PRO ER CRSP) A Guide For Bridge Inspection aS ROAD ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF MALAYSIAABSTRACT ‘A Guide for Bridge Inspection by the Working Committee on Bridge Inspection of the Standing Committee on Road Structure, Road Engineering Association of Malaysia (REAM) provides recommendations of good practices for conducting bridge inspection. The document covers mainly bridge inspection for condition assessment. Determination of load-carrying capacity of existing bridges or strength assessment is not covered in this Guide. This document provides detailed descriptions of the necessary organization, equipment and procedures for a systematic inspection exercise for both bridges and culverts. It is intended that this document will serve as a national guide for all bridge ‘owners/authorities in the country. The Working Committee sincerely hopes that all bridge agencies in Malaysia would find this document useful for ensuring the safety and economy of their existing bridge stock. The Working Committee also hopes that the Guide will help to promote a uniform standard among various bridge agencies, so that a uniform level of service is assured for all the bridges in the nation. Sharing of information and resources among these agencies could be more easily achieved when there is a uniform standard of practice, ‘Many guidelines or manuals on bridge inspection exist from the U.S.A., Canada, the UK. and Japan. The need for a standard that takes into considerations local Malaysian conditions, for example the engineering practices, the climate and environment; etc., has often been felt by bridge agencies. This Guide focuses more on types of damages and structures found in this country. ‘THE ROAD ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF MALAYSIA 46-A, Jalan Bola Tampar 13/14, Section 13, 40100 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia Tel: 603-5513 6521 Fax: 5513 6523 e-mail: ream@po,jaring.myTABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER - 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 General 1.2. Organisation of Document 1.3. Types and Frequency of Inspection ... 1.4 Organisation of An Inspection Program 15. Inspection Equipments . CHAPTER - 2 TYPES OF DAMAGE 1. Corrosion of Steel... 2. Fracture in Steel 3. Loose Connections 4, Permanent Deformations 5. Paint Deterioration on Steel Surfaces 6. 7. 8, Cracks in Reinforced and Prestressed Conerete ... Spalling . Corrosion of Reinforcement 9. Wear and Abrasion 10, Material Deterioration 11, Surface Defects 12, Delaminatior 13, Abnormal Vibr 14, Water Leak 15, Tilt/ Settlement 16. Abnormal Movement 17. Scouring .. 18. Ponding Water. 19. Debris and Vegetation 20. Drainage Blocked . 21. No Pipe / or Inadequate Pipe Length ... 22. Impact Damage.. 23. Potholes. 24, Wheel Track Rutting. 25. Loss of Bond and Delamination (Pavement) 26. Rippling .. 27. Pavement Cracking 28, Cracking at Expansion 29, Abnormal Spacing at Bridge Joint .. 30. Difference in Level at Bridge Joint. 31. Abnormal Noise : 32. Rupture at Bridge Joint. 33. Abnormal Bulging at Elastomeric Bearin 34. Abnormal Displacement of Elastomeric Bearing Pad ... 35. Erosion 36. Material Loss / Disintegration 37. Silting at Culvert 38. Inadequate Size.CHAPTER - 3 INSPECTION PROCEDURES AND REPORTING 3.1 Bridge Inspection Procedures 3.2 Reporting. : CHAPTER - 4 CONDITION RATING GUIDE BASED ON DAMAGE 4.1 Introduction. 4.2 Guideline for Clarifying Severity of Damag 4.3 Recording of Information REFERENCES APPENDIX - A STATISTICS ON MALAYSIAN BRIDGEB......... APPENDIX - B BRIDGE STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS. 1.3 Bridge Components APPENDIX - C BMS REFERENCING SYSTEM ... APPENDIX - D NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING. D1 Introduction D2_ Non-Destructive Testing for The Examination of Concrete Bridges D3_ Non-Destructive Testing for The Examination of Steel Bridges APPENDIX - E FORM AND CHARTS ‘Summary Report Form (REAM FORM 1/01) Structural Condition Checklist (Bridge) Structural Condition Checklist (Culvert) Material Condition Rating Card Bridge Inventory Card .. APPENDIX - F PHOTOGRAPHS OF TYPICAL DAMAGE .CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTIONCHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Vl 1.2 General Bridges are key elements in our road networks and represent a major investment of our country's resources. Over time, a bridge will deteriorate and become unfit for its intended purposes if no intervening action such as maintenance, rehabilitation or strengthening is taken. Due to their strategic locations over natural or other manmade obstacles, any failure of a bridge may limit or severely disrupt the traffic flow in the networks, with consequent inconvenience and economic loss to the community. Although it rarely happens, catastrophic collapse of bridges very often result in tragic loss of human lives. It is therefore imperative that bridges be regularly inspected and appropriate actions taken. As a second motivation for bridge inspection, high in the agenda for most bridge owners around the World is the preservation of capital investment. There is a need to optimise the limited bridge funds by more effective bridge management strategies. It has become mandatory in some countries to operate a computerised Bridge Management System (BMS). Bridge inspection provides the necessary inputs for the BMS. In Malaysia, the Public Works Department or Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) is the custodian of over 7,000 highway bridges* along the Federal Roads in the Peninsula and perhaps, the same amount of highway bridges along the State Roads. Although different levels of bridge inspection have been carried out by JKR from time to time, it was not until 1995 that bridge inspection was made ‘mandatory to all the districts for Federal bridges. With the privatisation of road projects starting in 1984, many bridges in Malaysia are now also operated and managed by private companies which recoup their investments from toll collections, Although the majority of the privately managed bridges are new, the need for a systematic bridge inspection program of these bridges cannot be over-emphasised. Organisation of Document This document comprises recommendations and guidelines to bridge inspection organised in four chapters and appendices. Chapter 1 provides a brief discussion of the types of bridge inspection, the organisational setup and equipment needed for bridge inspection. Chapter 2 is devoted entirely to the discussion of common damages found in Malaysian bridges, Chapter 3 provides some guidelines on the procedures for conducting bridge inspection, Condition rating is used as a measure of the severity and extent of the damages and thus the performance state(s) of a bridge or its components. The recommended rating system based on JKR practice is presented in Chapter 4, * Bridges include box and pipes culverts of span over 0.5m ‘A Guide for Bridge Inspection wWIntroduction Appendix A gives some statistics of Malaysian bridges. It is important that a bridge inspector should have some basic understanding of bridge engineering. A brief introduction to common Malaysian bridges is thus given in Appendix B. It is also important that a common bridge referencing system be adopted by the different agencies in the country if the objectives set forth for a national guide are to be achieved. Bridge referencing system is discussed in Appendix C. Deficiencies and site conditions vary widely among structures, making it difficult to detect and diagnose some bridges through a single inspection. Often times, a more elaborate inspection using more sophisticated equipment may be needed after the first round of inspection. Nondestructive testing is discussed in Appendix D and special types of inspection not already covered in the main text, Recommended standard forms are given in Appendix E. Photographs of typical damage to our bridges are presented in Appendix F. Types and Frequency of Inspection 13.1 Bridge inspection is classified in the Overseas Economic Congress Development (OECD) Bridge Inspection Report in terms of the scale or intensity, and/or its frequency of the inspection. Based on this classification, three types of bridge inspection have been identified. A superficial inspection would be carried out as the opportunity arises by highway maintenance personnel who have a good practical knowledge of road structures, but not necessarily trained in bridge inspection. A principal inspection will usually be made by trained inspectors at regular intervals. A special inspection will usually be made by experts in connection with unusual circumstances, such as exceptional loading, with occurrence of major weaknesses or with reassessment of the structure against revised specifications and regulations. 1.3.2 In this document, bridge inspection is classified in terms of its purposes in the context of ‘a maintenance management system. In this regard, a series of different types of bridge inspection has to be carried out to identify the annual work programmes:- a) Inventory inspection b) Routine condition inspection ©) Confirmatory inspection 4) Detailed inspection ifferent levels of It is to be noted that these different types of inspection require competence and training; and are to be performed by inspectors from either the Headquarters or regional office. 12 ‘A Guide for Bridge InspectionIntroduction Inventory inspection is the first inspection carried out by the inspectors at the regional levels on a particular bridge to collect inventory data, This inspection is done visually and systematically on every bridge in the network. Dimensioned measurements, sketches and photographs are taken and recorded onto the inventory card of each bridge. A sample bridge inventory card is shown in Appendix E. Routine condition inspection is a routine inspection carried out at the regional level for the purpose of rating the bridges based on their physical conditions and to ensure the safety of these bridges. This type of inspection is done visually following a checklist, This inspection can be done at least once a year, preferably during the period after the flood season, which would normally be around March. Confirmatory inspection follows the routine condition inspection, to ensure that reporting done by the regional inspection teams are consistent with the established rating criteria. This inspection shall be carried out by inspection teams from the Headquarters on those bridges that are reported to be defective. The inspection will also enable the Headquarters to prepare the programme for bridge maintenance or further detailed inspection, Detailed inspection shall be carried out by engineers from the Headquarters after the confirmatory inspection had identified the need for the bridge to be rehabilitated. The bridge engincers will inspect the defects on the bridge and this include taking and testing samples of defective materials and partly to assess the cause and extent of damage. Recommendations will then be made on the most feasible rehabilitation methods. ‘The different type of inspection is rarely carried out alone. More often than not, to obtain a complete surveillance of a bridge calls for a bridge inspection program involving a series of different types of bridge inspection. A bridge maintenance management procedure must exist in the context of a bridge management system, which stipulates how various levels/types of inspection should be carried out to identify projects for bridge maintenance, rehabilitation and replacement. An example based on JKR practice is shown in Fig. 1.1 ‘A Guide for Bridge Inspection 13Introduction Gane CBI xr CED were =o) Ss v V Update JKR BMS @o Update JKR BMS eg Fig. 1.) Different Levels of JKR Bridge Maintenance Procedure 1 A Guide for Bridge inspectionIniroduction 1.4 Organisation of an Inspection Program 1.4.1 Roles of Key Personel In general, bridge inspection shall be conducted at two levels: the regional and the Headquarters. A recommended organisational set up is presented in Fig. 1.2. Bridge Manager Team-1 ‘Team-2 i y Bridge Engineer Bridge Engineer a) HQ Level Regional Manager ‘Team-1 ‘Team-2 Regional Bridge Regional Bridge Inspector Inspector General Workers General Workers b) Regional Level Fig. 1.2 Suggested Organisational Setup ‘A Guide for Bridge Inspection 15At the regional level, the inspection team is to be headed by a Bridge Inspector who has attended the inspection training conducted or approved by the Headquarters. He is assisted by two or more general workers and provided with a vehicle and driver. The inspector in turn will carry out his duty under the order of the Regional Manager. At the Headquarters level, the inspection team shall be headed by a bridge engineer with sufficient experience in Bridge Engineering. These Bridge Inspectors report to a Bridge ‘Manager. The number of inspecting teams in the Headquarters or regional office depends on the needs. ‘The roles of each member of the organisational setup are discussed here below : - Bridge Manager ‘The Bridge Manager is overall incharge of the whole bridge inspection and management program, He is responsible for ensuring that the bridge inspections are duly carried out and reported. Regional Managers ‘The routine condition inspection provides the Regional Manager with an up-to-date information about the condition of each bridge in his region and also to enable him to assess maintenance requirements. In implementing the annual inspection program the Regional Manager has the key role of coordinating, mobilising and supporting his personnel, which include: a) Set up a Bridge Inspection Team b) Select suitable personnel as Bridge Inspectors and assistants. ©) Ensure that each Bridge Inspector fully understands his duties and responsibilities. 4) Ensure that cach Bridge Inspector has access to all necessary equipment, including safety equipment. e) Ensure that prior to an inspection, the Bridge Inspector is given the necessary documents. £) Read each inspection report carefully and make comments or suggestions if necessary. 2) Send to the Headquarters all inspection reports as required. h) Determine what maintenance is required, catagorise, prioritise and prepare work schedule. 1 A Guide or Bridge InspectionLA2 Introduction i) Ensure that the records are updated (into the Bridge Inventory Card). i) Initiate counter measures to emergency situations. Regional Bridge Inspectors The Bridge Inspector acts as the leader of the inspection team, and together with his workmen will need to go down to every bridge in his region. His duties include: a) To conduct an inspection regularly, for example, once a year and whenever deemed necessary by the Regional Managers. b) Torecord as clearly as possible any defects found on a bridge. ©) To report any serious defects found on a bridge to the Regional Managers be it after the condition inspection or at any other time. d) To close down the structure in the event of emergency after consultation with the Regional Managers. ) Should always be on the look out for any unusual circumstances of any bridge in the region he is working. £) Should be familiar with all the bridges available in the region and keep a list of them. 8) To make sure that all inspection equipment are available and in good condition. h) To carry out maintenance operation as directed by the Regional Managers Quality of a Good Bridge Inspector ‘The success of an inspection exercise depends on the ability of the Bridge Inspectors. In general, a good inspector, whether a technician or an engineer by training, should possess the general traits as follows: a) Reliability Bridge inspections are done at sites away from the office. A bridge inspector must therefore be a dependable person to carry out a task as instructed; and can be counted on to take all the necessary actions in emergency circumstances. ‘A Gide for Bridge Inspection WwIntroduction b) Technical and Communication Skills 9 oo) A bridge inspection, regardless of the type or purpose, should include the following steps:- i. determine if there is a problem ii, assess the severity and extent of the problem evaluate any possibility of further deterioration identify the probable causes of the problem report the inspection vi. propose solutions to the problem and/or recommend a more detailed and specialised type of inspection ‘To be able to do the above requires that the bridge inspectors be technically sound. ‘The amount of technical knowledge needed depends on the types and purposes of the inspections. It is important that he has undergone a formal training in bridge inspection. In addition, a bridge inspector must be able to write, draw or verbally communicate his observations to the Regional Manager. Health A Bridge Inspector must be physically fit and has good eyesight. This would enable him to inspect difficult places without taking unnecessary risks as well as detecting small defects in conditions of varying light and shade. Safety is very important and inspectors must never take unnecessary risks. Attitude Bridge inspectors often find themselves in a dangerous, dirty and/or difficult environment. A good inspector must have the right attitude and enthusiasm to do a g00d job in inspection. He must be willing to inspect items thoroughly and critically in difficult or unusual environment. Inquisitive Minds Bridge inspection is like a detective work in which the presence of a problem, its severity and extent, and its probable causes; etc. are deduced based on whatever tell- tales found on the bridge structure. An effective bridge inspector should thus possess an inquisitive mind to probe into the problem and establish a logical link between what he sees and what had probably happened. 18 ‘A Guide for Bridge Inspection1.5 Inspection Equipment Introduetion In order to carry out the inspection properly Bridge Inspectors must be properly equipped with inspection equipment. This equipment is needed for measurement, recording, safety and access. A set of recommended list of equipment is given below. For more specialised inspection nondestructive testing (NDT) equipment may sometimes be needed. Measurement Equipment Exuipment Purposes 1. | 5m measuring tapes For measuring short dimensions 2. | 50m measuring tapes For measuring span length, width and other longer dimension Plumbob For measuring degree of tiling at pier Vernier calipers For measuring stee! thickness For measuring crack width Deep sounding apparatus For measuring river depth and to check scoured depth 3. 4, 5. | Crack scale 6. 