronic properties of the materials that we see in our everyday life such as metals,
plastics, glass, etc. 4|physics project.
5. 5. History.. [Type sidebar content. A sidebar is a standalone supplement to the main document. It is
often aligned on the left or right of the page, or located at the top or bottom. Use the Text Box
Tools tab to change the formatting of the sidebar text box.] 5|physics project.
6. 6. Electricity Before we start, it would be a good idea to clarify what electricity is. Electricity can
be seen as a stream of electrons. Electrons are tiny particles with a negative charge. So, roughly
explained, electricity is a stream of electrons flowing from one point to another. A good way to
explain an electric current passing through a cable would be to imagine a pipe filled with marbles
that exactly fit the pipe. If we push a marble into the pipe in one end, the motion would be
distributed, each marble pushing its neighbor, so that almost instantly a marble in the other end
would be pushed out of the pipe. 6|physics project.
7. 7. Conductivity..!! [Type sidebar content. A sidebar is a standalone supplement to the main
document. It is often aligned on the left or right of the page, or located at the top or bottom. Use
the Text Box Tools tab to change the formatting of the sidebar text box.] 7|physics project.
8. 8. Why semiconductors..??? 8|physics project.
9. 9. Semiconducting materials..!! Semiconductors can be made of a single material or a combination
of several different materials. In early semiconductor devices germanium was often used. However
in today's semiconductor industry, silicon is commonly used. Silicon is very easy to find in Nature.
Ordinary sand, like on the beach or in the desert for example, is nothing more than one silicon
5|physics project.
atom combined with two oxygen atoms. However, if you want silicon in its pure form suitable for
the production of, for instance, computer chips it has to be purified in a carefully monitored
process. One of the main reasons for the popularity of silicon is that it is stable and can be heated
to a rather high degree without loosing its material characteristics. This means that engineers can
be sure it will perform according to their plans, even under quite extreme conditions. 9|physics
project.
10. 10. Semiconducting materials cont…. [Type sidebar content. A sidebar is a standalone supplement
Electricity
to the main document. It is often aligned on the left or right of the page, or located at the top or
bottom. Use the Text Box Tools tab to change the formatting of the sidebar text box.] Just to make
sure we avoid misunderstandings, when we talk about silicon, we don't mean silicone spelled with
an "e" at the end, 'cause that is a material mostly known for its use in human implants. To
understand the principles of semiconductors, it is good to first understand the basics of atoms and
energy levels within atoms. So that's where we're going to start. 10 | p h y s i c s p r o j e c t .
11. 11. Silicon and its molecules.. If we look at the solid material of Silicon we will see that it is built
from a huge number of Silicon atoms that are brought together. When the atoms interact with each
Before we start, it would be a good idea to clarify what
other, the atomic shells of each atom interacts with the atomic shells of neighboring atoms. On an
electricity is. Electricity can be seen as a stream of
energy scale, the overlapping energy shells of all the separate atoms form energy bands that are
electrons. Electrons are tiny particles with a negative
similar to the energy shells in the single atom. Between the bands no electrons are allowed. In a
charge. So, roughly explained, electricity is a stream of
simplified way, it is almost as if the solid material is an enlargement of the single atom. 11 | p h y s
electrons flowing from one point to another.
i c s p r o j e c t .
12. 12. Bands and their theories... To continue our journey, you don't need to fully understand what
Sally just said. But what you do need to understand is, that the highest energy band that is occupied
by electrons in a material is called the valence band, just like in the single atom where the highest
shell occupied by electrons is called the valence shell. The band with energy one step higher than
the valence band is theconduction band. The energy gap between these two bands, where no
electrons are allowed, is called the band gap. If you think of the energy bands as steps in a staircase
then the band gap is the area between the steps. You can put your foot on the first step of the stairs
and you can put it on the second, but you can never put it 12 | p h y s i c s p r o j e c t .
13. 13. Bands and their theories... cont… somewhere between the first and second. 13 | p h y s i c s p r
o j e c t .
14. 14. A electronhole pair..!! A very important feature of the semiconductor material is the electron
