Instructors know that writing is easy, but students often have the misconception that writing comes easily to ex-perienced writers and is hard only for the untalented or inexperienced. This chapter begins by recognizing the difficulues faced by all writers, experienced and inexperienced al iice. The text does not endorse a strictly linear view of the composing process.
Instructors know that writing is easy, but students often have the misconception that writing comes easily to ex-perienced writers and is hard only for the untalented or inexperienced. This chapter begins by recognizing the difficulues faced by all writers, experienced and inexperienced al iice. The text does not endorse a strictly linear view of the composing process.
Instructors know that writing is easy, but students often have the misconception that writing comes easily to ex-perienced writers and is hard only for the untalented or inexperienced. This chapter begins by recognizing the difficulues faced by all writers, experienced and inexperienced al iice. The text does not endorse a strictly linear view of the composing process.
The Writing
Process
cHapter 1
Assessing the Writing
Situation
cHapter 2
Developing and Shaping
Ideas
cHapter 3
Drafting and Revising
cHapTeR 4
Writing and Revising
Paragraphs
cHapter 5
Designing Documentsmycomplab®
iss FRU j Cans enininicompatcom
Gracainrnsae
HIGHLIGHTS
Teachers know that writing is nor easy, but
students, especially pinning writs, often have
the misconception that vsiting comes easily to
experienced writers and fs hard only for the un:
talented or inexperienced. This chepter begins by
recognising the dificulies faced by all writer,
experienced and inexperienced alike. Nest, the
Chapter alerts students tothe varius elements of
the writing situation and the writing process and
discusses ways to discover and imit subjects.
The concluding sections explore Jexible strate
‘scs Tor considering audience and defining a pur
pose for writing. Special feaures ofthis chapter
fare the attention pad tthe roe "audience and
purpose throughout the composition process and
thelist of "Questions About Audierce” (p. 11).
Although Chapters {and 2 look at activities
typical of the early stages of composing and
Chapter 3 treats drafting and vevsing, the text
does not endorse 3 sirkily linea view of the
Composing process. Instead, all three chapters
emphasize the writer’ many opions andthe
Aesibility of the composing process. They point
‘out that writing sa way of thinking and discov
‘ering: that in the middle of drafting an essay &
‘writer may recomnize the need to develop new
supporting ideas, to make mrajor changes in the
‘organization, orto shift the purpose ofthe essay
and mosify the thesis,
Fee ns
‘See page IAE-S1 for companion Wb site content
description
Instrucor’s Annotated Eition
Assessing the
Writing Situation
“Writing is easy,” snarled the late sportswriter Red Smith. “All
you do is sit down at the typewriter and open a vein.” Most writers
‘would smile in agreement, and so might you, Like anything worth:
while, writing well takes hard work. This chepter and the next two
will show you some techniques that successful writers use to ease
the discomfort of writing and produce effective compositions.
(TaN) Understanding how writing happen:
Even for experienced writers the process is usually messy, which is
of ease and orderliness from a well-crafted magazine article, we can
reshaping paragraphs to make a point convincingly.
There is no one writing process: no two writers proceed in the
to the task at hand, Still, most experienced writers pass through
® Analyzing the writing situation: considering subject, purpose,
audience, and other elements of the project (pp. 4-15).
= Developing or planning: gathering infornation, focusing on a
central theme, and organizing material (yp. 16-43).
= Drafting: expressing and connecting ideas (pp. 44-48).
® Revising and editing: rethinking and improving structure, con-
tent, style, and presentation (pp. 48-63).Instructor's Annotated Edition
“The writing process
With experience, as you complete varied assignments and try the
varied techniques described in this book, you will develop your own
basic writing process.
‘Note Like many cthers, you may believe that writing is only, or
even mainly, a matte: of correctness. True, any written message
will find @ more receptive audience if it is correct in grammar,
spelling, and similar matters. But these concerns should come late
in the writing process, after you've allowed yourself to discover
‘what you want to say, freeing yourself to make mistakes along the
‘way. As one writer put it, vou need to get the clay on the potter’s
wheel before you ean shape it into a bowl, and you need to shape
the bowl before you can perfect it. So get your clay on the wheel,
aand work with it until it looks Tike a bowl. Then worry about cor-
rectness.