7. Spirit Levels For measuring perpendicular distance to any structural member and tilting of pier 8. | Ranging rods For probing and measuring scour under culvert, piers and abutments Recording Equipment Equipment Purposes Camera To take photographs of defects or damages to the structures, and for bridge identification; Blackboard To record bridge number/name while taking photographs for bridge identification; should be supplied with chalks and duster. ‘Clipboard ‘As a hard surface to write on when filling forms Writing paper 5. | Markers, pens and pencils For drawing sketches 1 For marking and writing Table 1.1 Recommended List of Inspection Equipments ‘A Guide for Bridge inspectionIntroduction Sofety Equipment Equipment Purposes ‘Safely jacket (fluorescent) | To be worn at all mes during inspection Safety helmet To be worn at all times during inspection Safety boots To be worn at all times during inspection life jacket To be worn when inspecting over waterways “Traffic sign boards and cones To be installed for traffic control ele) a) oe) asel yale Safety belts To be used when climbing the structure Firstaid kit For first-aid treatment of any injuries Goggles To protect the eyes while looking under deck Overalls As a protective clothing ‘Access Equipment No. | Equipment Purposes 1. | ladder For access to soffit, bearing, walls, etc. 2. Binoculars To be used when there is no access to the structure 3. | Boats or inflatable dinghy For access to river piers and spans 4. | Tapping hammer For tapping the concrete surface in order to determine the soundness of the structure 5. | Chisel & electric drill For removing the concrete for tests 6. | Parang For clearing bushes, branches, weeds, ete. | 7. | Flashlights For lighting dark areas i 8. | Shoulder bag For holding equipment 9. | Ropes & harness For tying and climbing Figure 1.3 Example of Measuring Equipment A Guide for Bridge InspectionIntroduction 1.6 Safety During Inspection Bridge inspection can be dangerous if the inspector is not careful. Dangers may arise from tuning vehicles, wild animals, insect bites and tendency of falling into the river when inspecti above waterway. As such, a bridge inspector must always bear in mind ‘Safety first’ during his planning and conduct of the inspection. A few safety rules are presented here: © Always carry with you signs such as “AWAS" and "PEMERIKSAAN JAMBATAN SEDANG DISALANKAN', or similar signs which will warn drivers, © Always put on a reflective jacket. * Protect the work area with cones, have assistants control the traffic or close the road for a short time, if necessary. © Never inspect a bridge alone. * Keep a look out for animals and insects that may harm you. * If you have to go into enclosed places, such as inside a box girder, make sure that there is a flow of fresh air. * Use proper and safe access for inspection, * Regularly service and check the inspection vehicle. Put on safety jacket when inspecting above waterway. ‘A Guide for Bridge Inspection rnCHAPTER 2 TYPES OF DAMAGECHAPTER 2 TYPES OF DAMAGE INTRODUCTION The following briefly describes the type of damage normally observed at a bridge structure. Some of the damage referred herein may indicate the factors that will contribute to further damage if immediate action is not taken, e.g. inadequate pipe length. However for simplicity sake it is classified under types of damage. The principal forms of deterioration/damage arise from basically three principal causes: - i) deterioration or decay of materials used in the construction of the bridge, e.g. concrete, steel, masonry, etc. ii) damage by external forces to the structural elements due to impact forces and overloading, foundation movement and stream forces iii) failure of joints and bearings The numbering preceding a type of damage refers to the code for ease of reference and use in computerised database management system. As example, 1 corrosion means | is the code number and corrosion is the type of damage. 1 CORROSION OF STEEL Corrosion is the deterioration of stec! members by chemical or electro-chemical reaction resulting from exposure to air, moisture, air-borne salts, industrial fumes and other chemicals and contaminants in the environment in which itis placed. The terms rust and corrosion are used inter- changeably in this sense. Corrosion, or rusting, will only occur if the steel is not protected or if the protective coating wears or breaks off. Rust on carbon steel is initially fine grained, but as rusting progresses it becomes flaky and delaminates exposing a pitted surface. The process thus continues with progressive loss of section, Weathering steel, on the other hand, will form a relatively smooth rust layer, called a patina, which protects the underlying metal from further corrosion, However, in less than ideal circumstances, the patina may not form or may be penetrated and delaminated, resulting in progressive corrosion. ‘A Guide for Bridge Inspection aTypes of Damage 2 FRACTURE IN STEEL Crack is a linear fracture in the steel. Cracks are mainly produced due to fatigue and can, under certain conditions, lead to a brittle fracture. Brittle fracture is a crack completely through the component that usually occurs without prior warning or plastic deformation. Brittle fracture may result at fatigue prone details after initial fatigue cracking. Fatigue prone details are those details that are susceptible to the growth of fatigue cracks. Fracture critical components are components which are subject to tensile stresses in a single load path structure and whose failure could lead to collapse of the structure. Any attachment having a length in the direction of tension stress greater than 100mm and that is welded to the tension area of a fracture critical component shall also be considered as fracture critical. The primary factors leading to fatigue cracking are : the number of applied stress cycles, which is a function of the volume of traffic; the magnitude of the stress range, which depends on the applied live load; and the fatigue strength of the connection detail. Cracks caused by fatigue usually occur at points of tensile stress concentrations, at welded attachments or at termination points of welds. Cracks may also be caused or aggravated by overloading, vehicular collision or loss of section resistance due to corrosion. In addition, stress concentrations due to the poor quality of fabricated details and the fracture toughness of materials used are contributing factors. Material fracture toughness will determine the size of crack that can be tolerated before fracture occurs. Welded details are more prone to cracking than bolted or riveted details. Grinding off the weld reinforcement to be smooth or flush with the joined metal surfaces improves fatigue resistance. Once cracking occurs in a welded connection, it can extend into other components due to a continuous path provided at the welded connection, and possibly lead to a brittle fracture. Bolted or riveted connections may also develop fatigue cracking, but a crack in one component will generally not pass through into the others. Bolted and riveted connections are also susceptible to cracking or tearing resulting from prying action, and by a build-up of corrosion forces between the parts of the connection. ‘As cracks may be concealed by rust, dirt or debris, the suspect surfaces should be cleaned prior to inspection. 22 ‘A Guide for Bridge inspectionTypes of Damage 3 > LOOSE CONNECTIONS Loose connections can occur in bolted or riveted connections; and, may be caused by corrosion of the connector plates or fasteners, excessive vibration, over stressing, cracking, or the failure of individual fasteners. Loose connections may sometimes not be detectable by visual inspection. Cracking or excessive corrosion of the connector plates or fasteners, or permanent deformation of the connection ot members framing into it, may be indications of a loose connection. Tapping the connection with a hammer is one method of determining if the connection is loose. Loosening or movement of the joint and its components is the most common form of failure and may be accompanied by ratting and by breaking of bolts, joint components and seatings. The onset of some form of loosening can usually be detected by a crack developing between the joint and the adjoini42p.567g surfacing and by increased noise under traffic, Eventually a series of cracks will develop in the surfacing itself. Adhesion or anchorage of the joint to the seating can usually be checked by the ringing note when the joint is tapped with a hammer. Waterstops cast into the deck at construction may induce fracture in the concrete at the end of deck slab. Loose parts of the joint thrown up by the passage of a wheel can present extreme danger to traffic. The tightness of anchor bolts and nuts in bearings should be checked to ensure freedom from excessive vibration and proper restraint. 4 PERMANENT DEFORMATIONS Permanent deformation of steel members can take the form of bending, buckling, twisting or elongation, or any combination of these. Permanent deformations may be caused by overloading, vehicular collision, or inadequate or damaged intermediate lateral supports or bracing. See Photo 4a and 4b, Permanent bending deformations occur in the direction of the applied loads and are usually associated with flexural members; however, vehicular impact may produce permanent deformations in bending in any other members, Permanent buckling deformations normally occur in a direction perpendicular to the applied load and are usually associated with compression members. Buckling may also produce local permanent deformations of webs and flanges of beams, plate girders or box girders. A Guide for Bridge inspection 23Types of Damage Permanent twisting deformations appear as a rotation of the member about its longitudinal a and are usually the result of eccentric transverse loads on the member. Permanent axial deformations occur along the length of the member and are normally associated with applied tension loads. PAINT DETERIORATION ON STEEL SURFACES. Structural steel elements are protected against corrosion by painting with protective coating system. When corrosion risks are high, the steel is first galvanised and subsequently painted. Galvanising is a thin layer of zinc on the surface of the steel. It is put on the steel by a special process. In air, galvanising stops the steel from rusting for a longer time than paint. But in salt water, galvanising soon comes off and the steel starts to rust. ‘There are several types of material defects that commonly occur in coatings which can be grouped into the following three categories: (a) Coating Related Defects ‘These are defects which are related to the basic chemistry or composition of the coating and reaction of the coating materials with each other and the environment. (b) Adhesion Related Defects ‘These are defects which are usually a result of incorrect coating selection, contaminated substrate or improper surface preparation, (©) Application Related Defects These are defects which are usually a result of the improper application of the coating. CRACKS IN REINFORCED AND PRESTRESSED CONCRETE A crack is a linear fracture in concrete which extends partly or completely through the member, Cracks in concrete occurs as a result of tensile stresses introduced in the conerete. Tensile stresses are initially carried by the concrete and reinforcement until the level of the tensile stresses exceeds the tensile capacity (modulus of rupture) of the concrete. After this point the concrete cracks and the tensile force is transferred completely to the steel 24 ‘A Guide for Bridge InspectionTypes of Damage reinforcement. The crack widths and distribution is controlled by the reinforcement in reinforced and prestressed concrete, whereas in plain concrete there is no such control. The build-up of tensile stresses and, therefore, cracks in concrete may be due to externally applicd loads, external restraint forces, internal restraint forces, differential movements and settlements, or corrosion of reinforcement. Externally applied loads generate a system(s) of internal compressive and tensile stresses, in the members and components of the structure, as required to maintain static equilibrium. Cracks resulting from externally applied loads initially appear as hairline cracks and are harmless. However, as the reinforcement is further stressed the initial cracks open up and progressively spread into numerous wider cracks. Photo 6a to 6c shows typical flexure, shear, axial and torsional cracks due to applied external load, Extemal restraint forces are generated if the free movement of the concrete in response to the effects of temperature, creep and shrinkage is prevented from occurring due to restraint at the member supports. The restraint may consist of friction at the bearings, bonding to already hardened concrete, or by attachment to other components of the structure, Cracks resulting from the actions of external restraint forces develop in a similar manner as those due to externally applied loads. Internal restraint forces are caused by the differential expansion or contraction of the exterior surface of concrete relative to the interior surface of concrete relative to the interior mass of the concrete, as in plastic shrinkage. The resulting surface cracks are normally shallow and appear as, pattem cracks, checking and D-cracks, Differential movements or settlements result in the redistribution of external reactions and intemal forces in the structure. This may in turn result in the introduction of additional tensile stresses and, therefore, cracking in the concrete components of the structure. Movement ctacks may be of any orientation and width, ranging from fine cracks above the reinforcement due to formwork settlement, to wide cracks due to foundation or support settlement. Corrosion of reinforcement produces cracks as described in Code Number 8. Prestressed bridges are normally designed to avoid cracks in the concrete and, accordingly, the development of cracks can have serious structural implications. Spalling of the concrete may sometimes occur with or without associated cracking. Again the structural implications can be serious, A Guide for Bridge Inspection 25Types of Damage 7 ‘SPALLING A spall is a fragment, which has been detached from a larger concrete mass. Spalling is a continuation of the delamination process whereby the actions of external loads or pressure exerted by the corrosion of reinforcement. The spalled area left behind is characterized by sharp edges. Very severe spalling in a concrete beam and local severe spalling in a concrete deck are illustrated in Photo 7a and 7b respectively. Vehicular or other impact forces on exposed concrete edges, deck joints or construction joints, may also result in the spalling or breaking off of pieces of concrete locally. Spalling may also be caused by overloading of the concrete in compression. This results in the breaking off of the concrete cover to the depth of the outer layer of reinforcement. Spalling may also occur in areas of localized high compressive load concentrations, such as at structure supports, or at anchorage zones in post-tensioned concrete. Spalling of patched areas may occur due to continued deterioration of the old concrete and subsequent breaking off of the new patch. CORROSION OF REINFORCEMENT Corrosion is the deterioration of reinforcement by electrolysis. The products of the corrosion process have a volume much larger than the parent steel. This volume increase generates high internal pressures which cause debonding, cracking and eventually spalling of the concrete (Photo 8). © In an R.C. construction, the alkali content in concrete protects the reinforcement from corrosion, However the steel can be de-passivated by the ingress of carbon dioxide or chlorides through the pore structure of the concrete. © Carbonation - the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere dissolves in pore water of the concrete and reacts with the calcium hydroxide to give neutral calcium carbonate. This reaction progressively lowers the alkalinity of the concrete to a pH of less than 9.5. This removes the passive oxide layer from the steel which then allows corrosion to occur if sufficient electrolyte and oxygen are present. Carbonation of the concrete does not itself cause the steel reinforcement to corrode, but creates an environment where corrosion can occur in the presence of moisture, oxygen and an electrolyte. An electrolyte can be formed by very small quantities of carbon dioxide, sulphates or chlorides in the water. 26 ‘A Guide for Bridge inspectionTypes of Damage * Chloride contamination - chloride contamination of concrete results in rapid corrosion of the steel. The chlorides can come from a number of sources including contaminated aggregates, admixtures such as calcium chloride, and exposure to sea water, salt spray or saline water. The chloride dissolves in the pore water within the concrete to from an electrolyte and the chloride ions can locally depassivate the steel reinforcement by breaking down the protective oxide layer, even in highly alkaline concrete. Corrosion of prestressing tendons occurs in similar circumstances and by similar mechanisms to corrosion in normal reinforcement. The better quality of concrete normally used for prestressed concrete and higher standard of workmanship normally available in a prestressing yard both reduce the probability of corrosion. However the faster rate at which it progresses duc to the high stress in the tendons and the more sudden mode of failure of prestressed concrete members with tendon corrosion both make the consequences of tendon corrosion much more serious. Furthermore, because prestressing tendons often have a thicker cover than reinforcing steel or are located inside metal ducts, evidence of corrosion may not be visible. Poor quality grout or bad grouting techniques may result in voids being present in the duct and lead to corrosion of the tendon. ‘This is more likely in early prestressed concrete bridges, when good grouting techniques were still being developed, and in vertical prestressing ducts. 9 WEAR AND ABRASION ‘Wear is usually the result of dynamic and/or frictional forces generated by vehicular traffic, coupled with the abrasive influx of sand, dirt and debris. It can also result from the friction of water-borne particles against partly or completely submerged members. The surface of the concrete appears polished. Abrasion is the deterioration of concrete brought about by vehicles or sea vehicles scraping against concrete surfaces, such as, decks, curbs, barrier walls or piers. ‘A Guile for Bridge Inspection 27Types of Damage 10 MATERIAL DETERIORATION For the purpose of bridge inspection work, material deterioration is the physical deterioration or breaking down of the concrete into small fragments or particles or construction defect. Material deterioration may be caused by chemicals, such as sulphates, chlorides or acid from the ground or river water. Construction defects, results in honeycombing due to insufficient compaction or leaky formwork. Material deterioration of the concrete is illustrated in Photo10. 