A good way to explain an electric current passing through a
hole pair. To get a semiconductor to conduct a current, we must make an electron jump from an
cable would be to imagine a pipe filled with marbles that
occupied to an unoccupied energy level. When it does this it leaves a hole (an empty state). This
exactly fit the pipe. If we push a marble into the pipe in one
hole can be filled by another electron, which itself leaves a new hole. Therefore, we could say that
end, the motion would be distributed, each marble pushing
both the hole and the electron contribute to the conductivity as they move around in the material.
its neighbor, so that almost instantly a marble in the other
The hole is like a positive charge (lack of negative), the electron is negative. It's a little bit like this
end would be pushed out of the pipe.
simple puzzle game where you move pieces around to form an image. The moving pieces
correspond to the electrons, of course. 14 | p h y s i c s p r o j e c t .
15. 15. Conduction in different types of materials… As mentioned earlier, the semiconductor has a
conducting capacity somewhere between the conductor and the insulator. If we look closer at the
materials we can see why they behave like this. Before we go on, note that contrary to what its
name may suggest, the conduction band is not the only band where conduction of a current may
occur. Conduction is equally possible in the valence band. In a good conductor like a metal, the
highest energy band with electrons (valence band) is only partially filled. This means that the
electrons can accelerate. In other words, they gain energy so that they can transfer to 15 | p h y s i c
6|physics project.
s p r o j e c t .
16. 16. Conduction in different types of materials… higher energy levels that are empty. Simply put, in
a conductor there is plenty of room for the electrons to jump from an occupied state to an empty
one. If you felt that Sally's explanation of the conduction properties in different materials was
crystal clear, you can skip the following part. But if you're still a little unsure of how it works, I
will try to show you another way of looking at this phenomenon. To help my explanation, I am
[Type sidebar content. A sidebar is a standalone supplement to
Conductivity..!!
going to use the unrealistic cup with the waterfilled compartments again. The compartments equal
the energy bands of the material and the water 16 | p h y s i c s p r o j e c t .
17. 17. Conduction in different types of materials… equals the electrons. This time the cup only has
two compartments, one for the valence band and one for the conduction band. In a conductor, the
valence band is only partially filled. This means that, in our cup, we are going to have the valence
compartment halffilled with water. If we tip the cup from side to side, we will see that it is easy
for the water to move back and forth, just as it is easy for the electrons to move within the
conductor. A semiconductor at low temperature is an insulator because there is no place for the
electrons to go to. The valence compartment is filled and no matter how we tip the cup there is no
room for the water to move into. At room temperature, the heat (energy) makes the atoms vibrate
slightly, enough for a few of the electrons to break their bonds and jump into the 17 | p h y s i c s p
r o j e c t .
18. 18. Conduction in different types of is a standalone [Type sidebar content. A sidebarmaterials
cont… supplement to the main document. It is often aligned on the left or right of the page, or
located at the top or bottom. Use the Text Box Tools tab to change the formatting of the sidebar
text box.] conduction band. If we take some water (electrons) from the valence band and move it to
the conduction band, we will have place for the water (electrons) to move in both bands. If we tip
our cup, water will move both in the valence and conduction band. Thus, in a semiconductor at
room temperature, a small current will flow. In an insulator, the valence band is completely filled,
and as a result no electrons can move. In the cup, no water will move no matter how we tip it. The
band gap between the valence and the conduction band is huge. To move water (electrons) from
our valence compartment to the conduction compartment, we would need to add such an amount of
energy that our cup (material) would be close to breaking before any water (electrons) would begin
to move between the compartments. 18 | p h y s i c s p r o j e c t .
19. 19. Doping … Doping..cont.. Now we are going to talk about doping. Maybe the word makes you
think of athletes taking illegal drugs to perform better. Although doping in sports is outrageous, the
parallel between that and doping of semiconductors is not too farfetched. In both cases you have
something pure, like an athlete or a semiconducting material, and add something foreign to it to