RCISE 1.1. Starting a writing |
Recall several writing experiences that you have had—a letter you had
difficulty composing, an essay you enjoyed writing, an all-nighter
| spent happily or riserably on a term paper, a posting to an online
newsgroup that received a surprising response. What do these experi-
fences reveal to you about writing, particularly your successes. and
problems with it? Consider the following questions:
How wating happens 3
‘A WRITER'S PERSPECTIVE
ve decided ‘hat if you wait forthe perfect time
tovsrite, youll never wre
Macnee Arwoo0
You ger all yur best ideas i the shower
unr Edsrwoon
AT EASE
Students efien bring their apprehensions
bout veitng (and writing instructors) with them
to class. To create positive atmosphere for your
cntise, you tmy wish to establish a setting in
‘which students fel at ease about acknowledging
land sharing their apprelensions. Oe way to do
this is ta ask them to fst what they dislike (and
like) about witing without worrying about the
form or correness of entries in their lists. Vol-
“unlaty sharing of che entries ean help reduce the
‘solation many students feet and help you (ard
‘them set prionities for instruction,
ANSWERS: EXERCISE 1.1
Individual -esponse,4 Assessing the writing situation
RESOURCES AND IDEAS
Ball, Kevin and Amy Goodurn. “Compesition
‘Studies ard Service Learning Appealing to
Communities?” Composition Studies 28.1
2000); 79-94, The authors arecritical of ser-
vice learning pedagogy which too often ex
chides the voices of communiw participants
they offer suggestions for writing. assien-
‘ments that would inclide the perspectives of
community participants.
Bartholomse, Davd. “venting the University" In
When «Writer Can's Write: Stalier in Writer's
‘Block and Other Composing Prcess Problems.
Bd, Mike Rose. New York: Gullford, 1985
134-65. Bartholomoe argues pasuasively that
many sudent writers, especial those with it
‘te writing experience, need tobe taught explic
fly the discourse standards o! an academic
‘community in oner to write successfully for it
Berlin, James A. “Contemporary Composition:
‘The Major Pedagogical Theories.” College
English 44 (1982): 765-77. Betin points out
that various process approaches have conse-
{quences instructors must consile;
Blakesle, Ann M. "Bridaing the Workplace and
the Academy: Teaching Professional Genres
‘Through Clasroom-Workplace Cllabore
tions," Tecical Comtnicarion 10.2 (2001)
169-92, Using case studies, Bhikeslee shows
hhow student writing improves when students
work on projects prosided by professionals in
business and industiy
Deans, Thomas. Writing Pannesships: Sevice
Learning in Composition. ‘Urbana: NCTE,
2000. Deans provides an excelent introduc
tion to the theoretical and pedagogical issues
‘of community writing initiatives
Durst, Russel K. Collision Course: Conflict, Nego
‘ation, and Leaning in College Composition
Urbana: NCTE, 1999, Durst advocates that
teachers use a “relleotiveinstrementalisen” in
‘order to reconcile students’ practical goals
‘with their ov desire io each critical aware.
ness and reflection
Flower, Linda, and John &. Hayes, “A Cognitive
Process Theory of Writing.” Cllege Compos
tion and Communication 32 (I981), 365-87.
‘Tihs classic article contains what is probably
the best-known and most widely accepted dis
cussion of the components of the writing
process though its model is more theoretical
‘han practical
Instructor's Annotated Edition
| Do you like to experiment with language?
‘Are some kinds of writing easier than others?
| Do you have trouble getting ideas or expressing them?
| Do you worry about grammar and spelling?
Do your readers usually understand what you mean?
| Record your thoughts as part of continuing jpural entries that track
| your experiences as a writer. (See pp. 17-19 cn keeping a journal, anc
See the exercises titled “Considering your past work" in Chapters 1-4.)