11 SURFACE DEFECTS ‘The following surface defects in concrete are described herein: a) Stratification b) Segregation ©) Cold Joints 4) Deposits - efflorescence, exudation, incrustation, stalactite ©) Honeycombing ) — Pop-outs Surface defects are not necessarily serious in themselves; however, they are indicative of potential weakness in the concrete, and their presence should be noted but not classified as to severity, except for honeycombing and pop-outs. Stratification is the separation of the concrete components into horizontal layers in overwetted or overvibrated concrete, Water, laitance, mortar and coarse aggregates ‘occupy successively lower positions. A layered structure in concrete will also result from the placing of successive batches that differ in appearance. Segregation is the differential concentration of the components of mixed concrete resulting in non-uniform proportion in mass. Segregation is caused by concrete falling from a height, with the coarse aggregate settling to the bottom and fines on top. Another form of segregation occurs where reinforcing bars prevent the uniform flow of concrete between them, Cold Joints are produced if there is a delay between the placement of successive pours of concrete, and if an incomplete bond develops at the joint due to the partial settling of the concrete in the first pour, 28 ‘A Guide for Bridge inspectionTypes of Damage 12 13 Deposits axe often left behind where water percolates through the concrete and dissolves or leaches chemicals from it and deposits them on the surface. Deposits may appears as the following : - * Bfflorescence — deposits of salts, usually white and powdery * Bxudation — a liquid or gel-like discharge through pores or cracks in the surface * Incrustation — a hard crust or coating formed on the concrete surface * Stalactite — — a downward pointing formation hanging from the concrete surface, usually shaped like an icicle Honeycombing is produced due to the improper or incomplete vibration of the concrete in which results in voids being left in the concrete where the mortar failed to completely filled the spaces between the coarse aggregate particles, Pop-outs are shallow, typically conical depressions, resulting from the breaking away of small portions of concrete surface, due to the expansion of some aggregates or due to frost. The shattered aggregate particle may be found at the bottom of the depression, with a part of the aggregate still adhering to the pop-out cone. DELAMINATION Delamination is defined as a discontinuity of the concrete surface of which is substantially separated but not completely detached from concrete below or above it. Visibly, it may appear as a solid surface but can be identified as a hollow sound by tapping or chain dragging. Delamination begins with the corrosion of reinforcement and subsequent cracking of the concrete. However, in case of closely spaced bars, the cracking extends in the plane of the reinforcement parallel to the exterior surface of the concrete, Delamination or debonding may also occur in concrete that has been patched or overlaid due to the continued deterioration of the older concrete. This may happen even in the absence of any rusting of reinforcing steel. ABNORMAL VIBRATION / DEFLECTION Abnormal vibration occurs on a bridge duc to overloading, under-designed (at design stage), under-sizing (construction stage), defective or inadequate bearing and local and general scour due to undermining of foundation. Failure to arrest this problem could lead to structural problem A Guide for Bridge Inspection 29Types of Damage 4 which is catastrophic in nature, Excessive vibration may not be structurally damaging, unless the vibrations are setting up resonance, and, hence, causing instability to the structure. ‘They can, however, be general indicators of distress within the structure, particularly if vibration and noise have become more evident since a previous inspection. Vibration can be detected by standing on the mid-span of the superstructure and/or on the road in the vicinity of the substructure when vehicles pass. Excessive deflection occurs on a bridge due to overloading (live loads), under-designed (at design stage) and under-sizing (construction stage). It is a difficult task to quantify and assess the excessive deflections with accurate precision. The presence of excessive deflections shall be checked by standing on the mid-span of the superstructure. The deformation of the structure or any part of it should not adversely affect its efficiency or appearance. Deflections should be compatible with the degree of movement acceptable by other elements including parapet, services, etc. Excessive deflection is one of the best visual indicators of the state of the structure. ‘Small deflections due to heavy traffic loading can usually be detected visually, but longer term deformations, due to the structure's self-weight or repeated overloads, will require detection by leveling instruments. Most structural materials undergo a substantial deflection under overload or conditions of distress before failure takes place, WATER LEAK Sign of water leak is normally indicated by dampness, fungus or mould growth and sometimes vegetation growth. Water leak occurs as a result of defective expansion joint, construction joint, porous concrete, micro-crack within concrete itself and inadequate drainage. In short, any water that fall on the bridge structure was not diverted away from it. Periodic wetting and drying at the leak area will eventually lead to material deterioration . Expansion joints are designed with open gaps through which water and debris can fall whilst others are designed to be sealed and prevent passage of water. For open joints a drainage system is provided under the joint to carry the water and debris away from the bearing sill. This system should be checked for free drainage. Sealed joints use compressed seals, strip seals or sealants. ‘Water tightness is unlikely to be maintained for the whole life of the joint, so it should be checked for leaking water. The quantity of water going through a nominally sealed joint can be substantial and the period very prolonged as water stored in the surfacing system may continue leaking out at joints for several weeks after rain has ceased. 210 ‘A Guide for Bridge InspectionTypes of Domage 15 THT/SETTLEMENT Tilt normally occurs duc to uneven settlement of foundation, displacement of pier (inclination) due to traffic impact or slip circle failure. All foundations undergo small movements, which if they remain small and uniform, cause no distress to the structure. Movements of large magnitudes, especially when they are differential movements, cause distress to nearly all structures, unless specific provisions have been made during design. Such movements result from the unpredicted settlement or failure of foundation material, which is sometimes associated with mining subsidence, the development of cavities in rocks, scour, frost action and changes in water table. The onset of foundation movement may be difficult to detect, unless periodic leveling surveys have been carried out. Usually the first indication of trouble is a visual one caused by a change in the geometry of the structure, such excessive or unusual movements at bearings and at expansion joints, cracking of abutments, wingwalls and ends of beams, or tilting of piers, abutments or wingwalls. 16 | ABNORMAL MOVEMENT Abnormal movements can produce lateral and/or vertical movements, depending on the characteristic of the loads or substructures, Simple span structures, and those with sufficient joints, will tolerate even moderate differential displacements with little difficulty other than minor cracking. Movements of large magnitudes, ccan cause distress in structure. Large movements will cause deck joints to jam, slabs to crack, bearings to shift, substructures to crack, rotate, or slide, and superstructures to crack, buckle, and possibly even to collapse. A statically indeterminate bridge superstructure can be seriously affected by differential movements, since such movements at supports will redistribute the loads, possibly causing large overstresses. Cor wwous bridges have fewer joints than simple spans. Such bridges are very likely to be damaged if subjected to displacements which are greater in magnitude or different in direction from those that were considered in the original design. During the inspection, abnormal movements can be detected by first observing for any signs of deviations from the proper geometry of the bridge. With the exceptions of curved structures, haunch members, and steeply inclined bridges, members and lines should usually be either ‘A Guide for Bridge inspection anTypos of Damage 7 18 9 parallel or perpendicular to each other. While not always practical, especially for bridges spanning large bodies of water or those located in urban areas, careful observation of the overall structure for lines that seem incongruous with the rest of the bridge is a good starting point. SCOURING ‘Scour is the removal of material from the stream bed or bank due to the erosive action of moving ‘water in the stream. Scour may be general or local. General Scour occur due to constriction to the general flow created by the structure. It is measured by the average depth below the original stream bed. Local scour occurs as a result of an obstruction to the flow such as, a pier, an abutment, the toe of the embankment or accumulation of debris such as timber log in the stream. Local scour is measured below the level of general scour. Bridges often constrict the natural waterway as a result of the construction of embankments for the approaches. During major floods water velocities may be greater than those which previously occurred naturally and this can cause major scour damage. A major review concluded that 80% of all bridge failures were due to scour. Bridge openings which are either misaligned with the waterway or sited on a bend in the stream may be subject to scour of the bank on the outside edge of the bend. Since the water on the outside edge of a bend speeds up, it has a greater potential to cause scour, particularly if the material is friable or softened by water. The presence of other obstructions in the waterway also speeds up the flow, thus increasing the potential for scour. PONDING WATER Ponding water normally occurs on flat area such as at bearing or pavements surface. On impermeable surface the water collects and accelerate material deterioration process. DEBRIS AND VEGETATION Debris and vegetation normally accumulate or grow at damp area such as at failed expansion joint and bearing area. Accumulation of debris at bearing accelerates material degradation and may hide serious defects. This may lead to excessive restraint against movement and cause spalling in concrete and local buckling in stecl members. If these are detected during inspection work it should be immediately removed. 212 ‘A Guide for Bridge inspectionTypes of Damage 20 DRAINAGE BLOCKED Blocked drainage occurs due to inadequate design, ineffective maintenance or vandalism. Blocked drainage will cause water to overflow on adjacent bridge component giving rise to wet area. Similar as in debris and vegetation (see item 15). When detected immediate clean up operation or increasing the drain size should be undertaken. 21 NO PIPE/OR INADEQUATE PIPE LENGTH Insufficient drainage due to absence of pipe or inadequate pipe length will result in water stained area, promote growth of vegetation and eventually lead to material deterioration at the affected area. For a typical JKR bridge, 4 nos of 100mm diameter (4*) pipe is normally prescribed at cach bay of the deck slab. The pipes are normally placed at each corner of the slab. If missing pipes or inadequate pipe length is/are observed during the inspection work immediate action need to be taken to install the missing pipes and modifying the existing inadequate pipe length. 22 IMPACT DAMAGE For this work, impact damage on a bridge structure occurs due to vehicular traffic such as motorist hitting the parapet. These results in the safety of the motorist/pedestrian being compromised. Impact on piers are damages caused when:- a) ships strike a glancing blow against piers, abutments and fendering b) trains are derailed or motor vehicles are out of control and collide against piers and abutments ©) over width loads or projecting parts of trains or motor vehicles, such as open doors of rail cars, having a narrow clearance to the bridge substructure, strike against piers, abutments or guardrailing d) heavy floating debris carried by rapidly flood waters impacts against the bridge structure ‘A Guide for Bridge Inspection 213Types of Damage 23 25 e) air borne debris carried by strong winds strikes the structure ‘The damage typically caused includes:~ a) spalling of concrete members, with or without exposing the reinforcement b) _ cracking of members, both steel and concrete c) permanent deformation of members 4) damage to posts, railing and parapets €) rupture or fracture of members £} collapse of bridge POTHOLES Potholes are bowl-shaped holes in the pavement caused by the penetration of water through the pavement due to heavy rain and breaking up of the pavement due to subsequent traffic action. Pavements already deteriorated with such defects such as alligator cracking and ravelling are prone to the occurrence of potholes. Atypical example of a pothole is illustrated in Photo 23. WHEEL TRACK RUTTING Rutting is the formation of longitudinal depressions in the pavement at the locations of the wheel tracks of vehicles resulting from the compaction and shoving of the pavement laterally under repeated vehicle traffic. LOSS OF BOND AND DELAMINATION (PAVEMENT) Loss of bond and delamination may occur between the asphalt pavement and deck surface, between the waterproofing and the deck surface, between the waterproofing and asphalt pavement, or between individual lifts of pavement. Loss of bond and delamination is not directly visible on the pavement surface; however, they may often be detected by hammer sounding or chain drag. ‘The accurate assessment of the extent or 24 ‘A Guida for Bridge Inspection26 Typos of Demage severity of these defects can usually only be determined by detailed deck survey methods; such as, thermography, radar and removal of the pavement. RIPPLING Rippling is the formation of transverse undulations in the pavement surface consisting of closely spaced valleys and crests. Rippling is the result of poor bond of the pavement to the surface below with the subsequent action of wheel friction and braking forces moving the pavement ‘mat’ forwards, backwards and sideways, PAVEMENT CRACKING A crack is a linear fracture extending partially or completely through the pavement. Cracking in pavements may be caused by any one or a combination of the following factors; the action of vehicular wheel loading; poor quality material; poor compaction; placement or quality control; poor drainage; temperature susceptibility of the asphalt cement binder; and as reflection cracks, which are the extension of cracks in the surface below the pavement. Cracks are distinguished by their appearance and direction. The following types of cracks are commonly observed in pavements; longitudinal, transverse, alligator, map, and progressive edge cracking. Longitudinal cracks are roughly parallel to the direction of travel and may be situated at or near the center of the wheel tracks, centreline roadway, mid-lane, or along pavement edges. Transverse cracks are approximately at right angles to the pavement centreline and may extend partially or completely across the pavement, Alligator cracks form a network of multi-sided polygons or blocks resembling the skin of an alligator. The block sizes typically range from 50mm to 500mm. They may occur anywhere in the pavement surface, and may be accompanied by depressions in the surface. Map cracks run randomly along the pavement, sometimes in a serpentine manner. They appear to consist of longitudinal and transverse cracks combined to form a ‘map’ pattern. A Guide for Bridge Inspection 245Types of Domoge 28 Progressive Edge cracks begin parallel to and usually within 300mm of the edges of the pavement; such as, along curb edges and expansion joint dams. The cracks are either fairly straight and continuous or consists of crescent-shaped cracks in a wave formation. These cracks may progress significantly into the travelled portion of the pavement. Edge breaking of the pavement often results from these. CRACKING AT EXPANSION JOINT Cracking of surfacing at buried joints are a common phenomenon for short span bridges. It is convenient to carry the road surfacing over the joint, both to make the surfacing operation easier and to provide a better standard of riding quality. Cracks may eventually appear over the buried expansion joint and the extent of this cracking should be taken as an indication of the need for a local repair of the surfacing, The various types of cracks observed at expansion joint arc illustrated in Photo 28a and 28b. ABNORMAL SPACING AT BRIDGE JOINT Abnormal spacing refers to the condition where the normal prescribed spacing is either abnormally wide or where there is no provision for movement. Abnormal spacing could arise due to construction error or damages incurred by the bridge throughout its life. Abnormal spacing could lead to damage occurring on the bearings and backwalls. Freedom of movement, clearance and alignment should be adhered to so that there would be adequate space for the joint to function under the prevailing temperatures. Clearance may, however, be lost because of unforeseen or accidental movement taking place in the foundations, substructures and superstructures. It may also result from the wrong setting of the joints during the construction period. This defect may lead to restrictions on movements of the joint which, in tur, introduce stresses into the structure, or the gap in the joint may become excessively large, thereby presenting a hazard to traffic or damaging the seal. DIFFERENCE IN LEVEL AT BRIDGE JOINT Despite adhering to construction practice of the highest standard, difference in level especially at bridge approach and expansion joint do occur either due to settlement or failure of joint detail itself. 