change its performance. So, in the process of doping you add a tiny amount of atoms from another
material to the pure semiconductor. By doing so, you can drastically increase its ability to conduct
a current. There are two forms of doping, p and n. p stands for positive and n for negative. Finally,
two words that are good to know: a pure nondoped semiconductor is called intrinsic, while a
doped semiconductor material is called extrinsic. 19 | p h y s i c s p r o j e c t .
20. 20. Pure semiconductors.. Before we look at examples of doped semiconductors, let's look at how
the silicon atoms in pure silicon interact to form the crystal structure of the material. In pure
silicon, each atom has four valence electrons and these are shared with four neighboring silicon
atoms to make four double bonds. Now each atom will have a completely filled valence shell of
eight electrons. At low temperature this bond is very stable, completely filling the valence band
and thus making conduction impossible. Here is a model of the structure of pure silicon: In a pure
semiconductor at low temperature, the valence layer is completely filled with electrons and the
7|physics project.
conduction band is empty. That would be equal to one filled and one empty compartment in my
cup. The water (electrons) can't move because there is no empty space. 20 | p h y s i c s p r o j e c t
.
21. 21. P doping pdoping is when you add atoms with less valence electrons to the semiconductor so
that the material gets a shortage of electrons in the crystal bonds. This way positive holes that can
Why semiconductors..???
transport current are formed. The materials that add holes are called acceptors because they accept
electrons from the surrounding atoms. In a ptype semiconductor the major carrier of current are
the holes, not the electrons. The p in pdoping stands for positive. This is because compared to the
atoms in the semiconductor material the added atoms have fewer negative valence electrons. In the
pdoped semiconductor the higher conduction band is empty, but there will be holes in the valence
band. In the cup, this means that we remove some water from the valence compartment. In other
words, we form air bubbles (positive holes) in the water. Now if we tip the cup, there is room for
the water (electrons) to move in one direction and for the created holes (lack of electrons) to move
in the opposite direction (just like bubbles would do in water). 21 | p h y s i c s p r o j e c t .
22. 22. Ndoping… In the process of ndoping you add atoms with one extra valence electron to the
pure semiconducting material. This creates a situation where there are extra electrons that are just
loosely bound in the crystal. The amount of energy needed to get these electrons to jump to the
conduction band so that a current may pass is very small. The materials that add electrons are
called donors. This is simply because they donate electrons to the semiconductor. In the ntype
semiconductor the major carrier of current is the negative electrons. The n in ndoping stands for
negative. This is because compared to the atoms in the semiconductor material the added atoms
have more negative valence electrons. In the ndoped semiconductor, the valence band is full so
there is no room for the electrons to move there. Instead, the extra electrons move into the
conduction band. In our cup, we can see that no water will move in the full valence compartment.
Instead, the extra water (electrons) added will move within the conduction compartment. 22 | p h y
s i c s p r o j e c t .
23. 23. Semiconductorsthe future In a world where computers become faster and faster each year,
semiconductor components, like chips and transistors, must be made smaller and smaller. This
means that we will eventually reach a limit on how much faster and more effective the Silicon
based technique can be made (in fact, devices operating with just a single electron have already
been demonstrated). "What happens then?" you might ask yourself. Well we don't know for sure,
but today's scientists are working hard to find new materials or to improve old ones. In the future,
large molecules might do the work that transistors do today. This field is called Molecular
Electronics. So hopefully (if you like information technology, that is) computers can continue to
evolve for a long time to come. 23 | p h y s i c s p r o j e c t .
24. 24. Circuit diagram… Characteristics of transistor.. Transistor as amplifier. Transistor as switch 24
| p h y s i c s p r o j e c t .
25. 25. Circuit diagrams.. Full wave rectifier. half wave rectifier. 25 | p h y s i c s p r o j e c t .
26. 26. Circuit diagram… logic gates… Integrated circuit 26 | p h y s i c s p r o j e c t .
27. 27. 27 | p h y s i c s p r o j e c t .
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If you think of the energy bands as steps in