As you complete writing assignments for your composition course and
fother courses, keep adding to the journal, noting especially which pro-
cedures seem most helpful to you. Your aim isto discover your feelings
| about writing so that you can develop a dependable writing process of
‘your own.
Pewee
eae
Any writing you do for others occurs in acontext that both lim:
its and clarifies your choices. You are communicating something
about a particular subject to a particular audience of readers for a
specific reason. You may need to conduct research. You'll be up
against a length requirement and a deadline. And you may be ex-
pected to present your work in a certain format.
These are the elements of the writing situation, and analyzing
them at the very start of a project can tell yeu much about how to
proceed. (For more information about these elements, refer to the
page numbers given in parentheses.)
Content
= What is your writing for? A course in school? Work? Something.
else? What do you know of the requirements for writing in this
context?
* Will you present your writing on paper, online, or orally?
‘What does the presentation method requi-e in preparation time,
special skills, and use of technology?
= How much leeway do you have for this writing? What does
the stated or implied assignment tell you?
Subject (pp. 6-9)
= What does your writing assignment require you to write
about? If you don't have a specific assignment, what subjects
might be appropriate for this situation?
= What interests you about the subject? What do you already
now about it? What questions do you heve about it?
= What does the assignment require you to do with the subject?Instructor's Annotated Edition
Audience (pp. 9-13)
= Who will read your writing?
= What do your readers already know and think about your
subject? What characteristics—such as education or political
ws—might influence their response?
* What is your relationship to your readers? How formal or in-
formal should your writing be?
= What do you want readers to do or think after they read your
writing?
Purpose (pp. 13-15)
= What aim does your assignment specify? For instance, does it
ask you to explain something or argue a point?
= Why are you writing?
= What do you want your work to accomplish? What elfect do
vyou intend it to have on readers?
= How can you bes: achieve your purpose?
Research (pp. 558-636)
= What kinds of evidence will best suit your subject, audience,
and purpose? What combination of facts, examples, and expert
opinions will suport your ideas?
= Does your assignment require research? Will you need to con-
sult sources or conduct interviews, surveys, or experiments?
= Even if research is not required, what information do you
need to develop your subject? How will you obtain it?
= What documentation style should you use to cite your
sources? (See pp. 637-38 on source documentation in the aca-
demic disciplines)
Deadline and length
= When is the assignment due? How will you apportion the work
you have to do in the time available?
= How long should your writing be? If no length is assigned, what
‘seems appropriate for your subject, audience, and purpose?
Document design
= What organization and format does the assignment require?
(See pp. 111-12 en format in the academic disciplines and pp.
839-54 on format in public writing.)
= How might you use margins, headings, and other elements to
achieve your purpose? (See pp. 116-20.)
= How might you use graphs, photographs, or other images to
support ideas and engage readers? (See pp. 120-25, 225-29.)
‘The writing situation 5
Lindemann, Eska, “Three Views of English 101."
College Engish 87 (1995). 287-302. This arti-
cle lays out the opposing claims and assump
tions of the“process." “product,” and “system
fof social action” approaches to the writing
classroom,
MeComiskey, Bruce. Teaching Composition as a
Social Prociss. Logan: Utah State University
Press, 200, MeComiskey extends composi-
tion theory beyond! a discussion of the writing
process, re=xamining product, in the context
‘of cultural theory, as a cycle of production,
distribution, and consumption,
Sherman, Lina K, and Beverly Wall, “The
“Things that Go Without Saying in. Compos-
‘Studies A Colloguy." Journal of Advanced
Composition 15 (1998): 281-320. The authors
assemble a many-voiced critique of some of
the current assumptions of composition peda
2045, including the process paradigm.