216 ‘A Guide for Bridge Inspection31 32 Types of Damage Irregularity of vertical profile refers to one part of a joint being displaced vertically relative to the other and if this displacement is excessive it will cause additional impact forces under traffic loading and may present a hazard to the safety of small and two-wheeled vehicles. Approach settlement normally occurs at approaches to a bridge where a sudden depression at the road surface causes vehicles to bounce up and down as they traverse across the bridge. Problems arise from the differential settlement of embankments and substructures. They are usually made evident by the depression that occurs in the road surface adjacent to the bridge deck. Settlement may introduce a risk of impact damage to the bridge from vehicles and cause discomfort and risk of accidents to the vehicles and their occupants. Research by the Civil Research Institute of Japan has indicated that a difference in level between 15mm or greater can induce shock to the bridge and the motorist, Sometimes transition slabs are used to reduce the effect of differential settlement between abutments and the approaches. Unfortunately these slabs, and their supports are often inaccessible for inspection, ABNORMAL NOISE Abnormal noise are produced by any structural defects such as loosening of bolts due to the pounding action of vehicular traffic, corrosion of connector plates/fasteners/splice joints, excessive vibration and clashing of structural members, overstressing of members due to live tion shall be noted. Attention should also be focused on abnormal noise heard from stopper for shifting of movable loads, cracking of members etc. The source of generation location/posi bearings and steel girders. RUPTURE AT BRIDGE JOINT Rupture refers to deterioration experienced by the rubber seal and elastomeric components of bridge expansion joint. Rupture could lead to water leaking debris impaired ordinary comfort. Various types of seal and sealants have been used and suffer a range of deterioration. Deterioration may be so rapid that after a period of only one to five years the seal or the sealant may not perform adequately. Some typical problems include:- ‘A Guide for Bridge inspection 27Types of Damage a) Neoprene compression seals lose their initial compression over a period of time and under extreme cold/heat may be unable to expand sufficiently to keep the joint sealed. ‘The seal will leak, and may even fail out. Debris may also enter the gaps between the seal and the nosing, thus preventing the seal from resealing the joint when it next contracts. b) _ Neoprene strip seals may be punctured by debris trapped in the joint when it closes or by debris hammered by the wheels of traffic. The seal will then leak. ©) _ Polysulphide and polyurethane sealants may be damaged by debris pressed into the soft surface by wheels. These are subjected to repeated tensile stresses which may cause the sealant to break away from one or both edges of the joint and repeated compressive stresses which may cause the sealant to be extruded from the joint. In general polyurethane sealants have been found to perform better than polysulphide. ABNORMAL BULGING AT ELASTOMERIC BEARING Faults include splitting, tearing or cracking of the outer casing and uneven bulging and distortion caused by excessive compressive forces. ‘The first signs of distress usually show as non-uniform ripping of the vertical surfaces followed by horizontal cracks near the junction of the rubber pad and steel laminate. The bearings should also be examined for excessive rotation, which is usually indicated by differences in thickness between the back and the front of the bearing. In other bearings where there is no outer casing corrosion and delamination of the steel plates may occur. Elastomeric bearing pads should be examined for any bulging caused by excessive compression forces. ‘The bearing pads should be carefully inspected and there should be slight bulges in each lamination as the loads push the elastomer out, These bulged faces should be smooth with no checks or cracks. Poor quality material often develops a crack along the point of greatest bulge. These cracks often work into the pad until itis ruined. There should also be plenty of room for the pads to work back and forth. If the restraining lips of concrete around the pad are too restrictive, the concrete will break away and restraint will be lost. Pads of sound design and quality that are properly installed need very little maintenance. 218 ‘A Geide for Bridge Inspection35 Types of Damage ABNORMAL DISPLACEMENT OF ELASTOMERIC BEARING PAD Elastomeric bearings are normally used on prestressed concrete or curved steel girders of short and moderate span lengths. These bearings are constructed of natural rubber and composed of elastomer with laminates of another material, such as steel embedded in and bonded to it. ‘The elastomeric expansion bearing is designed to accommodate both horizontal and vertical movement by distortion of the bearing itself. The fixed elastomeric bearing is usually restrained against horizontal movement by the use of anchoring dowels extending from the superstructure through the bearing into the substructure. The condition of a bearing and its seating is an important indicator, not only of the condition of the bearing itself but sometimes of some other defect in the structure. Bearings are located where movement is intended to take place so that if they do not function adequately the structure may suffer excessive stress. Faulty positioning or alignment may prevent the bearing from functioning correctly. For example, there may be incomplete contact at bearing surfaces on thrust plates, and keyways and gearing may bind or not engage properly. In skew and curved bridges, bearings and lateral shear keys may bind of suffer damage. When skews are extreme, normal expansion and contraction does not occur in a direction that is parallel to the centreline of the roadway. ‘Therefore a careful study of the geometry of the bridge is important to determine how the expansion is going to take place. The design shall take into account the longitudinal and horizontal forces on the expansion joint and its bearing, otherwise distress will occur resulting in the ‘walking of bearing’. When elastomeric pads are used between concrete surfaces, the concrete is usually placed against them without any adhesive. However, under violent movement, such as an earthquake, pads tend to walk out of position, EROSION Erosion is the gradual wearing away or removal of material by surface drainage or wind. Sources of surface drainage potentially leading to erosion are leakage through expansion joints onto the embankment, runoff around the ends of wingwalls, discharge from deck drains directly above the embankment and abutment and wingwall subdrains discharging onto the embankment. Erosion detection on embankment should be limited within 30m surrounding the structure, ‘A Guide for Bridge Inspection 219Types of Damage 37 This most destructive condition occurs where the orientation of the pier or footing and flow direction differ. Undermining of the pier and subsequent settlement may result in serious structural damage to a bridge. Erosion may also result in the reduction of friction pile stability since it removes some of the material from the friction area. In some cases, bearing piles founded in a hard layer may even lose some stability due to scour, Erosion is also caused by the constriction of flow at the bridge site, meander geometry of the stream, the stream bed material, the bank material as well as the size of the piers. Severe channel misalignment at a structure, often attributed to improper design, actually may be the result of changes in channel morphology that make the design improper or ineffective at that time. These changes may have resulted from circumstances connected with a particular flood flow that causes a large discharge moving at high velocity to act on the stream bed, carrying away large quantities of material, and thus lowering the elevation of the bottom of the stream. Erosion is a time-dependent process, which is strongly influenced by the variable nature of stream flow. The effects of erosion are particularly evident after rare and unusual floods have been experienced. Many complex factors interact to cause streambeds and banks to erode, shift alignment and change profile. Therefore, expert advice should be obtained before attempting to correct a serious erosion problem. MATERIAL LOSS/DISINTEGRATION Material loss/disintegration at the slope protection area refers to the splitting, spalling and disintegration of the slope protection material such as masonry, rubble pitching etc. The cause of this occurrence could be due to abrasion and weathering, actions of acids, sulphates or chloride (present in the water), movement and vegetation growth or the loss of strength to the mortar joint. ‘SILTING AT CULVERT Silting is the raising of the streanv/river bed or the narrowing of the stream/river channel due to deposition of material by the stream/river. It usually results in the transport sediment capacity of the stream/river to decrease. Silting often results from a natural flattening of the stream bed gradient or as a result of artificial alterations. In Malaysia sil bridge to flash flood which eventually will affect the surrounding area. For a culvert, silting will ing will inadvertently expose the cause choking and results in overflow of water to the adjacent area. 220 A Guide for Bridge inspectionTypes of Damage 38 INADEQUATE SIZE This refer to disproportionate sizing of the bridge or culvert opening with respect to the waterway. If the opening is smaller than the waterway, overtopping will occur and subsequently lead to scouring/instability around the abutment area or soil/foundation surrounding the culvert. Overtopping at bridge abutment area could lead to erosion hence affecting the overall structural performance. |A Guide for Bridge Inspection 221CHAPTER 3 INSPECTION PROCEDURES AND REPORTING[Inspection Procedures and Reporting CHAPTER 3 INSPECTION PROCEDURES AND REPORTING 31 Bridge Inspection Procedures Bridge inspection is the process by which information on the structural and physical condition of a bridge and its immediate surroundings is collected. The inspection exercise involves identifying and quantifying the damages and deterioration in a bridge caused by applied loads from various sources, its intrinsic weakness or by chemical influences imposed by the environment. In order to achieve the purposes of an inspection program the bridge inspector must be systematic and meticulous in planning and performing the bridge inspection. Equally important is in reporting the results of the inspection. It is important that the following procedures be observed: Before Inspection a) Prepare an inspection schedule for the bridge inspection. b) Do desk study of available documents for the bridge to be inspected. ©) Fill out Standard Reporting Form and Structural Condition Checklist based on Bridge Inventory Cards. This includes the location data, bridge type, structure data and previous rating if any. 4) Make sure all the equipment needed for the inspection is available and in good working condition ©) Clear the bridge and areas surrounding the bridge from undergrowth and vegetation. wing I ion ‘The main duty of the bridge inspector during inspection is to look for signs of problems and to fill out the Structural Condition Checklist (REAM Form 1/01) and Standard Reporting Form as shown in Appendix E. a) On arriving at the bridge the inspector should check the following to avoid mistake in identifying the bridge : 4) the bridge number, if any ii) bridge name/river name, if any iii) road section number and distance to the bridge iv) other identification mark if none of the above is available {A Guide for Bridge Inspection a1Inspection Procedures and Reporting b) Check information on the top part of the Structural Condition Checklist and the ‘Summary Report Form, (REAM Form 1/01) ©) _ Observe all safety precautions before starting to inspect the various members of the bridge. 4) Start inspecting the various members of the bridge following the Structural Condition Checklist. A separate checklist must be used for each span. Note that a different checklist is used for culverts, Refer to the guide on types of damages for severity classification and material condition rating card to determine the rating of damage. ©) _ Take photographs or make sketches to highlight any defects. For bridges which have no inventory card, additional photographs should be taken to obtain the following view. This, photograph should be taken with identification of location and date taken wherever possible. (as shown in sample of the Inventory Card in Appendix B) : i) elevation or side view ii) view from approach road, with the bridge number or other identification written on a blackboard. £) Complete the Summary Report Form, putting in all observations and comments. One report form is used for each bridge. For bridges with more than one span, the worst member rating for that bridge shall be taken as the rating for all spans. 2) _Atthe end of the inspection inspectors have to ensure that: i) all the forms have been filled out including the date of inspection and the name of inspector. ii) iii) all forms and checklists are properly compiled. The inspectors must know what and where to look for in detecting any bridge defects. Below is a general guide; Main beam: Detecting corrosion, cracks, abnormal noise, deformation, spalling, delamination, abnormal vibration, etc. Deck si : Detecting corrosion, cracks, abnormal noise, deformation, spalling, delamination, abnormal vibration, etc., Abutments: Detecting corrosion, cracks, deformation, scouring, tilting, settlement, etc. Bearings: Detecting corrosion, ponding water, abnormal bulging, etc., 32 ‘A Guide for Bridge inspectionInspection Procedures and Reporting 3.2 Drainage: Detecting water leakage, no or inadequate pipe length, blocked, etc. Parapet: Detecting corrosion, cracks, spalling, etc. Railing: Detecting cracks, paint deterioration, deformation, etc. Pavement: Detecting pot holes, rutting, settlement, etc, Expansion Joint: Detecting cracks, abnormal spacing, water leakage, abnormal noises, etc. River bank: Detecting erosion, defects (illegal waste proposal, shack, pen), etc. pope The results of an inspection must be reported to the Regional Manager so that the necessary actions can be decided and taken. The format of reporting depends on the types of inspection and. largely the qualifications of the inspectors. For inventory inspection and condition inspection involving technicians as bridge inspectors more guidance must be given to the inspectors. Very often checklists and standard forms are used. For inspections involving bridge engineers, there is no standard format to adhere to. Indeed, the format to be adopted depend more on the intended readers of the report. Notwithstanding, there are a few basic information which must be included in the report: * Names of inspectors, © Date of inspection, * Objectives of inspection, © Observations & photographs * Recommendations ‘A Guide for Bridge Inspection 33CHAPTER 4 CONDITION RATING GUIDE BASED ON DAMAGECondition Rating Guide Bated on Damage CHAPTER 4 CONDITION RATING GUIDE BASED ON DAMAGE 4) INTRODUCTION This chapter describes the principles and general application of the condition rating system used to assess observed defects in the material of individual components of a structure, ‘The condition rating systems are numerical systems where a number from 1 to 5 is assigned to each component of the structure based upon observed material defects and the resulting effect on the ability of the component to perform its function in the structural system, All components of a structure are classified as either primary or secondary as given in Table 4-1. The classification is generally along traditional structural behaviour of the components except for non-structural components which should be classified as shown in Table 4-1. Condition rating system for components of a structure The condition rating system for the components of a structure represents the condition of the component based upon observed defects in the materials of the component. Commonly occurring damage in materials typically used in structures are described and categorised in Chapter 2. The application of the condition rating system to components depends on the type, location, severity and the extent of the defects. General guidelines based upon the severity and extent of observed defects are given in Table 4-2. The condition rating should represent the worst observed material condition of the component and shall be based on any one or a combination of the guidelines given under that rating. The inspector shall record the observed material defects and the causes producing those defects wherever possible. Some measurements may be required to determine the location and extent of the defects. However, extensive measurements would not normally be required, Condition rating system for structures The performance of the structure is directly related to the performance of the primary components. The worst condition rating of the primary components shall be the rating of the structure, 1 ‘No damage found and no maintenance required as a result of the inspection. ‘A Guide for Bridge Inspection a1Condliion Rating Guide Based on Damage Damage detected and it is necessary to record the condition for observation purposes. Damage detected are slightly critical and thus it is necessary to implement routine maintenance work. Damage detected is critical and thus it is necessary to implement repair work or to carry out a detailed inspection to determine whether any rehabilitation works are required not. Being heavily and critically damaged and possibly affecting the safety of traffic, it is necessary to implement emergency temporary repair work immediately or rehabilitation work without delay after the provision of a load limitation traffic sign. 4.2 GUIDELINE FOR CLARIFYING SEVERITY OF DAMAGE 1 CORROSION Severity Light — Loose rust formation and pitting in the paint surface. No noticeable section loss. Medium ~ Loose rust formation with scales or flakes forming, Definite areas of rust are noticeable, Up to 10% section loss. Severe — Stratified rust with pitting of the metal surface. Between 10% to 20% section loss. Very Sever — Extensive rusting with local perforation or rusting through. In excess of 20% section loss. FRACTURE IN STEEL Cracks that are parallel with the direction of stress are usually not very serious; however, those perpendiculars to the direction of stress are very serious. In either case, cracks in steel should generally be considered serious, as a parallel crack may for a number of reasons turn into a perpendicular crack. Therefore, no severity description for cracks is given. Any crack should be carefully noted and recorded as to its specific location in the member, and member in the structure, The length, width (if possible) and direction of crack should also be recorded. If detected, rating shall be 4. 