a staircase then the band gap is the area
between the steps. You can put your foot on
the first step of the stairs and you can put it
on the second, but you can never put it
mettalurgy12th sci cbse
Aashirwad Jindal
442
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A electronhole pair..!!
Public clipboards featuring this slide
A very important feature of the semiconductor material is

the electron-hole pair. To get a semiconductor to conduct
a current, we must make an electron jump from an
occupied to an unoccupied energy level. When it does
this it leaves a hole (an empty state). This hole can be
filled by another electron, which itself leaves a new hole.
Therefore, we could say that both the hole and the
No public clipboards found for this slide
electron contribute to the conductivity as they move
around in the material. The hole is like a positive charge
(lack of negative), the electron is negative.
It's a little bit like this simple puzzle game where you
move pieces around to form an image. The moving pieces
correspond to the electrons, of course.
Conduction in different types of materials…
As mentioned earlier, the semiconductor has a conducting

capacity somewhere between the conductor and the insulator. If we look
closer at the materials we can see why they behave like this. Before we
go on, note that contrary to what its name may suggest, the conduction
band is not the only band where conduction of a current may occur.
Conduction is equally possible in the valence band.
In a good conductor like a metal, the highest energy band with electrons
(valence band) is only partially filled. This means that the electrons can
accelerate. In other words, they gain energy so that they can transfer to
higher energy levels that are empty. Simply put, in a conductor there is
plenty of room for the electrons to jump from an occupied state to an
empty one.
If you felt that Sally's explanation of the conduction

properties in different materials was crystal clear, you
can skip the following part. But if you're still a little
unsure of how it works, I will try to show you another
way of looking at this phenomenon. To help my
explanation, I am going to use the unrealistic cup with
the water-filled compartments again. The compartments
equal the energy bands of the material and the water
9/22/2015
equal the energyPhysics semiconductors project
bands of the material and the water
equals the electrons. This time the cup only has two
compartments, one for the valence band and one for the
conduction band.
In a conductor, the valence band is only partially

filled. This means that, in our cup, we are going to
have the valence compartment half-filled with water.
If we tip the cup from side to side, we will see that it
is easy for the water to move back and forth, just as it
is easy for the electrons to move within the
conductor.
A semiconductor at low temperature is an insulator

because there is no place for the electrons to go to.
The valence compartment is filled and no matter how
we tip the cup there is no room for the water to move
into. At room temperature, the heat (energy) makes
the atoms vibrate slightly, enough for a few of the
electrons to break their bonds and jump into the
Conduction
[Type sidebar
in content.
differentAtypes
sidebar
of materials
is a standalone
cont… supplement to
conduction band. If we take some water (electrons)

from the valence band and move it to the conduction
band, we will have place for the water (electrons) to
move in both bands. If we tip our cup, water will
move both in the valence and conduction band. Thus,
in a semiconductor at room temperature, a small
current will flow.
In an insulator, the valence band is completely filled,

and as a result no electrons can move. In the cup, no
water will move no matter how we tip it. The band
gap between the valence and the conduction band is
huge. To move water (electrons) from our valence
compartment to the conduction compartment, we
would need to add such an amount of energy that our
cup (material) would be close to breaking before any
water (electrons) would begin to move between the
compartments.
Doping …
Doping..cont..
Now we are going to talk about doping. Maybe the word

makes you think of athletes taking illegal drugs to perform
better. Although doping in sports is outrageous, the parallel
between that and doping of semiconductors is not too far-
fetched. In both cases you have something pure, like an athlete
or a semiconducting material, and add something foreign to it
to change its performance.
So, in the process of doping you add a tiny amount of atoms

from another material to the pure semiconductor. By doing so,
you can drastically increase its ability to conduct a current.
There are two forms of doping, p and n. p stands for positive
and n for negative. Finally, two words that are good to know:
a pure non-doped semiconductor is called intrinsic, while a
doped semiconductor material is called extrinsic.
Pure semiconductors..
Before we look at examples of doped semiconductors, let's

look at how the silicon atoms in pure silicon interact to form
the crystal structure of the material. In pure silicon, each
atom has four valence electrons and these are shared with
four neighboring silicon atoms to make four double bonds.
Now each atom will have a completely filled valence shell
of eight electrons. At low temperature this bond is very
stable, completely filling the valence band and thus making
conduction impossible. Here is a model of the structure of
pure silicon:
In a pure semiconductor at low temperature, the