‘Tobin, Lad, and Thomas Newkitk, eds. Taking
Stock: The Writing Process Movement in the
‘90s. Portsncuth, NH: Boynton, 1994, This
collection of essays analyzes the goals of the
‘writing process movement, its application in
particular astitations, and the ways in sehich
8 focus on the writing process can be adapted
forthe classrooms ofthe future,
Yagelski, Robert P. Literacy Matters: Writing ant
Reading the Social Saf. New York: Teachers
College Press, 2000. Yagelshi supports
changes to writing curricula to account for
the semina influence af social cmtext on the
production and composition of writen texts,
Ask studens to locate articles or other mater:
Jon the World Wide Web that can serve as
‘models (havirg clear subjects, audiences, and
purposes) or as negative models (having unclear
Subjects, purposes, or audiences). Students can
‘hare whe they ind with the rest ofthe class by
‘emailing the URLs to thelr classmates
Comer ect
GROUP ANA.YSIS
Break students into small groups and ask
them to work iogether to analyze a writing situa-
sion using thesestions on pp. 4-5 as a guidel6 Assessing the writing situation
ANSWERS: EXERCISE 1.2
The assignment specifies the subject (the
‘combinations of client, therapist, and theory that
tend to make psychotherapy successful), the au:
dence (the instructor and a “discussion group
of classmates), and the purpose (to explain and
suupport a conelusion about the subject). It re
‘quires research into studies of psvchotherape. Tt
specifies a length range and a deadline. It does
rot specify format, but APA format could be
sumed because the courses in psychology.
RESOURCES AND IDEAS
‘Brady, Laura, “Overcoming Resisunce: Comput
ers in the Writing Cassroom.” Computers end
Compostion 7-2 (1990) 21-33 Brady found
that word processing inthe fis-year compo
sition classroom inereased the wlume of stu
dent writing, prompted new wys of thinking
about topics, encouraged collzboration, and
Tostered a postive workshop atmosphere
Brooke, Rupert, Ruth Mirtz, and Rick Evans, eds.
‘Small Groups in Writing Workshops: Invita:
tions to a Writers Life. Urbana NCTE, 1994
This collection of essays offers many strate
es for using collaborstive group work ta ere
‘ate an active earning station
in
Din
ER 1.1
Flower, Linda S.,and John R, Hayes. “The Cogni
tion of Discovery: Defining a Rhetorical Prob-
em.” College Composition and Communica
tion 31 (1980): 21-2. This article reports on a
detailed study of how good wrters and poor
‘writers conceive of writing tasks as they begin
to compos.
Golub, Jeff, Activites for an Ineractive Closs-
room. Urbana: NCTE, 1994. Golub provides =
‘number of hands-on Suggestions for creating
tn effoctve workshop environment
Hillocks, George, J. “Environments for Active
Learning” In Theory and Puctice in the
Teaching of Writing: Rethinkingrhe Diseptine.
Ed, Lee Odell. Carbondale: Sothern Minois
UP, 1993, 244-70, Hillock” essay is part case
study and part analysis ofa classroom struc
tue based on student interactions with each
other and with texts,
Instructor's Annotated Edition
“EXERCISE 1.2 Analyzing a writing situation,
‘The following assigrment was given in a survey cours in psychology.
What does the assignment specify about the elements of the writing
situation? What does it imply? Given this assignment, how would you
answer the questions on the previous two pages? (You can do this ex-
ercise online at abfongman.com/litlebrowt)
When is psychotherapy most likely to werk? That is, wat combi-
nations of cient, therapist, and theory tend lo achieve good results?
In your paper, cite studies supporting your conclusions. Length: 1500
to 1800 words. Post your paper online to me and to your discussion
group by March 30.
ERR
[HEY discovering and
For most college and public writing, you will write in response
to an assignment. The assignment may specify your subject, or it
may leave the choice to you. (If you're stuck, you can use the discov
techniques on pp. 16-26 to think of subjects.) Whether the sub-
ject is assigned or not, it will probably need some thought if itis to
achieve these aims:
‘« The subject should be suitable for the assignment.
= It should be neither too general nor too limited for the length
of project and deadline assigned,
= Itshould be something you care about.
Hil Responding to a specific asignment
Many assignments will et boundaries fo: your subject. For in-
stance, you might be asked {0 discuss what makes psychotherapy
effective, to prepare a lab report on a physics experiment, or to ana-
Iymwa character law short tory
Such asaignments may seem to leave litle room for you to
move around but in fact youll have several questions to answer
= What's wanted from you? Writing assigments often contain
words such as discuss, describe, analyze, report, interpret, ex-
plain, define, argue, and evaluate. These words specify the way
you are to approach your subject, what kind of thinking is ex-
pected of you, and what your general purpose is. (See pp. 13-15
for more on purpose.)