42 ‘A Guide for Bridge InspectionConaltion Rating Guide Based on Damage 3 LOOSE CONNECTIONS The severity for loose connections depends largely on the number of loose or missing fasteners, relative to the total number in the particular connections. Thus the severity description involves the determination of this ratio. In the case of beam connections, the flange and web connections must be considered separately. Also, where several members meet at a common connection, the individual connection to each member must be considered separately. In addition, a sketch should be made showing the layout of the connection and the location of loose or missing fasteners, Severity for connections of Primary Components Light ~ Up to 10% of fasteners loose or missing. Medium —— 10 to 20% of fasteners loose or missing. Severe — 20 to 30% of fasteners loose or missing. ‘Very Severe - Over 30% of fasteners loose or missing. Severity for connections of Secondary Components Light — Up to 20% of fasteners loose or missing. Medium — 20 to 40% of fasteners loose or missing. Severe — 40 to 60% of fasteners loose or missing. Very Severe — Over 60% of fasteners loose or missing. 4 PERMANENT DEFORMATIONS As permanent deformations may be critical to the integrity of the member and/or structure, no classification of severity is given. Photographs and measurements of the amount and extent of deformation shall be taken and recorded for analysis. Hence, if permanent deformations are detected, rating shall be 4. However, the location of the deformation in the member, and member in the structure, should be recorded. 5 PAINT DETERIORATION ON STEEL SURFACES ‘There shall be no classification of severity for paint deterioration. Rating = 1 - if < 10% of surface area appearance exposed to cracks, peels, bulging or rust. Rating =2 — if 10 - 20% of surface area appearance exposed to cracks, peels, bulging or rust. ‘A Guide for Bridge Inspection 43Condition Rating Guide Based on Damage Rating =3 - if 20 - 30% of surface area appearance exposed to cracks, peels, bulgin; is eee peel Iging or rust. Rating =4 — if >30 of surface area appearance exposed to cracks, peels, bulging or rust. 6 CRACKS IN CONCRETE / MASONRY ‘This item covers ratings for prestressed, reinforced, mass and masonry members. Rating for prestressed and reinforced concrete members shall be given based on the crack width bellow : - Hairline cracks - <0.1mm wide. Rating ‘Narrow cracks - 0.1mm to 0.3mm wide. Rating = 2. Medium cracks - 0.3mm to 1.0mm wide. Rating = 3 Wide cracks -> 1.0mm wide. Rating = 4. For mass concrete and masonry members a rating of 4 shall be given if the crack width is greater than 3mm wide. 7 SPALLING Severity for reinforced concrete Light — Spalled area measuring Jess than 150mm in any direction or less than 25mm in depth. Medium — — Spalled area measuring between 150mm to 300mm in any direction or between 25mm and 50mm in depth, Severe — Spalled area measuring between 300mm to 600mm in any direction or between 50mm and 100mm in depth. Very Severe — Spalled area measuring more than 600mm in any direction or greater than 100mm in depth. Severity for prestressed concrete = Spalled area measuring less than 25mm in any direction or less than 25mm in depth. Rating = 1 = Spalled area measuring between 25mm to 50mm in any direction or between 25mm and 50mm in depth, No lost in cross-sectional area. Rating = 2 as ‘A Guide for Bridge InspectionCondition Rating Guide Based on Damage — Spalled area measuring between 50mm to 100mm in any direction or between 50mm. and 100mm in depth. Loss of cross-sectional area is large. Rating = 3 ~ Spalled area measuring more than 100mm in any direction or greater than 100mm in depth, Existence of further spalling and poss ity of worsening. Rating = 4 8 CORROSION OF REINFORCEMENT Light — Light rust stain on the concrete surface: Medium — Exposed reinforcement with uniform light rust. Loss of reinforcing steel section less than 10%; Severe — Exposed reinforcement with heavy rusting and localised pitting. Loss of reinforcing steel section between 10% and 20%: Very Severe — Exposed reinforcement with very heavy rusting and pitting. Loss of reinforcing steel section over 20%. 9 WEAR AND ABRASION Severity Light ~ Section loss up to 25mm in depth with some loss of coarse aggregate. Medium — — Section loss between 25mm and 50mm depth, loss of aggregate and exposure of reinforcement. Severe — Section loss between 50mm and 100mm depth, loss of aggregate and large area of reinforcement exposed. Very Severe — Section loss in excess of 100mm depth and extends over a large area, 10 MATERIAL DETERIORATION Severity for concrete Light — Loss of section up to 25mm in depth with some loss of coarse aggregat Medium — Loss of section between 25mm and 50mm deep with considerable loss of coarse aggregate and exposure of reinforcement; Severe — Loss of section between 50mm and 100mm deep with substantial loss of coarse aggregate and exposure of reinforcement over a large area. Very severe - Loss of section in excess of 100mm deep and extending over a large area. ‘A Guide for Bridge Inspection 45Condition Rating Guide Bosed on Domage n 12 Severity for masonry Light — Mortar lost from the joints in a few places, to a depth of 20mm; Medium — Mortar lost from joints over an extended area, to a depth between 20 and 50mm; Severe ~ Extensive loss of mortar resulting in the loss of a few stones; Very severe — Extensive loss of stones endangering the stability of the structure. SURFACE DEFECTS Severity for honeycombing Light — Honeycombing covering an area less than 150mm in any direction Medium — - Honeycombing covering an area between 150mm to 300mm in any direction Severe — Honeycombing covering an area between 300mm to 600mm in any direction Very Severe — Honeycombing covering an area greater than 600mm in any direction Severity for pop-outs Light — Pop-outs leaving holes up to 25mm in diameter; Medium — Pop-outs leaving holes between 25mm and 50mm in diameter; Severe — Pop-outs leaving holes between 50mm and 100mm in diameter; Very Severe — Pop-outs leaving holes greater than 100mm in diameter. DELAMINATION Severity Light — Delaminated area measuring less than 150mm in any direction; Medium — — Delaminated area measuring 150mm to 300mm in any direction; Severe — Delaminated area measuring 300mm to 600mm in any direction; Very Severe — Delaminated area measuring more than 600mm in any direction. A Guide for Bridge InspectionCondition Rating Guide Bosed on Damage B ABNORMAL VIBRATION / DEFLECTION ‘There is no accurate severity level that could be assigned for this phenomenon. If detected the rating should be ranked as 4. 14 WATER LEAK For severity level the following is adopted for monolithic Pier/Abutment or Pier Head but limited to 1.0m below for the bearing shelf. Severity for expansion joint Low -—— Medium — ~ < 25% of surface area. Rating = 2 Severe — 25 - 50% of surface area, Rating = 3 Very Severe — > 50% of surface area. Rating = 4 For other individual component such as slab, etc. the following severity shall be adopt Severity for deck slab Low — < 2% of surface area. Rating = 1 Medium —~ 2- 5% of surface area, Rating = 2 Severe — 5 - 10% of surface area. Rating =3 Very Severe ~ >10% of surface area. Rating = 4 15 TILT/SETTLEMENT Any tilt or settlement observed should be reported immediately and the rating ranked as 4. 16 = ABNORMAL MOVEMENT Any abnormal movement observed should be reported immediately and the rating ranked as 4, A Guide for Bridge inspection 47Condtion Rating Guide Based on Damage a7 18 SCOURING Scouring severity for Culvert Severity Light — Minor scour at the inlet or outlet of culvert. Include in table. Scour depth < 200mm. Medium — — Significant scour at the inlet or outlet of culvert. Scour depth between 200mm to 300mm. Severe — Severe scour at the inlet or outlet of culvert. Scour depth between 300mm to 500mm. Very Severe - Extensive washouts around the inlet or outlet of culverts with loss of embankment fill. Scour depth >500mm. Note: - ‘The extent of scouring is measured on percentage length scoured underneath the culvert with respect to the culvert length. ‘Scouring severity at Abutment and Pier = Numerous locations of scour of the stream bed or stream banks but not exposing the abutment. Undermining and loss of support over up to 5% of the foundation. Rating =1 — Scour of the stream bed or stream banks to the top of previously covered abutment. Undermining and loss of support over 5% to 15% of the foundation. Rating = 2 = Scour of the stream bed or stream banks to below the top of previously covered abutment. Undermining and loss of support over 15% to 20% of the foundation. Rating = 3 — Scour of the stream bed to the bottom of previously covered abutment. Undermining and loss of support over more than 20% of the foundation. Rating = 4 Scouring severity at Slope Protection — Scour area measuring < 10% in any direction. Rating = 1. = Scour area measuring between 10% to 20% in any direction. Rating = 2 = Scour area measuring between 20% to 30% in any direction. Rating = 3 = Scour area measuring greater than 30% in any direction. Rating = 4 PONDING WATER ‘Whenever ponding of water is detected a rating of 3 should be adopted. 48 ‘A Guide for Bridge InspectionCondition Rating Guide Based on Damoge 19 DEBRIS AND VEGETATION The severity parameters are difficult to quantity. Hence for rating purposes the following are adopted:- a) When debris is detected a rating of 3 is used. b) When debris is detected together with vegetation a rating of 4 is adopted. 20 DRAINAGE BLOCKED. Severity Low ~ 25% of the cross sectional area is blocked. Medium — — 25 - 50% of the cross sectional area is blocked. Severe ~ 50-75% of the cross sectional area is blocked. Very severe ~ > 75% of the cross sectional area is blocked. 2a NO PIPE/OR INADEQUATE PIPE LENGTH, Severity Light — No water stain observed. Medium — Slight water stain observed. Severe — Water falls directly on facade e.g. surface of beam. Very severe ~ Very wet surface. 22 IMPACT DAMAGE Severity Low Parapet/Body intact Medium — — Minor indentation to parapet/body Severe — Severely damaged parapeUbody Very severe — Parapet/body totally removed 23 POTHOLES Severity Light — Holes measuring less than 150mm in any direction and 25mm in depth. Medium — Holes measuring between 150mm to 300mm in any direction or between 25mm to 50mm in depth. A Guide fr Bridge inspection “9Condition Rating Guide Based on Damage Severe — Holes measuring between 300mm to 600mm in any direction or between 50mm to 100mm in depth Very Severe — Holes measuring over 600mm in any direction or over 100mm deep. 2 WHEEL TRACK RUTTING Severity Light — Less than 10mm deep. Medium — — From 10mm to 20mm deep. Severe — From 20mm to 40mm deep. Very Severe — Greater than 40mm deep. 25 LOSS OF BOND AND DELAMINATION (PAVEMENT) Severity Light ~ Delaminated area measuring less than 150mm in any direction. Medium — — Delaminated area measuring 150mm to 300mm in any direction. Severe — Delaminated area measuring 300mm to 600mm in any direction. Medium — — Delaminated area measuring more than 600mm in any direction, 26 RIPPLING Severity Light ~ A few noticeable bumps Medium Several bumps producing a rough ride Sever — Numerous bumps producing a very rough ride with possible loss of vehicle control Very Severe — Numerous bumps producing a very rough ride with difficulty in maintaining vehicle control and imminent danger of loss of vehicle control a0 A Guide for Bridge InspectionCondition Reting Guide Bosed on Domage 27 PAVEMENT CRACKS Severity — Ifcracks length/area measure less than 10% within the same span. Rating = 1 — If cracks length/area measure between 10% to 15% within the same span. Rating = 2 — Iforacks length/area measure between 15% to 20% within the same span. Rating = 3 — If cracks length/area measure more than 20% within the same span. Rating = 4 28 CRACKS AT BURIED EXPANSION JOINT Severity Light — less than Smm wide single or multiple cracks; Medium — — Smm to 10mm wide single or multiple cracks; Severe — 10mm to 15mm wide single or multiple cracks; Very severe — Greater than 15mm wide single or multiple cracks; 29 ABNORMAL SPACING The severity level could not be quantify. Hence, if no room for movement is detected at the expansions joint a rating of 4 is adopted. 30° DIFFERENCE IN LEVEL AT BRIDGE JOINT Severity Low — difference in level < 10mm Medium —~ difference in level between 10 - 20mm, Severe — difference in level between 20 - 30mm_ Very severe ~ difference in level > 30mm 31 ABNORMAL NOISE If presence of noise is obvious a rating of 4 is adopted. A Gide for Bridge Inspection anCondition Rating Guide Based on Damage 32 33 34 35 RUPTURE AT BRIDGE JOINT Severity Low — With hairline crack on rubber seal/elastomeric Medium — — Medium crack detected on rubber seal/elastomeric Severe — Wide crack detected on rubber seal/elastomeric ‘Very severe — Rubber seal/elastomeric peeled off or dislodge from location. ABNORMAL BULGING AT ELASTOMERIC BEARING Severity Low ~ Not applicable Very Severe — When it is detected that the whole rubber body has been very severely cracked abnormally bulged or worn out and aged, the rating is 4. ABNORMAL DISPLACEMENT OF ELASTOMERIC BEARING PAD Severity Low ~ Not applicable Medium — ~ Occurrence where rubber body has been displaced less than 10% of its area, No reduction in load carrying capacity. Rating = 2 Severe — Occurrence where rubber body has been displaced between 10% - 20% to its area. Slight reduction to its load carrying capacity. Rating = 3 ‘Very Severe - Occurrence where rubber body has been displaced >20% of its area. No longer functioning as load bearing. Rating = 4 EROSION Severity Light ~ Up to 10% loss of materials for embankments not directly supporting foundations ; or up to 5% loss for embankments directly supporting foundation. Rating = 1 a2 ‘A Guide for Bridge InspectionCondition Rating Guide Based on Damage Medium — — 10% to 30% loss of materials for embankments not directly supporting foundations ; or 5% to 15% loss for embankments directing supporting foundation. Rating = 2 Severe — 30% to 40% loss of materials for embankments not directly supporting foundations ; or 15% to 20% loss for embankments directly supporting foundation, Rating = 3 Very Severe - More than 40% loss of materials for embankments not directly supporting foundations ; or more than 20% loss for embankments directly supporting foundation. Rating = 4 36 MATERIAL LOSS/DISINTEGRATION Severity Light — Hairline cracking and minor loss of stone surface with loss of section up to 50mm. Mortar loss from the joints in a few places, to a depth of 20mm. Medium — — Narrow cracking or chipping away of stone with loss of section between 50 and 100mm. Mortar loss from the joints over an extended area, to a depth between 20 and 50mm. Severe ~ Spalling and disintegration of stone with a loss of section between 100 and 150mm, Extensive loss of mortar resulting in the loss of a few stones. Very severe — Extensive spalling and disintegration of stone with a loss of section in excess of 150mm. Extensive spalling and disintegration of stone endangering the stability of the structure. 37 SILTING AT CULVERT Severity Light — Silting covering < 20% of culvert height Medium _~ Silting covering 20% to 30% of culvert height Severe _~ Silting covering 30% to 50% of culvert height Very Severe ~ Silting covering > 50% of culvert height A Guide for Bridge Inspection AngCondition Rating Guide Based on Domage 43 38 INADEQUATE SIZE Severity Ratio of abutment spacing/ culvert size to the size (span) of rivers/stream. Light -1:1 Rating =1 Medium = - 1:15 Rating =2 Severe — 1:2 Rating =3 Very severe - >1:2 Rating =4 RECORDING OF INFORMATION In order to arrive for a proper and systematic data collection of defects, the inspector need to fill in Structural Condition Checklist (for bridge and culvert) for each individual span and summarise the finding in Standard Reporting Form. Table 4-2 is to be used by the field inspector as a reference guide for classifying the observed defect. The tables for Structural Con Appendix E. As stated earlier the primary objective of this exercise is to obtain a clearer picture ion Checklist (for bridge and culvert) and Summary Report Form are as shown in on the condition of all bridge structures . The immediate impact is the bridges that are missing from the BMS could be systematically inventoried. Based on these findings the following decisions can be made. 1 Whether further detailed inspection is required; 2. Whether immediate maintenance action is necessary; 3. Based on the outcome of the detailed inspection work, structural assessment work to check the adequacy of the bridge structure with respect to the latest National loading requirement viz. Long Term Axle Load (LTAL) and Special Vehicle (SV) can be conducted. 