VAPOR COMPRESSION

REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

UNIT - 1
 Topics covered
• Thermodynamic principles of refrigeration:
refrigeration cycle, COP, work done, RE etc.
• Different types of refrigerants
• Performance of simple vapour compression
system
• Air refrigeration system ( Bootstrap air
conditioning system)
• single and multi-load system
• COP
What is the difference between Refrigerator and Heat Pump?
What is the difference between Refrigerator and Heat Pump?

• The above figure shows the objectives of refrigerators and heat

pumps.
• The purpose of a refrigerator is the removal of heat, called the
cooling load, from a low-temperature medium.
• The purpose of a heat pump is the transfer of heat to a high-
temperature medium, called the heating load.
• When we are interested in the heat energy removed from a
low-temperature space, the device is called a refrigerator.
• When we are interested in the heat energy supplied to the
high-temperature space, the device is called a heat pump.
• In general, the term heat pump is used to describe the cycle as
heat energy is removed from the low-temperature space and
rejected to the high-temperature space.
What is the difference between Refrigerator and Heat Pump?
The performance of refrigerators and heat pumps is expressed in
terms of coefficient of performance (COP), defined as

Both COP R and COP HP can be larger than 1. Under the same
operating conditions, the COPs are related by

Refrigeration systems are also rated in terms of tons of

refrigeration. One ton of refrigeration is equivalent to 12,000
Btu/hr or 211 kJ/min or 3.5kW.
 Reversed Carnot Refrigerator and Heat Pump

• If our interest is the cooling load, the cycle is called the Carnot
refrigerator. If our interest is the heat load, the cycle is called the
Carnot heat pump.
 Reversed Carnot Refrigerator and Heat Pump
• The standard of comparison for refrigeration cycles is the
reversed Carnot cycle.
• A refrigerator or heat pump that operates on the reversed
Carnot cycle is called a Carnot refrigerator or a Carnot heat
pump, and their COPs are
 Why not use the reversed Carnot refrigeration cycle?
• Carnot cycle is an idealization and it suffers from several
practical limitations.
• One of the main difficulties with Carnot cycle employing a
gas is the difficulty of achieving isothermal heat transfer
during processes 2-3 and 4-1.
• For a gas to have heat transfer isothermally, it is essential
to carry out work transfer from or to the system when heat
is transferred to the system (process 4-1) or from the
system (process 2-3).
• This is difficult to achieve in practice. In addition, the
volumetric refrigeration capacity of the Carnot system is
very small leading to large compressor displacement,
which gives rise to large frictional effects.
• All actual processes are irreversible, hence completely
reversible cycles are idealizations only.
 The Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
• The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle has four components:
evaporator, compressor, condenser, and expansion (o r throttle)
valve.
• The most widely used refrigeration cycle is the vapor-
compression refrigeration cycle.
• In an ideal vapor- compression refrigeration cycle, the
refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated vapor and is
cooled to the saturated liquid state in the condenser.
• It is then throttled to the evaporator pressure and vaporizes as it
absorbs heat from the refrigerated space.
• The ideal vapor-compression cycle consists of four processes.
1-2 Isentropic compression 2-3 Constant pressure heat
rejection in the condenser 3-4 Throttling in an Expansion valve
4-1 Constant pressure heat addition in the evaporator
The Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
The Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
 The Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
The P-h diagram is another convenient diagram often used to
illustrate the refrigeration cycle

The ordinary household

refrigerator is a good example of
the application of this cycle.
Results of First and Second Law Analysis for Steady-Flow

COMPONENT PROCESS FIRST LAW RESULT

COMPRESSOR S= constant Win = m(h2 – h1)

CONDENSER P = constant QH = m(h2 – h3)

Δs ˃0
THROTTLE VALVE Wnet = 0 H 4 = H3
Qnet = 0

EVAPORATOR P = constant QL = m(h1 – h4)