= For whom are you writing? Many assignments will specify or
imply your readers, but sometimes you will have to figure out
for yourself who your audience is and what it expects from you.
(For more on analyzing audience. see pp. 9-13.)
* What kind of research is required? Sometimes an assignment
specifies the kinds of sources you are expected to consult, andInstructor's Annotated Edition
you can use such information to choose your subject. (If you are
unsure whether research is required, check with your instructor.)
= How can you narrow the assigned subject to do it justice in
the length and time required? (See below.)
[J Responding to a general assignment
Some assignment specify features such as length or amount of|
research, but they leave the choice of subject entirely to you. Others
fare somewhat more focused—for instance, "Respond to a reading
Assigned in this course” or ‘Discuss a proposal for solving a local
social problem"—but still give you much leeway in choosing a
particular reading or 2 partieilar proposal To find your approach,
Consider your experiences, interests, or curiosities
= What subject do you already know something about or have
you been wondering about? Athletic scholarships? Unemploy-
ment in your town?
= Have you recently disagreed with someone over a substantial
issue? The change in relations between men and women? The
methods being used to fight terrorism?
= What have you read or seen lately? A shocking book? A violent
or funny movie? An effective television commercial?
= What tople in the reading or class discussion for a course lias
intrigued you? An economic issue such as taxes? A psychologi-
cal problem such as depression?
= What makes you especially happy or especially angry? A
hobby? The behavior of your neighbors?
= Which of your ovn or others’ dislikes and preferences would
you like to understand better? The demand for sport-utility ve~
hhicles? A taste for vegetarian cuisine?
Once you have a subject, youTl also need to answer the questions
the bulleted list opposite.
[Bl Narrowing a subject to a question
Let's say you've decided to write about communication on the
Internet or about a perticular character in a short story. You've got
a subject, but it’s stil broad, worthy of a lengthy article if not a
whole book. For a relatively brief paper, you'll need a narrow focus,
in order to provide tho specific details that make writing significant
and interesting—all within the length and deadline specified by the
assignment.
‘One helpful technique for narrowing a subject is to ask focused
questions about it, seeking one that seems appropriate for your as-
signment and that promises to sustain your interest through the
writing process. The following examples illustrate how questioning,
Subject ?
‘Sammefild, Jedth, “Ts There Life in This Test?
‘Reimagining Narrative.” In Wrtiag Theory ned
Critical Thorry: Research and Scholarship in
Composition. Ed. ohn Cliferd and John
Schill, NY: MLA, 1934, 179-194, Surmmesfild
examines the role of student narratives in the
‘composition class, especially the extent t0
‘whieh they can provoke and sustain students)
“authentic” ices
sdlock, David "The Case Approach to Compost
jon.” College Composition and Communica
tion 32 (1981): 253-61. Tedlock argues for the
tse of cases—detailed, self-contained descrip-
tions of a writing situation—as a basis for as.
signments end instructions,
PO cans
your classroom is linked to the Internet, ask
‘your students 6 do a subject search on a broad
topic, ike the “environment,” and to note the
sceessive points at which they will be able to
tnarvow the topic by choosing among lists of sub-
healings. At alater stage you might ask students
Ao create their nen hypertext document in wich
broad subject heading leads the user to infor
‘mation on mote specific topics,
NARROWING SUBJECTS TO TOPICS
(Clustering (28-5) and asking the journalist's
‘questions (22-6) can also help narrow subjects to
topies. For example, the broad subject “Islam
can be the center point ofa cluster, and students
‘an write related topic ideas such a “theology of|
Islam.” "Western attitudes toward Muslims and
Tslatn” and "women in Islam” in branches radi
ing from the center. “Islam” can also be
rowed by asking such questions as "Who are ma-
jor figures in Islan,” "Whar do Muslims
Ielieve?," "How are Muslims and Islam viewed in
the United Stes?” "Where is Islam practiced?,”
find "How ane Why are women and men treated
diferent in lami tradition?”