4, Preventive Maintenance Schedule. as AA Guide for Bridge InspectionCondition Rating Guide Bosed on Damage REFERENCES Bridge Inspection, Maintenance and Rehabilitation Manual, ‘The Study on The Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Bridges in Malaysia, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), 1992 Ontario Structure Inspection Manual, Bridge Management Section, Structure Office, Highway Engineering Division, Ministry of Transportation, Ontario, 1989 ‘A Guide to Bridge Inspection and Data System For District Engineer Overseas Road Note 7, Overseas Unit, Transport and Road Research Laboratory, 1988 Bridge Management Practice, Austroads, 1991 ‘A Guide for Bridge Inspection asCondition Rating Guide Bosed on Damage Table 4-1 - Classification of Components PRIMARY COMPONENTS SECONDARY COMPONENTS Embankments supporting foundations Foundations Abutment Walls Piers: Beams, Girders Trusses Arches Culverts Load Bearing Diaphragms Connections of primary components Deck slab Pavement Structural Steel Coatings on primary components Embankments not supporting foundations Bollast Walls Wingwells Retaining Walls Bearings Bearing Seats Slope Protections Expansion Joints Nonload Bearing Diaphragms Bracings Connections of secondary components Parapet Drainage Kerbs Sidewalks ‘Approaches ‘Approach Slabs Signs Utilities 416 ‘A Guide for Bridge InspectionCondition Reting Guide Based on Damage Table 4-2 CRITERIA FOR CLASSIFICATION OF SEVERITY OF DAMAGE cooe_| Tre or Dances ‘SEVERITY OF DAMAGE v ‘CORROSON UUGHT |” ose ut fewatan and peg in he pint face No neal sect bus (Seah 1MEDUM | Loos fomation wih ales/Eokes Dante cos afr 0 TOR econ ks, SEVERE | Sotied rt wi ping ol nal soca, 10% 20% sect los, \SEVERE_| Exons rning wih bea purorton/nag tough 920% acon lo 2 | racrurearsien [wont | — (in meu | = SEVERE | Fdowced ratog shall be 4 severe | - 3 100s UGHT | Up 10% a ener ln orig CONNECTIONS — | MEDIUM | 10% 20% offouener owe or ising Pliny SEVERE | 200 20% offers lose o ising ‘Soa seveRe_|_> 30% tasters lox missy loose UGHT | Upto 20% afer lor or ming CCONNECTONS — | MEOUM | 2000 40% of seers aoe ming Sco SEVERE | 4010 €0% ofaeras lose or ing WSEVERE_| > 60% of fovea on oF ming 4 PERMANENT vont | peromatons | mepum | = (Sel bt SEVERE | detec tng sallbo wwsevene_| ~ 3 ANT UGH | Upto 10% ofsvfoce orn aed DETERORATON — | MEDIUM | 100 20% of ules ro afocnd ‘ea SEVERE | 2010 20% of sulece re ofloced SEVERE_| 5 30% of ice ono alate 6 cuck UGHT [forks ore Hoe ie, <0. Tm wide, aog shalbe 1 (onioced cri | MEDUM | ovck oe Nore ie. 0.D2nto 0.3mm ws, rng shalba 2 SEVERE | leech oe Mad size. -.Sneto On wie, eg al be 3 WSEVERE_| cocks ore Widesze Le. > LOwn wide, og tha bed CRACK GH Paared Core) | MEDIUM | lfcacis oe Norow La. > 0.2m & rock spacing batesn SO0mm 8 10G08m, reg shal be 2 SEVERE | Vert or Medion sea > 3mm & crock spacing «500mm, alg shal be 3 wwsevere_| eocs are Wide zoe, -> 10am wide, rang sal be 4 7 ‘ALING ce |” Spaled wa meosung < 150mm n ony deecon or <25nin n deh enced Cowes) | MEDUM | Aveo meas SOs -300nm in any dreton or baween 25am 0a dap ‘SEVERE | Aveo measing 300m 600mm in any deton or beeen Si 10Dm i eh \SeVERE | Spall oe meaurng > O0em nny deton er > 100m ny doh ‘PALNG UGHT |Salad ato meosning «25mm i ary dnctonor< 25mm in depth Pinan Coneas} | MEDIUM | Aiea meciuing 5mm: SOnm nary deecton or 25am 50mm in dep ag shall b 2, SEVERE | Ara meosing SOmn- 1Odnm een drecton or Oem: 100mm n dep ang shal be 2, WSEVERE_| Spo reo easing > Oem ney dcton er > 10Oam in depth, rng shal be 4 8 | commosionror [ait gh san onthe conc toc. enrorcevenT | MedUM | Exposed ebor wih ulorm Eg rl oftinocng sl sco <10% ene SEVERE | Espored obr wih how stn cd bal zad pitag. Lom of econ 10% 20% LVSEVERE_| Exgod bar wih vry hey sng aig. Las of son» 20% 9° | WEAN/ABRASON | UGH |” Soci ons upto 25mm depth wih zone ot of core opprega. Canes! ‘MED | Socien s 25mm Ome dev, lost of oggogae & xp bar ‘SEVERE | Secs loss Sdn 100m depos of egpragcs &rebr mponce lrg ota SEVERE | Secon lou > 10Onm donp& een oer nga ato, 10 ‘WATERAL UGHT |” Secion ls pt 25am in daph wih sore ee of coe ogaregae perERorAniON — | MeDiuM | Scion lo 25mm: SOmm deep, la of aggrepce & exper of obor eet SEVERE_ | Secton os SOnm- 100nm deep os of eqgiega &rebor exposure large area LWSEVERE_| Stel ou > 100mm deep sencing ov large ea MATERA UUGHT |” Mortars he js ina fw lacs, oo dap 20 me, DEIENORATION — | MEDIUM | Noto ls fom fe [ts on ended a, to depth bane 20nd 60m, Boor) SEVERE_| Een ls cf mrtar reign tha os of lew sons, SEVERE | ane lou of ona endongning he ily oe suche 11] sumrace DEFECTS” | UGHT | Honeyconb arse macnn «150mm in ony deson (ca MEDUIA. | Hona}con area mecsting 150mm. 300mm ay dracon. SEVERE | Horejeon are messing 300mm. 600mm ary Erection, \vSEVEHE_| Honeeenb avo mesrng > 600nm nary deeton v2 | _beLAWNATION UGHT | Daloinaed ame meaning < 150mm in ony rection, ent MEDUM | Dsloninotd vo meaning 150rm-200nn ary dren SEVERE | Delorigaed oo meosrng 3D0ren 800m nay ecien, SEVERE | Detninted reo meaning > 600m ny reo. ng ‘A Guide for Bridge Inspection a7Condition Reting Guide Based on Damage Table 4-2 CRITERIA FOR CLASSIFICATION OF SEVERITY OF DAMAGE Co0t_|_TYPEOF DAMAGES ‘SEVERITY OF DAMAGE 13 ABNORMAL uo | ~ WBRATON/ ecu | DEFLECTION SEVERE. | doce ing tha bo 4 a5) vsevere | = 7 “ ‘WATER EAC UGHT | dosed aco meas «25, cng dalle | oediChes) — | MEDINA | Ite een mean 7.3%, rating shal be 2 eco SEVERE | dace tea meso S%- 10%, cng shale WSEVERE | dated cea > 10% ob Hal bad ‘WATER LEAK UGHT | —* Avaismaonred ong fe chnen/por (acicnses oa) | MEORM | I diced ore sci opt 25% rang stl be 2 ace nd 1 so blow ho booing sha SEVERE | doled rea ease 25% 50% rata sai be 3 SEVERE | tFdsooedeea> 50% ang ta bad 1s | msemenent [uc | — anamanvpeg — | maedUM | SEE | Udo ang shall bo SEVERE 6 “ABNORMAL vcr | — MOVEMENT meoum | = ‘SEVERE | dbo ang shall bo wsevexe | ~ 7 SCOURNG UuGHT | undemiing nde of sport wp 5% ol fda, cag hal be 1 Wsbsman/sin) | MEDUM | Bindeming ondlos ol sppet a beeen 5 Yo 15% ol oundton, rig salle 2 SEVERE | demining ond ls ol soportofbeveat 15% 1 20% of furdan, rng sho SEVERE | undemining nd oso sppor of more hen 20% offomdoton, aig shal bo uct | — (WsSop ftir) | MEDIUM | Scourares nosing I0%20% nan dete, eg shal be 2 SEVERE | Sour oven menssting 20% 30% i ny acon tg sl bo 3 \YSEVERE_|_Seeur ern meosurag >30% n ry deecon, aig al be 4 UGH — | Minor curate ote cfc, deph < 2000 bce ep | signa su a ne\out of aver, ow deph bewenn 200mm -2000m, SEVERE. | See sarc lon! ol cv seer deph baween 3000 -500nm. \ysevene_|_Exemive washout orund louse wih low of enbonkmen ll cou dep > SO0m, ve | rononcware | uce | — Wien) McDUM | doeced eng dllbe 3 severe | vsevere | — 1” Deans cH. VEGETATION — | MEDIUM | ely ets detece ha tng shallbe 3 ew) SEVERE. | 1 dbs wih vegetation detaod cng sh be severe | ~ 20 ‘DRANAGE UGHT | loskag of pipe wo 25% ‘LOCKED MEDIUM | ocoge of pipe 25% 50% Het SEVERE | lange of pipe 50%. 75% vyseyent_| wlsage of pipe > 75% 2 NO e/ UGHT | Nowaer more cba mUOEGUATERPE | MEDIUM | Sigh ole mat bseved ENG SEVERE | Weer drecly on ixade He bonppe vysevent_| ey we wose zz | wmacroamace | uckt | Roupe/tody nos Whoop MEDIUM | ino ideation t perp body SEVERE. | Severe dancaed pxopt/ndy SEVERE | Rovpet ay shied of pion 2 FORO LIGHT —|_Fles reoing = 150mm ony diecon cr BS i dep Pome [MEDIUM | Hols messing 150nm- 3000 in ny dracon between 25ea- 50mm in deph SEVERE | Hoes mean 2000n-600n non drecon or bween 50mm 10mm indepth VSEVERE | Hales meonrng > 600mm ony discon cr > TOD dep yy WUTING TIGHT | las ton 1mm deep (Pome ‘MEDIUM | Fem 10mm: 200m deep SEVERE | From 20am. 40s dep wwsevene | > dOnm dep 25 | tossoreonna | UGHT | Delinodorea meaning < 150m hoy diwcon. DEAMNATON | MEDIUM | Delosnoed cea meauting 0nn- 30tmm in on Becton Porm SEVERE | Deoeinid crea meourng 300m -600nm in any drcton ‘VSERE | Deloninced ora meossirg > 600mm i ony deter ae ‘A Guide for Bridge InspectionCondition Rating Guide Based on Damage Table 4-2 CRITERIA FOR CLASSIFICATION OF SEVERITY OF DAMAGE cove _[ Teor DAMAGES “SEVRTY OF DAMAGE - % PPING UGH | Fewoosncle bps (Powe) MEOUM | Seve Bong prod orogh te SEVERE | Norms bumps protcng © very rough ide wth poste ofc cont WEVERE_| Nuneius bons rociing ry gh ie wah niet ge lose contel 7 PAVEMENT cet |” ogres oven ree Bo 1 wn te span ang sab cu \WeDUM | ‘Foigo eels cron are of TO 115% wise some span ing sal be 2 SEVERE | otigce cocks cor: on ara 15% 0% wii Bo one sang sa be 3 SEVIRE_| Fellgaer cocks ere on 70 of mae han 20% ihn he ame spon lg sabe 4 8 CASA UUGHT | ls hon Sm wide singh or oil crocs, ERRANSIONJONT | MEDIUM | SnOnm wide siglo male co SEVERE | Online wide sgl or life cock, severe | + 15m wide sing o lite ccs, » NORMAL cat | — PHONG ecu | = Weenies) | SEVERE | Fcoced og sal bed wsevee | - 30 | OFFEKENCEIN | UGHT | iflene in lvl «10m l epanion gop ridge aproch we Neo | Dc ine! been 10mm. 200m texans gobs approach, treme hid | SEVERE | Dice in vel teen 201 30m t nfosongop/bge eppoach, " _|_v5evERe | Dieocein vl > 36mm ot exporingop/dgs appre, Fy aNOwAL uct | NOSE Meat econie sit | SEVERE | Edocod ring shal be 4 severe | © 2 HeTRE UGit | Fire or re ack dnc on ber se Wepenor ia) | MEDIUM | Nadim cock datacd on nthe sak SEVERE | Wide go coc eed on bbe sc SEVERE | uber sel dle o elon ston 3 BUDGING cut | (ai! count | SEVERE | Seve crock, atnorma ald, wor at nd ged aig = severe | ~ ae ‘ABNOR wont | DGRACEHENT | MEDIUM | bvaing hos been diploced by sho 10%, ring hl be 2. ‘org SEVEE_| boing has ren dspload by es hon 10% 20% ring hl be 2 WSEVEtE_| rain hos been dploced by mre thn 20% rg hl be 4 35 TROON UGH [tes thos 5% bs of tri of enbonknen dct seperti evan, ang shal be 1 WShperencn) | MEDUM | 510 15% lo of mows onbonimens dehy wpprigfoueolon, ving tel be 2 SEVERE | 15% 10 20% ls of materi al anborknens dec sppoin oun, ong sol ka 3 \VSEVEE | Nove thn 20% ow of mooi ot enbonnes dec pang dato, akg shel bn & BOSON UGHT | Use thon 1% lo» of meh enon, gaol be 1 wetiwSois | MEDUM | 10% 030% ess nook o exbocen ng sal be SEVERE | 30% 4% sof mowrah at nborkner, arg dal be 9. WSEVERE_| oven 40% los cf mle terion, ling sab & 36 | MaTEMALIOsS/ | UGIT | Hie cok nd rior tof torso «dap 0 mm deep DISINTEGRATION | MgO | ‘Nanow cack endl ol snes bewomn $0 end 100m dep WStpetrancer) | SEVERE | Spang ond distgaton foes wh scion ls evens 10Dmm 150m. SEVERE | Ebon oof tones and dsiegtanendongana be iba of he sce a SING UGH Sing coved 20% of art ih. Wc Meum | Siig coved em 20%. 90% of et big SEVERE_| Stag cone om 30%. 0% of et beg LVSEVEIE_| Sting coved» 50% cf se bag ae | BneounT UGHT |: Rto of abun poceg/caher zn we ie ol ven eons, ng tll be 1 ‘Sue EDU | 1:5 foo af ret pocg/caken sz he sn lossy org sl be 2 Seveat_ | 12Roi cf chamen spc) eaon seo sz ve teoms reg elo 3 WSEVEIE_| +1:2fotoocbumetpnca/eded seth st of ret/ sons, eg tl be ¢ ‘A Guide for Bridge inspection aigAPPENDIX A STATISTICS ON MALAYSIAN BRIDGESStatistics on Malaysian Bridges APPENDIX A STATISTICS OF MALAYSIAN BRIDGES DISEMBER 2001 [ W. ROUTES OWNER/AUTHORITY NUMBER OF DEFINITION BRIDGES 1 Federal Routes in JKR Federal >7000 Include Peninsula Culverts 2 KTMB KTMB >920 Exclude Culverts 3 Federal Routes in JKR Sarawak >890 Include Sarawak Culverts 4 Federal Routes in JKR Sabah >780 Include Sabah Culverts 5 Toll Highway UM/JKR/DBKL >560 Exclude Culverts 6 DBKL DBKL >255 Exclude Culverts ‘A Guide for Bridge Inspection AtAPPENDIX B BRIDGE STRUCTURAL SYSTEMSAPPENDIX B BRIDGE STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS wd INTRODUCTION Bridges are structures, which connect the roadway across obstacles such as rivers, roads, rails, etc. without closing the way beneath. They can be the weakest links in a road network and must be very well maintained in order to keep the roads open to traffic. Most of the bridges carry a road over a river, Culverts are included too because they are like small bridges. Road network is designed to ensure efficient movement of people and goods, in which bridges are integral elements because of their strategic location and the serious consequences when their capacity is impaired, or even worse, when they fail. Particular attention must be given to the systematic inspection of bridges as an essential part of the surveillance and management of the road network. TYPES OF BRIDGES Bridges can be classified in many ways and three common classifications described below are with respect to a particular construction material, structural system type or deck type. Construction Material Type ‘The materials most commonly used for bridge construction are concrete, steel, masonry and timber. CONCRETE Concrete is made up of stone aggregates and sand bounded together by hardened cement paste. It is strong in compression but weak when in tension. To give concrete more strength steel reinforcing bars or wires are normally fixed inside the concrete. Thus concrete used in bridges can be in the form of mass concrete, reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete, ‘A Guide for Bridge Inspection BBridge Siructural Systems STEEL MASONRY TIMBER Structural System Type Steel has greater strength in both tension and compression than concrete. However it is susceptible to corrosion and need frequent maintenance. Steel used in bridges is most commonly in the form of rolled beam, welded or riveted plate girders and trusses, Steel cables are used in suspension and cable-stayed bridges. Masonry consists of bricks or stones with sand and cement mortar in joints between them. It is strong in compression and weak in tension, like mass concrete. Masonry is used for constructing masonry arches, abutments, piers and retaining walls. Timber is used for constructing abutments, piles, piers and decks. ‘Timber can readily decay and is susceptible to insect attack and thus not normally used in permanent bridge structures. Structural system refers to the way the longitudinal span members are put together and behave under structural loading. The following are the common type: SIMPLY SUPPORTED Each span between any two supports is not structurally connected to CONTINUOUS CANTILEVER FRAME the adjacent span; one end is a free end while the other is a hinge end (see Fig.1.1) The spans extend continuously over one or more intermediate supports (see Fig.1.2). Spans with one end fixed and one end free (see Fi be suspended between two cantilever spans. 3). A span may ‘The rigid frame structure has an integral construction of horizontal and vertical members (as in Fig.1.4). B2 A Guide for Bridge InspectionBridge Stuctural Systems ARCHES TRUSSES SUSPENSION CABLED-STAYED CULVERTS The roadway or bridge deck is carried on arches. The most common arch bridges are the earth filled spandrel arches for short spans, and the open spandrel arches for longer spans (see Fig.1.5). A truss is a triangulated assembly of straight steel members. The Bailey bridge is a common form of truss bridge used locally (see Fig. ‘This consists of a hanging catenary steel cable which is suspended from two towers and anchored at the two ends, and the deck is supported by these cables (see Fig. 1.7). This consists of inclined cables, towers and deck. The deck is supported by the cables fixed to the towers in a fan Fig.1.8). form (see Culverts are considered as small bridges. There are two types of culverts, namely, BOX CULVERT (Fig.1.9a) and PIPE CULVERTS (Fig.1.9b). A Guide for Bridge InspectionBridge Structural Systoms Fig. 1.1 - Simply Supported (SG) Fig. 1.2 ~ Continuous Span (CG) WS TT ig. 1.3 - Cantilever with Suspended Span (CT) Ba ‘A Gvide fr Bridge inspectionBridge Sirucural Systems Fig. 1.4 - Frame (PR) Fig. 1.5 - Arch Bridge (AR) Fig. 1.6- Truss Bridge (TR)= BS ‘A Guide for Bridge InspectionBridge Siructural Systoms Fig, 1.7 - Suspension Bridge (SP) Fig, 1.8- Cabled Stayed Bridge (CS) Fig. 1.9a~- Box Culvert (BC) Bo ‘A Guide for Bridge InspectionFig. 1.96 - Pipe Culvert (PC) Bridge Siuctural Systoms A Guide for Bridge Inspection a7Bridgo Shuctural Systoms Deck ‘Type: Deck type relates to the different types of slabs and beams or girders used to form the flooring system, Those commonly found are the following: 1. Reinforced Concrete Beam (Fig. 1.10) (RCB) 2. Precast Reinforced Concrete beam (Fig. 1.11) (PRCB) 3. Prestressed Concrete I-Beam (Fig. 1.12) (PCB) A Guide for Bridge InspectionBridge Sroctral Systems 4, Prestressed Inverted Tee Beam (Fig, 1.13) (IT) * 5. Reinforced Concrete Slab (Fig. 1.14) (RCS) ROADSURFACE. 6. Voided Concrete Slab (Fig. 1.15) (VCS) [COCO DCOOCO OOOO. 0: | A Guide for Bridge Inspection BgBridge Structural Systoms 7. Concrete Box Girder (Fig. 1.16) (CBG) 8, Steel Beam and Concrete Slab (Fig.1.17) (SBC) 9. Steel Beam Encased and Slab (Fig.1.18) (SBE) a eacian uments geemeeas "eee STEEL BEAM. B10 ‘A Guide for Bridge InspectionBridge Structural Systems 10. Steel Buckle Plate (Fig.1.19) (SBP) 11, Steel Trough (Fig.1.19a) (ST) 12. Timber Deck (Fig. 1.20) (TD) KERB j—peck ‘A Guide fo Bridge Inspection onBridge Sirvctural Systems 2.3 BRIDGE COMPONENTS A bridge is an assembly of many components which interact with each other and with their environment. The components can be grouped into three categories, i.e. superstructures, substructures and miscellaneous components. ‘The superstructure consists of the structural components above the bearings. These include the deck slab, beams or girders, diaphragms and parapets. The substructure consists of those components of the bridge below the bearing supporting the superstructure. It comprises abutments, piers and the foundation system. The miscellaneous components include bridge surfacing or pavement, approach slab, expansion joints, drainage, slope and bank protection, railings, kerbs, sidewalks, etc. ‘The various components are shown in Fig. 1.21a and Fig. 1.21b. SINGLE SPAN BRIDGE {0 wingwall) Fig. 1.21a Biz A Guide for Bridge InspectionBridge Structural Systems ONTTEVS NOSE G3SINVATNS O02 390Iaa 4O M3IA-QEBridge Structural Systems Deck Slabs ‘The deck forms the platform which carries the traffic and distributes the live loads and dead loads to the supporting members. The deck slab can be either of concrete, steel or timber. The various types of deck slabs are shown under Deck Type in Section 1.2 (see Fig. 1.10 to Fig. 1.20). Beams and Girders Beams and girders are the main load-carrying elements of bridge superstructure. Beams are generally either of concrete or steel. Timber is only used for temporary bridges, while masonry was once used as clapper bridges. Concrete beams can be cast-in-situ, precast, post-tensioned prestressed or pre-tensioned prestressed. They can take various shapes, such as rectangular beam, Inverted T - Beam, I- Beam, M- Beam and U - Beam, Steel beams can be in the form of rolled I - Beam, riveted I- Beam and welded plate girder. I- Beam may also be encased in concrete as a form of protection. Some examples of pro-tensioned prestressed (M-Beam, Inverted Tee- Beam, U-Beam) and post- 1.22 below. tensioned prestressed (I-Beam, T-Beam)) beams are shown in 56 XU Inverted T - Beam U-Beam I-Beam T-Beam Fig, 1.22 Bu ‘A Guide for Bridge inspectionBridge Sructural Syloms Diaphragms Diaphragms are transverse beams connecting the longitudinal girders to prevent movement of the girders with respect to each other and provide stiffness in the transverse direction. Abutments They are the end supports of the bridge superstructure. They are provided for the following purposes: a) to transmit the reaction of superstructure to the foundations b) to retain the earth filling ©) _to-connect the superstructure to the approach roads ‘The common types of abutments are: 1. Bank seat (Fig. 1.23) 2. Retaining wall (Fig. 1.24) ‘A Gide for Bridge Inspection BasBridge Structural Systems 3. Pile bents (Fig. 1.25) Apier is an intermediate support for the superstructure. Picrs allow the total length of the bridge to be divided into viable span lengths. Those commonly found are the following: 1, Wall type (Fig. 1.26) B16 ‘A Guide For Bridge InspectionBridge Stuctural Systems 2. Pile bents (Fig. 1.27) 3. RC. Frame on Pile Foundation (Fig. 1.28) {A Guide for Bridge Inspection BA7Bridge Sirucural Systoms Bearings They are provided over the supports, i.e, abutments and piers, for the following