Results of First and Second Law Analysis for Steady-Flow
Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
 Refrigerants
Refrigerants are specially selected substances that have certain
important characteristics including good refrigeration
performance, low flammability and toxicity, compatibility with
compressor lubricating oils and metals, and good heat transfer
characteristics. They are usually identified by a number that
relates to their molecular composition.
The ASHRAE Handbook identifies a large number of refrigerants by
number. Inorganic refrigerants are designated by 700, plus their
molecular weight.
For hydrocarbon and halocarbon refrigerants, the number scheme
XYZ works as follows: (1) Z, on the right is the number of fluorine
atoms; (2) Y is the number of hydrogen atoms plus one; and (3) the
leftmost digit, X, is one less than the number of carbon atoms in
the compound.
 Refrigerants
• Two important examples are refrigerants R-12 and R-22. R-12,
dichlorodifluoromethane, has two fluorine, one carbon, and two
chlorine atoms in a methane-type structure.
• chlorine and fluorine, replace hydrogen atoms in the CH4
molecular structure. R-22, monochlorodifluoromethane, has a
similar structure to R-12, except for a single hydrogen atom
replacing a chlorine atom.
• The commonly used chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) refrigerants are a
cause of great concern, because their accumulation in the upper
atmosphere creates a hole in the ozone layer that normally
shields the earth from solar ultraviolet radiation.
• In 1987, more than 35 countries, including the United States,
signed the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the
Ozone Layer.
 Refrigerants
• The Montreal Protocol called for a freeze in 1989 and
reductions in the 1990s on the production levels of R-
11, R-12, R-113, R-114, and R-115.
• The halocarbon refrigerants, some of which are also
widely used as aerosol propellants, foams, and
solvents, are now categorized as chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), or
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs).
• The HFCs, lacking chlorine, are no threat to the ozone
layer but are not in common usage as refrigerants.
CFCs, which contain more chlorine than do HCFCs,
are the most serious offenders, are very stable, and
do not break down rapidly in the lower atmosphere.
 Refrigerants
The Clean Air Act of 1990 mandated termination of
production in the United States of all CFCs such as R-12 by
the year 2000. Government data indicate that, because of
the structural difference between them, R-12 has twenty
times the ozone-depletion potential in the upper
atmosphere of R-22. Nevertheless, R-22 and other HCFCs
are also scheduled by the law for phase out of production
by the year 2030.
Thus, the search for alternate refrigerants to replace those
used in existing applications (worth hundreds of billions of
dollars) has assumed enormous importance. It is a
difficult, expensive, and continuing task to which industry
is vigorously applying its efforts.
Types of Refrigerants
Types of Refrigerants
Multi-Stage Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems
• A single stage vapour compression refrigeration system has one low side
pressure (evaporator pressure) and one high side pressure (condenser
pressure).
• The performance of single stage systems shows that these systems are
adequate as long as the temperature difference between evaporator
and condenser (temperature lift) is small.
• However, there are many applications where the temperature lift can be
quite high.
• The temperature lift can become large either due to the requirement of
very low evaporator temperatures and/or due to the requirement of
very high condensing temperatures.
• For example, in frozen food industries the required evaporator can be as
low as –40oC, while in chemical industries temperatures as low as –
150oC may be required for liquefaction of gases.
• On the high temperature side the required condensing temperatures
can be very high if the refrigeration system is used as a heat pump for
heating applications such as process heating, drying etc.
• However, as the temperature lift increases the single stage systems
become inefficient and impractical.
Multi-Stage Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems

Above Fig. shows the effect of decreasing evaporator temperatures on T s and P h

diagrams. It can be seen from the T s diagrams that for a given condenser temperature, as
evaporator temperature decreases:
i. Throttling losses increase
ii. Superheat losses increase
iii. Compressor discharge temperature increases
iv. Quality of the vapour at the inlet to the evaporator increases
v. Specific volume at the inlet to the compressor increases
Multi-Stage Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems
• As a result of this, the refrigeration effect decreases and work of
compression increases as shown in the P h diagram.
• The refrigeration effect also decreases rapidly as the specific
volume increases with decreasing evaporator temperature.
• Similar effects will occur, though not in the same proportion
when the condenser temperature increases for a given
evaporator temperature.
• Due to these drawbacks, single stage systems are not
recommended when the evaporator temperature becomes very
low and/or when the condenser temperature becomes high.
• In such cases multi-stage systems are used in practice. Generally,
for fluorocarbon and ammonia based refrigeration systems a
single stage system is used up to an evaporator temperature of –
30oC.
• A two-stage system is used up to –60oC and a three-stage system
is used for temperatures below –60oC.
Multi-Stage Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems
• Apart from high temperature lift applications, multi-stage
systems are also used in applications requiring refrigeration at
different temperatures.
• For example, in a dairy plant refrigeration may be required at
–30oC for making ice cream and at 2oC for chilling milk.
• In such cases it may be advantageous to use a multi-
evaporator system with the low temperature evaporator
operating at –30oC and the high temperature evaporator
operating at 2oC
Multi-Stage Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems
A multi-stage system is a refrigeration system with two or
more low-side pressures.
Multi-stage systems can be classified into:
a) Multi-compression systems
b) Multi-evaporator systems
c) Cascade systems, etc.