‘Other good subject areas that give students
practice in narrowing topics are movies, cars,
felevision programs, and academic Belds (lor ex
ample, sociolesy,geologs)RESOURCES AND IDEAS
Guiher-ulf, Susan, “Iavolvement in a Current
Problem as a Basis for Writing” Teaching
English in the Two-Year Collge (7 (1990)
187-88, Guiher Hull describes how students
used a range of essay formats, made a cause
andseffeet oral presentation, an! wrote per
suasive letters around the topiz of potion,
‘The sustained topic seemed (o make the writ=
Ing meaningful forthe students
Schreffler, Peter H."Where ll the Children Arve
Above Average’ Garvison Keillr as a Model
for Personal Narrative Assignments” College
Composition and Communicator 40 (1989)
82-85, Schrffler discusses the delightful ex-
perience personal narrative writing can be as
sStdents debe into themselves as well as into
the world around them,
Seabury, Marcia Bundy. “The Abstraction Lad-
der in Freshman Composition.’ College Cow:
position and Communication 40 (1989):
189-92, Seabury has found that teaching S. |
Hayskaws's abstraction ladder can benefit
firstsear composition studentsin the think=
Ing through and writing abour their topes
Wallace, David. “From Intention 9 Tests Artiew-
lating inikial Intentions for Writing” Researeh
inthe Teaching of English 30 (1396): 182-219,
This essay explores the relationship becween
the planning and composing stages of writ-
ing. Wallace's study found chat students who
were most able to articulate tei initial
tentions fora writing task werealso most able
to complete the task eecively.
(On limiting subjects
Coe, Richarl M. If Not to Narrow, Then Howe to
Focus: Two Techniques for Fecasing.” College
Composition and Communicator 32 (1981)
272-71. Coe describes wavs Io fel students 0
focus on a particular aspect ofa topic as an
alternative (othe usual approach of narrow
Ing a opie
Tucker, Amy. Decoding ESL: Intemational St
denis in the American College Classnorn
Portsmouth, NH: Boynton, 1995. This book
explores the larger sues of haw to read ane
respond to ESL writers, and includes (partic.
tlatly in Chapter 8) strategies for using rea
ings as the prompts for writing assignments.
‘Assessing the writing situation
Instrucior’s Annotated Edition
can scale down broad subjects to specific subjects that are limited
and manageable:
Broad subjects Specific subjects
Communication What are the advantages of online communica
‘on the Internet tion?
How if at al, should the covernment regulate
Internet content?
How might the Internet contsbute to social
and economic equality?
Mrs. Mallard What changes does Mrs. Mallard undergo?
in Kate Chopin's Why does Mrs. Mallard respond as she does to
“The Story of an news of her husband's death?
Hour” ‘What does the story's irory contribute to the
character of Mrs, Malltd?
Lincoln's ‘What was Lincoln's most significant eror as
weaknesses: commander-in-chief of the Union army?
as President Why did Lincoln delay emancipating the slaves?
‘Why did Lincoln have diffculties controling
his cabinet?
Federal aid to Which students should be entitle to federal aid?
college students How adequate are the kinds of federal ad avail-
able to college students?
Why should the federal government aid college
Students?
AAs these examples illustrate, your questions should no: lend them
selves to yes-or-no answers but should require further thinking.
Here are some guidelines for posing questions:
# Reread the assignment. Consider what 1 tells you about pur-
pose, audience, sources, length, and deadline
= Pursue your interests. If questions don't come easily, try
freewriting or brainstorming (pp. 20-22) or use a tree diagram
(pp. 34-35),
= Ask as many questions as you can think of.
' Test the question that seems most interesting and appropriate
by roughly sketching out the main ideas. Consider how many
paragraphs or pages of specific facts, examples, and other de
tails you would need to pin those ideas down. This thinking
should give you at least a vague idea of how much work you'd
have to do and how long the resulting paper might be.