purposes: a) _ transfer loads from superstructure to substructure b) _to accommodate expansion and contraction movements between different parts of the structure ©) to damp down vibrations and minimize the effect of impact loading Bearings can either be free or fixed. Free bearing allows displacement and rotational movements while fixed bearing allows only rotational movement. Bearings can be made of rubber or steel. Rubber Bearing The following are some of the more common types of rubber bearing: 1. Bearing pad, which is a single unreinforced rubber slab 2. Bearing strip, which is a continuous bearing pad 3. Laminated bearing, which consists of one or more slab bonded to metal plates so as to form a sandwich ‘These are shown in Fig. 1.29 below. (i) Bearing Ped Bearing Strip B18 ‘A Guide for Bridge InspectionBridge Strctural Systems Gii) Laminated Bearing (iv) Plane Sliding Bearing Fig. 1.29 ‘A Guide for Bridge Inspection ByBridge Sructural Systoms Steel Bearing There are two types of steel bearing as follows: 1, Steel plate 2. Mechanical bearing The common types of bearings are shown in Fig.1.30. ‘Outer Bearing Plate With Half Rounded Base Half Round Knuckle Gil) Cylindrical Knuckle Bearing ‘Outer Bearing Plate Roller (D) Multiple Roller Bearing 820 ‘A Guide for Bridge InspectionBridge Structural Systems Outer Bearing Plate Circular Centre Core ‘Spherical Rocker (iii) Point Rocker Bearing Outer Bearing Plate Leaves Pin (iv) Knuckle Leaf Bearing Fig. 1.30 ‘A Guide for Bridge inspection BatBridge Structural Systems Expansion Joints Expansion joints are provided at joints between span members to accommodate various movements at the joints, The common types of joints are shown in Fig. 1.31 below. ee SD lt —— ASPHALTIC PLUG JOINT COMPRESSION SEAL JOINT Fig, 1.31 B22 ‘A Guide for Bridge InspectionBridge Srucurl Systems Parapet Parapet is the vertical wall located at the outermost edge of the bridge deck. They are provided mainly for vehicular and pedestrian safety and designed to take certain impact load and hence Preventing vehicles from falling off the bridge. Fig. 1.32 below shows two common parapets. STANDARD KERB WITH STEEL RAILING Fig. 1.32 ‘A Guide for Bridge Inspection B23Bridge Structural Systoms Approach Slab ‘The bridge is joined to the roads on either side by the approach road. An approach slab is normally provided for a short length of the approach road adjoining the bridge abutment. Surfacing or Pavement This forms the wearing surface of the deck. Reinforced concrete and steel decks are typically covered with premix surfacing. Drainage Water on bridge decks is drained through deck drains or allowed to drain off the deck by PVC or steel pipes. Embankment and Slope Protection Embankments are sloped fills or cut in the vicinity of the structure. The sloping faces of the embankments may be protected from the effects of erosion or scour by some form of slope protection system, The most commonly used are rubble pitching and gabion mattress. Foundations ‘The foundation system supports all vertical loads and horizontal forces from the superstructure and substructure. The type of foundation system depends on the type of soil underlying the foundation. Where rock or soil with adequate bearing capacity is found at or near the ground surface, shallow foundation in the form of pad or strip footing is used. Where rock or harder soil is overlain by softer material, piles are used. Dowel Bars Elastomeric bearing can be conveniently subdivided into two type :- i. Fixed - where the support member can only rotate, all horizontal movements being restrained. ii, Free - where the member can rotate and also move horizontally. “The fixed state is provided by dowel bars passing from the beam to its support. In order to make the provision for possible replacement of bearings, these dowels are best placed between bearings. But where space is restricted they can pass through holes in the bearings. Dowels usually need an Bm ‘A Guide for Bridge InspectionBridge Structural Systems elastomeric cap at one end to permit the superstructure to rotate relative to the substructure. The dowels must penetrate to sufficient depth to resist the horizontal load, without including excessive stresses in the concrete. In all cases the dowels should be long enough to reach the reinforcement in the support. Dowel bars at one end of a bridge span will form an expansion centreline : longitudinal ‘movements of the deck will be accommodated by the bearings at the free end, whereas horizontal loads will be carried by the dowels. It should be remembered that the horizontal forces would be transmitted to the support at the free end, due to the resistance of the bearings there to the horizontal movement. This force will be transmitted through the superstructure to the fixed end dowels. This force is calculated on the basis of the movement of the deck due to changes in shrinkage, temperature and creep of concrete (STC) The dowel bars shall be designed to resist a combination of three types of horizontal load as follows :- (i) Tractive Load ii), Wind Load (iii Load due to the effect of Shrinkage, Temperature and Creep. ‘A Guide for Bridge Inspection B25APPENDIX C BMS REFERENCING SYSTEMAppendix C BMS REFERENCING SYSTEM In order to ensure that each bridge and its component is correctly identified, there must be a standard way of naming the bridge components. Two reference systems, two type of reference systems are : a) Bridge numbering system b) Superstructure/substructure reference system Bridge Numbering System The Bridge Numbering System ensures that the bridge number is unique and easy to identify. The system requires the inspector to indicate the route number where the bridge is located and the distance from the route origin to the centreline of the bridge. In identifying the bridge number the system uses the road section number (referred from the kilometer Post - see Fig. 2.1 and Fig. 2.2) followed by the distance from the kilometer post at the start of the section to the bridge centerline, to the nearest hundred meters. Fig. 2.1 kilometer post type ‘A’, This kilometer post is located at every 5 km. A route number plate with a yellow background is located at the top of the post. ‘The road section number is inscribe in blact at the bottom of the post. mi = K. LUMPUR Fig. 2.2 This is type 'B' kilometer post. A part from showing the destination it also indicates the road section number at the bottom of the post poe BE) 1 ‘A Guide for Bridge Inspection a[BMS Referencing Systom Example Fig.2.3 shows a bridge located on Federal Route I as indicated by the route number marker at the top of the kilometer post. The road section number at the kilometer post is 50 and the distance between the kilometer post and the bridge is 700 meter. Therefore the bridge number is 50/7 which indicates that the bridge is located 50,7km from the origin of Federal Route 1. Bukit Kayu Hitam Fig. 23 2 A Guide for Bridge inspectionBMS Referencing Systom Superstructure/Substructure Reference System In order to standardize the reporting system and to help the bridge manager to easily interpret the inspection report, a reference system in identifying the bridge component parts are devised. The reference system are described below: a) Beams are numbered 1, 2, 3 etc in ascending order from left to right when moving away from the origin as shown in Fig. 2.4, b) Piers and spans are numbered 1, 2, 3 etc in ascending order from the route origin as shown in Fig. 2.5. ©) Abutments are labeled A and B with abutment A being nearest to the origin. Fig.2.4 DARI JOHOR BARU me KESEGAMAT ec ‘A Guide for Bridge Inspection 3APPENDIX D NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTINGNon Destructive Testing Appendix D NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTIN DI Introduction [1] A strict definition of non-destructive testing would confine it to techniques, which do not in any way change the properties of the structure or alter it physically. This definition is somewhat restrictive when applied to bridge inspection and the term non-destructive testing is widened to include, tests which involved removal of small samples by drilling or cutting but on a minor scale which will not impair the effectiveness of the bridge structure. Non-destructive testing can make a valuable contribution to the investigation of many problems that occur in bridges. It is important however that the nature of its contribution should be properly understood. It is not often that a single non-destructive testing technique will be able to give the engineer all the information he wished to obtain. More commonly it will provide him with some jonal evidence about a fault or problem which he already suspects; sometimes indeed it may for no more than to confirm his suspicions, Non-destructive testing should not therefore be regarded as a diagnostic technique in itself but as part of a broad approach to the investigation of a problem, The drawings, the records of construction and testing, visual examination of the structure sometimes augmented by strain and deflection measurements and non-destructive testing should be regarded as being complementary toeach other. Theories about the mode of behavior or the type of fault can then be tested against the assembled evidence. Non-destructive testing is probably most valuable when used in a supporting role and its likely contribution to solving a problerh must be carefully considered when planning the tests. Non-destructive testing is a subject which is continuously progressing and developments for use in other industries may sometimes provide useful techniques for bridge inspection. It is difficult for any summary to be completely up to date and all that can be done is to give a general outline. ‘The description of these methods are available in standard literature (2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. Some methods are likely to be improved, other to be superseded and techniques not at present used for bridges may become available later. The tests to be used depend very much upon the circumstances and condition of the particular bridge being investigated. For instance, if corrosion of reinforcement in concrete bridges is suspected then measurements of electrical potential and resistivity would be supplemented by measurement of the concrete cover, and of the permeabi permeability and chloride content of the concrete. If proof loading is to be carried out then not ly and chloride content of the only should strains and deflections be measured but there may be a case for using acoustic A Guide for Bridge Inspection D1Non Destructive Testing emission to check whether cracks are propagating as the load is applied. If lamination is suspected in concrete then tests to detect it might be supplemented by the applications of vibration techniques together with the drilling of small diameter cores. The application of many of the non- destructive techniques for the examination of faults in bridges is comparatively new and some of. the older methods have not yet been widely used. Until there is experience of the application of these techniques to bridges on the wider scale it is difficult to make firm recommendations and it will be necessary for the engineer to consider each particular case on its merits Where information is needed on the strength of the materials used in a bridge, two problems arise. Firstly the removal of samples for strength tests may permanently weaken the structure, particularly in fatigue. Secondly, it is not usually practicable to make sufficient tests to provide adequate data on the variability of strength. A few tests can be useful in giving a broad indication of the quality of the materials, The Engineer's approval should always be obtained before any samples are removed. He will have to consider the likely value of the results in relation to possible damage to the structure and whether indirect methods of assessing strength might not be more appropriate. Some of the testing methods used in concrete bridge investigation are summarised in Table D1, Table D2 and Table D3 of this Appendix. Non-Destructive Testing for the Examination of Concrete Bridges D2.1 The strength of concrete from surface tests Several methods of testing concrete strength are available and the detailed description of these methods are available in literature [2, 3] and standard guidelines [4, 5, 6]. ‘The Schmidt or Rebound Hammer is an impact hammer consisting of a plunger, which is held in contact with the conerete, and a spring loaded mass which strikes the free end of the plunger and rebounds. The extent of the rebound (the ‘rebound number’) gives an indication of the strength of the concrete at the surface position where the measurement is made. ‘The measurement is influenced by the finish to the concrete and should be made ona smooth surface. The correlation is influenced by the properties of the concrete and accuracy of the order of plus or minus 15% is claimed. As an inspection technique, the rebound hammer may be used to compare the quality of concrete in different parts of the bridge or between different bridges if the concrete is similar. It should always be remembered that only surface concrete is being tested. The results should not be used for calculating the strength of the structure but, with caution, they could be used as confirmation of results obtained by other means. D2 ‘A Guide for Bridge Inspection‘Non Destructive Tasting ‘The compressive strength of in-situ concrete may also be assessed by the Windsor Probe, which is a device which drives a steel probe into the concrete using a constant amount of energy. ‘The length of probes projecting from the conerete is measured and a result is based on the average of three measurements, Assimple pull-out test to assess the strength of in-situ concrete has been developed by the Building Research Establishment, It requires a hole 6mm in diameter and 30-35mm in depth to be drilled into the concrete. A 6mm diameter wedge anchor bolt with an expanding sleeve is tapped into the hole to a depth of 20mm and the compressive strength of the concrete is estimated from the torque that has to be applied to the wedge anchor to produce internal cracking. D2.2 Core Drilling Cores can provide information on concrete strength, compaction and on cracks. Cores of 50mm diameter can be drilled but a diameter of not less than 100mm usually needed for strength tests, A skilled operator is needed, particularly for drilling small cores, and a number of forms undertake this work. Core drilling, can weaken the structure and should be carried out only on the authority of the engineer. Further details on core drilling and testing are available in the relevant British Standard {7] and other literature [8]. D2.3 Electromagnetic Devices for Measuring Concrete Cover An electromagnetic technique can be used to locate reinforcing steel and to determine the depth of cover up to about 120mm, It is sometimes possible to estimate the size of bars with this technique but this depends on cover and bar spacing. The device consists of 2 coils placed on the concrete surface. An alternating current is passed through on coil and the induced current in the second coil is measured. The induced current is influenced by the presence of reinforcing steel. Further information is available in literature (3, 4, 5, 6]. D2.4 Ultrasonic Techniques ‘The normal method of use consists of measuring the velocity in concrete of an ultrasonic pulse generated by a piezoelectric transducer. The pulse velocity depends on the composition, degree of compaction and maturely of the concrete and is related to the elastic properties. The relationship to strength depends upon various other properties of the concrete and is best determined experimentally. Wherever possible the direct transmission method should be used, with the transmission and receiving probes in line on opposite sides of the thickness. Caution is required in comparing results from min direct transmission test with calibrations techniques. |A Guide for Bridge Inspection D3Non Destructive Testing D25 D26 For some structures, there may be sufficient concrete test specimens available to enable the pulse velocity-strength relationship to be determined for the likely range of strength variation, Where this cannot be done specimens can sometimes be cut from an unimportant part. The quality of this concrete is then compared with that in the more highly stressed parts by pulse velocity measurements. The presence of steel parallel to the line of the transmitted pulse provides a path along which the pulse can travel more rapidly. Corrections can be made but detailed information on the reinforcement is needed. Another use of the ultrasonic technique arises from the reflection of the ultrasonic pulse at open crack voids. The path of the pulse will thus travel around any cavity in the concrete the time of transmission of the pulse is thus lengthened. Large voids and open cracks may be detected by this means. Narrow cracks will transmit the pulse through points of contact and small voids will increase the path length by only a small amount, which may be indistinguishable from the normal variability of the measurement. The use of ultrasonic techniques and the interpretation of the results require knowledge and experience. Equipment for routine work is available commercially. Further information is available in literature [3, 4, 5, 6]. Detection of Concrete Lamination ‘At present aural methods (i.e. listening to the notes produced by tapping the concrete surface) are normally used to detect any lamination of the concrete. A method of doing this electronically has been developed by the US Federal Highway Authority [9] for application to the surface of bridge decks. The pulse is applied to the deck by a tapping device and the response is detected by a pressure transducer in an oil-filled tyre, which couples the transducer to the deck. The signal is processed and the results are shown on a chart recorder. ‘The apparatus is mounted on a trolley and is suitable for surveying large area of deck. Endoscopes ‘These instruments consist of rigid and flexible viewing tubes, which can be inserted into holes or crevices in stee] and concrete structures. Illumination where needed is conveyed by glass fibres from an external source. In the rigid tubes viewing is by reflecting prisms and in the flexible tubes, by a fibre optics system, ‘The equipment is available commercially and provision can be made for the attachment of a camera or a television monitor. Endoscope allows close examination of parts of the structure which otherwise could not be viewed. For instance the interior of a partially grouted post-tensioning duct can be