valence layer is completely filled with electrons and the
conduction band is empty. That would be equal to one
filled and one empty compartment in my cup. The
water (electrons) can't move because there is no
empty space.
P doping
p-doping is when you add atoms with less valence electrons to

the semiconductor so that the material gets a shortage of
electrons in the crystal bonds. This way positive holes that can
transport current are formed. The materials that add holes are
called acceptors
surrounding because
atoms. In a p-they
type accept electronsthe
semiconductor from the
major
carrier of current are the holes, not the electrons.
The p in p-doping stands for positive. This is because

compared to the atoms in the semiconductor material the
added atoms have fewer negative valence electrons. In the p-
doped semiconductor the higher conduction band is empty,
but there will be holes in the valence band.
In the cup, this means that we remove some water from the
valence compartment. In other words, we form air bubbles
(positive holes) in the water. Now if we tip the cup, there is
room for the water (electrons) to move in one direction and for
the created holes (lack of electrons) to move in the opposite
direction (just like bubbles would do in water).
Ndoping…
In the process of n-doping you add atoms with one extra

valence electron to the pure semiconducting material. This
creates a situation where there are extra electrons that are just
loosely bound in the crystal. The amount of energy needed to
get these electrons to jump to the conduction band so that a
current may pass is very small. The materials that add
electrons are called donors. This is simply because they
donate electrons to the semiconductor. In the n-type
semiconductor the major carrier of current is the negative
electrons.
The n in n-doping stands for negative. This is because

compared to the atoms in the semiconductor material the
added atoms have more negative valence electrons. In the n-
doped semiconductor, the valence band is full so there is no
room for the electrons to move there. Instead, the extra
electrons move into the conduction band.
In our cup, we can see that no water will move in the full
valence compartment. Instead, the extra water (electrons)
added will move within the conduction compartment.
Semiconductorsthe future
In a world where computers become faster and faster

each year, semiconductor components, like chips and
transistors, must be made smaller and smaller. This
means that we will eventually reach a limit on how much
faster and more effective the Silicon based technique can
be made (in fact, devices operating with just a single
electron have already been demonstrated). "What
happens then?" you might ask yourself. Well we don't
know for sure, but today's scientists are working hard to
find new materials or to improve old ones. In the future,
large molecules might do the work that transistors do
today. This field is called Molecular Electronics. So
today. This field is called Molecular Electronics. So
hopefully (if you like information technology, that is)
computers can continue to evolve for a long time to
come.
Circuit diagram…
Characteristics of transistor..
Transistor as amplifier.
Transistor as switch
Circuit diagrams..
Full wave rectifier.
half wave rectifier.
Circuit diagram…
logic gates…
Integrated circuit

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9/22/2015 Physics semiconductors project

Welcome to this basic

Sally and Jerry explain

... 2|physics project.

Silicon is very easy to find in Nature. Ordinary

One of the main reasons for the popularity of silicon

Just to make sure we avoid misunderstandings,

To understand the principles of semiconductors, it is

Bands and their theories...

To continue our journey, you don't need to

highest shell occupied by electrons is called

If you think of the energy bands as steps in

A very important feature of the semiconductor material is

Conduction in different types of materials…

As mentioned earlier, the semiconductor has a conducting

Conduction in different types of materials…

If you felt that Sally's explanation of the conduction

Conduction in different types of materials…

In a conductor, the valence band is only partially

A semiconductor at low temperature is an insulator

conduction band. If we take some water (electrons)

In an insulator, the valence band is completely filled,

Now we are going to talk about doping. Maybe the word

So, in the process of doping you add a tiny amount of atoms

Before we look at examples of doped semiconductors, let's

In a pure semiconductor at low temperature, the

p-doping is when you add atoms with less valence electrons to

The p in p-doping stands for positive. This is because

In the process of n-doping you add atoms with one extra

The n in n-doping stands for negative. This is because

In a world where computers become faster and faster

Full wave rectifier.

half wave rectifier.

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