Two concepts which are normally integral to multi-pressure

systems are, i) flash gas removal, and ii) intercooling.
 Flash gas removal using flash tank
• One of the problems with high temperature lift applications is the high quality of
vapour at the inlet to the evaporator.
• This vapour called as flash gas develops during the throttling process.
• The flash gas has to be compressed to condenser pressure, it does not contribute to the
refrigeration effect as it is already in the form of vapour, and it increases the pressure
drop in the evaporator.
• It is possible to improve the COP of the system if the flash gas is removed as soon as it
is formed and recompressed to condenser pressure.
• However, continuous removal of flash gas as soon as it is formed and recompressing it
immediately is difficult in practice.
• One way of improving the performance of the system is to remove the flash gas at an
intermediate pressure using a flash tank.
• First Figure shows the schematic of a flash tank and second Fig shows the expansion
process employing flash tank.
 Flash gas removal using flash tank
A flash tank is a pressure vessel, wherein the refrigerant liquid and vapour are separated at
an intermediate pressure.
The refrigerant from condenser is first expanded to an intermediate pressure
corresponding to the pressure of flash tank, Pi using a low side float valve (process 6-7).
The float valve also maintains a constant liquid level in the flash tank.
In the flash tank, the refrigerant liquid and vapour are separated.
The saturated liquid at point 8 is fed to the evaporator after throttling it to the required
evaporator pressure, Pe (point 9) using an expansion valve.
Depending upon the type of the system, the saturated vapour in the flash tank (point 3) is
either compressed to the condenser pressure or throttled to the evaporator pressure.
In the absence of flash tank, the refrigerant
condition at the inlet to the evaporator
would have been point 9’, which has a
considerably high vapour quality compared
to point 9.
As mentioned, the refrigerant liquid and
vapour must get separated in the flash tank.
This is possible when the upward velocity of
the refrigerant vapour in the flash tank is low
enough ( < 1 m/s) for the refrigerant liquid
droplets to fall back into the flash tank due to
gravity.
 Intercooling in multi-stage compression
The specific work input, w in reversible, polytropic compression of
refrigerant vapour is given by:

where P1 and P2 are the inlet and exit

pressures of the compressor, v1 is the
specific volume of the refrigerant vapour
at the inlet to the compressor and n is the
polytropic exponent. From the above
expression, it can be seen that specific
work input reduces as specific volume, v1
is reduced. At a given pressure, the
specific volume can be reduced by
reducing the temperature. This is the
principle behind intercooling in multi-
stage compression.
 Intercooling in multi-stage compression
The specific work input, w in reversible, polytropic compression of
refrigerant vapour is given by:

where P1 and P2 are the inlet and exit

pressures of the compressor, v1 is the
specific volume of the refrigerant vapour
at the inlet to the compressor and n is the
polytropic exponent. From the above
expression, it can be seen that specific
work input reduces as specific volume, v1
is reduced. At a given pressure, the
specific volume can be reduced by
reducing the temperature. This is the
principle behind intercooling in multi-
stage compression.
 Intercooling in multi-stage compression
As shown in the figures, instead of compressing the vapour in a single
stage from state 1 to state 2’, if the refrigerant is compressed from
state 1 to an intermediate pressure, state 2, intercooled from 2 to 3
and then compressed to the required pressure (state 4), reduction in
work input results. If the processes are reversible, then the savings in
specific work is given by the shaded area 2-3-4-2’ on P-v diagram.
On P-h diagram, lines 1-2-2’
and 3-4 represent
isentropes. Since the slope of
isentropes on P-h diagram
reduces (lines become
flatter) as they move away
from the saturated vapour
line.
 Intercooling in multi-stage compression
• Intercooling of the vapour may be achieved by using either a
water-cooled heat exchanger or by the refrigerant in the flash
tank.
• Below Figures show these two systems.
• Intercooling may not be always possible using water-cooled heat
exchangers as it depends on the availability of sufficiently cold
water to which the refrigerant from low stage compressor can
reject heat.
• Moreover, with water cooling the refrigerant at the inlet to the
high stage compressor may not be saturated.
• Water cooling is commonly used in air compressors.
• Intercooling not only reduces the work input but also reduces the
compressor discharge temperature leading to better lubrication
and longer compressor life.
Intercooling in multi-stage compression
Intercooling in multi-stage compression
 Intercooling in multi-stage compression
• Intercooling using liquid refrigerant from condenser in the
flash tank may or may not reduce the power input to the
system, as it depends upon the nature of the refrigerant.
• This is due to the fact that the heat rejected by the
refrigerant during intercooling generates additional vapour in
the flash tank, which has to be compressed by the high stage
compressor.
• Thus the mass flow rate of refrigerant through the high stage
compressor will be more than that of the low stage
compressor.
• Whether total power input to the system decreases or not
depends on whether the increased power consumption due
to higher mass flow rate is compensated by reduction in
specific work of compression or not.
• For ammonia, the power input usually decreases with
intercooling by liquid refrigerant, however, for refrigerants
such as R12, R22, the power input marginally increases.
 Intercooling in multi-stage compression
• Thus intercooling using liquid refrigerant is not
effective for R12 and R22. However, as mentioned
one benefit of intercooling is the reduction in
compressor discharge temperature, which leads to
better compressor lubrication and its longer life.
• It is also possible to intercool the refrigerant
vapour by a combination of water-cooled heat
exchanger and the refrigerant liquid in the flash
tank.
• As a result of using both water-cooling and flash-
tank, the amount of refrigerant vapour handled by
the high-stage compressor reduces leading to
lower power consumption.
 Intercooling in multi-stage compression
• However, the possibility of this again depends on
the availability of cooling water at required
temperature.
• One of the design issues in multi-stage compression
is the selection of suitable intermediate pressure.
• For air compressors with intercooling to the initial
temperature, the theoretical work input to the
system will be minimum when the pressure ratios
are equal for all stages. This also results in equal
compressor discharge temperatures for all
compressors. Thus for a two-stage air compressor
with intercooling, the optimum intermediate
pressure,
Multi-stage system with flash gas removal and
intercooling
 Multi-Evaporator And Cascade Systems
• There are many applications where refrigeration is required at
different temperatures. For example, in a typical food processing
plant, cold air may be required at –30oC for freezing and at +7oC for
cooling of food products or space cooling.
• One simple alternative is to use different refrigeration systems to
cater to these different loads.
• However, this may not be economically viable due to the high total
initial cost.
• Another alternative is to use a single refrigeration system with one
compressor and two evaporators both operating at −30oC.
• The schematic of such a system and corresponding operating cycle
on P-h diagram are shown in Figs.
• As shown in the figure the system consists of a single compressor
and a single condenser but two evaporators.
 Multi-Evaporator And Cascade Systems
• Both evaporators-I and II operate at same evaporator
temperature (-30oC) one evaporator (say Evaporator-I)
caters to freezing while the other (Evaporator-II)
caters to product cooling/space conditioning at 7oC. It
can be seen that operating the evaporator at –30oC
when refrigeration is required at +7oC is
thermodynamically inefficient as the system
irreversibilities increase with increasing temperature
difference for heat transfer.
• The COP of this simple system is given by:
 Cascade Systems
• In a cascade system a series of refrigerants with progressively
lower boiling points are used in a series of single stage units.
• The condenser of lower stage system is coupled to the
evaporator of the next higher stage system and so on.
• The component where heat of condensation of lower stage
refrigerant is supplied for vaporization of next level refrigerant is
called as cascade condenser
• An example of refrigerant combination is the use of carbon
dioxide (NBP = -78.4oC, Tcr = 31.06oC) in low temperature cascade
and ammonia (NBP = -33.33oC, Tcr = 132.25oC) in high
temperature cascade.
• It is possible to use more than two cascade stages, and it is also
possible to combine multi-stage systems with cascade systems.
A two-stage cascade refrigeration system