examined and photographed through a hole drilled into it. The interior of a steel box or tubular member could be similarly examined. Other applications could be in the examination of joints and bearings. ‘A Guide for Bridge Inspection‘Non Destructive Tasting D2.7 In-situ Permeability Tests Air and water permeability can be measured by the procedure developed by Figg [10]. This consists of drilling a small hole into the concrete, sealing it with liquid rubber and then inserting a hypodermic needle. Permeability to air is determined by evacuating the hole and measuring the increase of pressure with time. Permeability to water is measured by filling the hole with water and then measuring the flow into the concrete at a pressure similar to that created by rainfall. The results are influenced by the moisture content of the concrete and this makes it difficult to interpret the results in comparative terms. D2.8 — Carbonation of Concrete ‘The protection given by the concrete against corrosion of the reinforcement is reduced if the concrete becomes carbonated. This is caused mainly by atmospheric carbon dioxide reacting with calcium hydroxide in the concrete. Carbonation proceeds inwards from the exposed surfaces of the concrete but the process is usually slow and is measured in years or decades. A convenient method of determining whether the concrete has carbonated sufficiently to allow corrosion is to spray a freshly fractured surface with phenolphthalein indicator. The colour of any uncarbonated concrete is unchanged but the carbonated material tums purple. The pH value at which the colour change occurs is about 9. D2.9 Determination of Chloride Content Samples of concrete are obtained by collecting the powder produced when a hole of about 10mm diameter is drilled into the concrete. Care is needed to separate the samples obtained at different depth. The powder is analyzed for chloride content either by the titration method given in BS 1881: Part 6 or by a proprietary method using an indicator in capillary tubes. The amount of chloride needed to cause corrosion varies according to circumstances but useful guidance is provided (11, 12). D2.10 Measurement of Electrical Potentials Corrosion of reinforcement is caused by differences in electrical potential (at different points in the same bar) which produce corrosion cells. The differences in potential along the reinforcement can be detected by placing a copper-copper sulphate half cell on the surface of the concrete and measuring the potential difference between the half cell and the steel reinforcement [13,14,15}. It has been established that potentials more negative than -350mvV indicate a high probability of corrosion while potentials less relative than - 200m indicate a high probability that the steel is not corroding. Unless the latter condition is indicated, the electrical resistively test should be carried out to assess the approximate rate of corrosion. A Guide for Bridge Inspection DsNon Destructive Testing D2 D212 Measurement of Strains and Deflections Strains are usually measured by acoustic gauges or electrical resistance gauges. The former will not measure transient or dynamic strains but are a fairly robust type of gauge well suited to use on concrete structures and for site conditions. Electrical resistance gauges will measure dynamic stresses, they can be applied to steel but are more difficult to apply to concrete. There is variety of methods for measuring deflection. Where there is a rigid base to which the gauges can be attached, dial gauges may be used when accessible for visual reading or electrical transducers where remote recording is needed. Sometimes stretched wires are used to transmit the deflection from the bridge deck down to ground level where gauges can be more easily installed. Where a high degree of accuracy is needed a precise water level or sometimes laser techniques may be needed. Where lower accuracy is adequate a precise level may be used. It may be necessary to supplement the measurement of deflections by measurement of rotation or change of slope, and for this purpose a number of commercially produced inclinometers are available. On many highway bridges it may be difficult to provide sufficient load to produce measurable strains and deflections. When the strains, in particular, are small it may be found that on subsequent loading the original reading are not repeated. Changing temperatures during the measurements will produce thermal strains which can be of the same order as those due to loading. Careful consideration needs to be given to the method of loading and the likely strains and deflections before any tests are carried out. It may be necessary to select a time of day and weather when thermal strains are small. Radiography Radiography can be described simply as photography using a type of radiation, normally gamma radiation for concrete, which will penetrate through the concrete. A source radiation is placed to one side of the concrete and a film is attached to the other side. Steel which, because of its higher density impedes the transmission of radiation more than concrete, shows up on the negative as litter than the surrounding concrete sand conversely voids shown up as darker areas. The negatives are usually examined in a viewer although positives (ie. prints) can be obtained. The picture shows all the steel and voids throughout the depth of the concrete examined in a projected view so that if, there is more than one layer of reinforcement or tendons, these are superimposed and careful interpretation is needed. Details may be found in literature [3]. ‘A Guide for Bridge InspectionNon Destructive Testing The use of radioactive isotopes is subject to very stringent safety precautions and it will usually be necessary for an area around that to be examined to be cleared of personnel and closed off by ropes or barriers. ‘This may mean that such work may only be done outside normal working hours and or with road closures. Radiography can only be carried out by a specialist firm or organisation licensed to store, move and use the radioactive isotopes. It should be specified that the work be done in accordance with the relevant British standard, Particular attention should be given to marking out the source and film positions so that these are accurately located relative to each other. Information should also be provided upon the type of source to be used (normally cobalt 60, cacsium 137, oF iridium 192), the type of film, the source to film distance and other details such as whether intensifying screens will be used. ‘The procedure must be approved by relevant authority and it may be advisable to consult them at an early stage in planning the work. ‘There are practical limits to the use of radiography for concrete. The maximum thickness which can be radiographer is about 500 to 600mm. For checking the adequacy of the grouting of ducts it must be possible form the radiation beam to be passed horizontally through the concrete and there must be access to both sides. The object being examined, reinforcement or tendon etc, must be as close to the film as possible and the source/object distance. Radiography of concrete is expensive and only a limited area can be covered by one exposure. A combination of a preliminary survey by covermeter, followed by selected radiography may be of advantage if the object is to check size and position of reinforcement. The use of radiation generators instead of radioactive source is a possible development for application to bridges. A betatron generator has already been used for this purpose abroad and linear accelerators which are used in the aircraft industry might also be applied to concrete structures. D213 Radiometry The principle of radiometry are similar to those of radiography except that the source is. of lower density and the film is replaced by a detector such as a Geiger or scintillation counter, which is used to scan the area of interest. Radiometric methods ate used to determine the density of concrete from the attenuation of radiation transmitted through it. Attenuation increases with increasing density, Either direct transmission or backcatter techniques can be used; in the latter the source and detector are on the same face. Further details may be obtained from literature [3]. |A Guide for Bridge Inspection D7Non Destructive Tasting D214 D215 D2.16 D2.17 Pressure-Vacuum Technique The volume of voids in a post-tensioning duct, the continuity of voids along the duct and the leakage in to the duct may be investigated by pressure/vacuum technique through holes drilled in to the duct [16]. Close supervision of the hole drilling is needed to reduce the risk of damage to the tendons, Therefore this technique should only be done under the direction of the Engineer. Vibration Techniques These techniques use the vibration response of a structure as a means of detecting the presence or development of defects. Forced vibration over a range of frequencies [17] or traffic-induced vibrations [18] are used to provide the excitation and the response of the structure is measured by accelerators. Acoustic Emission ‘When a structure is first loaded, or loaded to a higher value than before, the resulting deformation of the material may release strain energy and this produces stress waves which can be detected with suitable transducers. By placing several transducers on the structure, the sources of the emission may be located. Acoustic missions may be produced by several different causes including crack growth, local crushing, bar slip and corrosion. The technique has been used mainly on homogeneous materials such as steel and its application to concrete structures increases the difficulty of interpreting the results. It is a highly specialized technique and the reliability of the information obtained depends very much upon skill in analyzing and interpreting the results. More details available in literature [3]. Leakage Through Waterproof Membranes ‘An electrical resistance technique may be used to locate leakage through waterproofing, membrane. The resistance is measured between the reinforcement in the concrete deck and contact points on the bituminous surface formed by sponges saturated with water containing a wetting agent. A high resistance indicates that the waterproof membrane is te leakage. Measurements are made over a grid of points in fact but lower values i and contours of electrical resistance plotted. The results need careful interpretation and allowance must be made for apparent leakage due to the conditions at the edges or joints. A Guide lor Bridge InspectionNon Destructive Testing D3__ Non-Destructive Testing for the Examination of Steel Bridges D3.1 D3.2 D3.3 D3.4 Thickness Testing ‘Testing for the thickness of members subject to corrosion can be carried out either by direct ‘measurement where access is available, or alternatively by special ultrasonic testing equipment. Ultrasonic thickness testing instruments are available which enable the thickness to be ‘measured from one surface to an accuracy of approximately 0.1mm. This can be particularly useful for determining corrosion loss in preparation for assessments of remaining strength. Dirt and corrosion products should be removed from the surface before the measurements are made, Weld Sizes In any cases where there are doubts about the quality of welding or where evidence of cracking or defects have been found the sizes of fillet welds should be measured and recorded. ‘These should be measured as leg lengths and in cases where the leg lengths are unequal both figures should be recorded. In addition a comment should be made on the profile to indicate whether the weld is convex or concave. If the weld is concave the throat should also be measured. Any evidence of surface defects such as pores or undercut should also be recorded. Flatness Testing To check distortions and deviation from flatness the normal method is to apply a straight- edge to the surface and to measure the gaps between the straight-edge and the surface where deformations are present and record the maximum deformation and position. The casiest method of measuring gaps of this sort is by using a tapered wedge calibrated in 0.5mm steps, the wedge being pushed into the gap as far as it will go and the magnitude of the gap read directly from the wedge. The length of the straight-edge used and the gauge length between crests of any waves of distortion should also be recorded, and a sketch provided showing the location of the distorted component in the structure. Where distortion measurements have to be made over a longer gauge length than is convenient for straight-edges the normal practice is to use a taut wire stretched over the gauge length with offsets taken by tapered wedge to measure gaps between the fault wire and the surface of the distorted component. Black Bolt and Rivet Testing All such items should be inspected visually to check that they are still present and for any Signs of looseness or movernent, They should also be inspected for evidence of corrosion or deterioration. In addition light tapping by a hammer in the hands of an experienced inspector will indicate whether the items are still tight. When they are tight a ringing sound is produced which penetrates ‘A Guide for Bridge Inspection D9Non Destructive Testing D3.5 D3.6 D3.7 into the full member, whereas when they are loose there may be movement and the sound produced is a dull thud High-Strength Friction-Grip Bolt Testing Tt may be required, during certain special inspections that connections using HSFG bolts are checked to determine whether the bolts are still correctly tightened. If there is evidence from the original installation of the use of either load indicating devices or the part-turn method it may be sufficient for occasional bolts to be hacked. If there is no evidence of these methods being used more extensive checks may be advisable. Bolts should only be examined one at a time, any loosened bolt removed and replaced with a new bolt, nut and washer, Where a bolt is removed the exposed surface should be ‘examined for evidence of corrosion. Dye Penetrant ‘Testing ‘This form of testing is suitable for determining whether surface defects, and in particular cracks open to the surface are present. It is necessary to remove paint and to clean the surface to be tested to obtain satisfactory results. After cleaning, the surface is sprayed with a red dye of low viscosity, which seeps into any cracks or other defects open to the surface. The sample area is allowed to soak for a period of some twenty minutes and the dye is then cleaned off from the surface using a solvent. A dusting of chalk powder is then applied and if any cracks or surface defects are present the dye seeps back out from the defect and appears as a stain on the while chalk surface. The method of testing is relatively straightforward but requires care in cleaning and preparation, Details of the testing method are given in BS 4416 [19]. Hardness Testing In cases where it is necessary to obtain an approximate indication of the strength of steel in a particular location it may be possible to carry out portable hardness testing. There must be adequate access to the surface area under consideration and the surface must be carefully prepared to a polished finish. this can be done by first grinding a spot of the order of 10mm to 20mm diameter and then buffing this surfacing using a fine emery band to produce the required fine surface. Portable hardness testing instruments fall into two main types. In the first type the instrument has a ball or diamond which is pressed into the prepared area and gives a direct reading on the scale in either Brinell (HB) or Vickers (HV) hardness numbers Several repeat reading should be taken at the same location and the average of these reading calculated as the hardness value. p10 ‘A Guide for Bridge inspection‘Non Destructive Tasting The second method sometimes used is the Poled hardness method in which a bolt is placed between a calibration steel piece and the prepared surface and the calibration piece struck so that an impression is produced on both work piece and calibration piece. The relative sizes of the impressions are compared to enable the hardness number to be determined. In the structural steel range hardness numbers below 150 HV are typical of mild steel or steel to BS 4360 Grade 43. Hardness numbers in the range 160-200 are typical of higher yield steels to BS 4360 Grade 50. In the bordering area of 150-160 HV it is not possible to distinguish with certainty between these two grades of steel and further testing is necessary which may involve removal of samples. Hardness testing may also be useful in determining whether there have been any effects of fire damage in changing the properties of stecl by comparing checks on areas in the neighborhood of and remote from the seat of the fire. 3-8 Strain and Deflection Measurements ‘There are a number of methods of measuring strains at detailed locations in a structure. These generally require specialized equipment and special arrangements for installation. Electric resistance strain gauges are the most versatile but mechanical strain gauges and scratch replace techniques can also be valuable. Overall deflection measurements at specified locations on a structure can be particularly valuable in monitoring its performance. The measurements can be taken using dial gauges or linear variable differential transformers but in all cases itis essential that firm datum points are established and that checks are carried out to ensure that these datum points do not move relative to each other during the test. The measured strain and deflections due to loading are often small and thermal strains can be of the same order, interpretation of the results can be difficult (see also D2.11). 3-9 Magnetic Crack Detection ‘This form of crack detection relies upon the disturbance to the lines of a magnetic force in ‘a magnetic field caused by the presence of a crack or other defect within the field [20] . There are a number of different forms of magnetic crack detection which amount to different methods of producing the magnetic field in the test area concerned. The first of these methods is by the use of a strong permanent magnet, the poles of which are placed either side of the area to be tested. ‘The test area is then coated or covered with a magnetic powder and if any cracks or other defects close to the surface are present they show up as linear defects in the coating or powder on the surface. A second version of this permanent magnet method is the use of an electromagnet with power supplied by an external current. ‘A Guide for Bridge Inspection pu