= Break a too-broad question down further, and repeat the pre-
vious step.
The Internet can also help you limit a general subject, On the
Web, browse a directory such as BUBL LINK (bublac.uk). AS you
pursue increasingly narrow categories, you may find a suitably lim-
ited topic.Instructor's Annotated Edition
Don't be discouraged if the perfect question does not come easily
or early. You may find that you need to do some planning and writ-
ing, exploring different facets of the general subject and pursuing,
your specific interests, before you hit on the best question. And the
question you select may require further narrowing or may sh
subtly or even dramatically as you move through the writing process.
E13 ASTRA A RE
| Following are some general writing assignments, Use the given infor-
‘mation and your own interests to pose specific questions for three of
these assignments. (You can do this exercise online at abfongman.com/
+ tittebrown.)
(1 Fra wing coe, conser how the Wed Wie We cul
tert expaence of popular culture Length: Unee pages, Ded
| _ Trerone went
2, Fora couse in rocoogy esearch and analyze the dynamics ofa
pane grou a pepe. en unspeied. Denie fot
=o
| a, Fora witing couse, read and respond to an essay ina text you
tre using, Lengty tive pages, Delve two weet.
| 4. Fora goverent couse, consider possible rstntons on leg
fore gin fe pages Deans ta west
| 5. For a letter to the editor of the town newspaper, describe the
tftects of irengation Of your zammuniy. Length: to pages,
Deadline unppese,
‘ eaters haveing ended
Think of something you've recent wrtten—perhaps an application
Rey seaec eiee 0 Gr toprol ee So ce
from beginning to end? In retrospect, was it appropriate for your writ
ing situation? Hows fat all, might it have been modified?
As the first step in developing a three- to four-page essay for the in-
structor and the other students in your writing course, choose a sub-
ject and narrow it. Use the guidelines in the previous section to come
Lup with a question thats suitably interesting, appropriate, and specific.
Who are my readers?
Why will they reed my writing?
What will they need from me?
What do I want them to think or do afier they read my writing?
Audience 9
RAT
Pern
Have students work in groups to find specific
topics for the assignments in Exercise 1.3, and
then share thet conclusions with the class, Stu-
dents benefit om realizing the numerous and
varied options ‘or narrowing a broad subject.
ANSWERS: EXERCISE 1.3
Possible answers
1, How has direct distribution of popular music
‘on the Web tected consumers’ choices?
2, How doesslang help to bind members ofthe
college cemmunity?
3. How doesX's theory about math anxiety ap
ply tome?
4. How migat term limits affect the House of
Representatives?
5. How has immigration affected food choices?
rT ce
SHARING PAST WRITING
Sharing past work can help students connect
the writing they are doing in your class to their
broader experince as writers, a connection that
helps ther to gain greater awareness oftheir own
progress as writers. Have students bring. ina
Piece of previous work and present it to their
‘group, describing the context in which that piece
‘was written, their purpose in writing it, what they
Teamed from writing it, and how it ders from
other hinds of writing they have done. Ask groups
to report on the interesting or unexpected mo-
‘ments that occurred in the group presentations.
ANSWERS: EXERCISE 1.4
Individual sponse,
ANSWERS: EXERCISE 1.5
Individual -esponse.
Eemetr nue
As part of te process of developing their top-
ies for Exercise 15, have students verbally artieu-
Jate their ideas in Small groups and receive sug-
_zesions for further development and focus.10 Assessing the writing situation
[AUDIENCE INVENTORY
Ask sere t chose a posite topic for an
essay a a isthe Kinds of
interested in the tone. Te
Wish they may empl the "Questions About Au-
lence om page II (n theory, helt ght be
‘ery long In practice stdlents soon run 04 of
‘das, bet not uni they have hegen to visualize
the audience fr thir exeays) To extend the exer
clue atk stents what part of the penal aud
fence they would most lie to adie or what
Kinds of poople wold be most inerested i the
topi. Them ak them tole ether (1) what there
‘trict audience probably already knows about
‘he topic and shat t needs to knew oF 2) what
itsattudes are and what Kids of arguments will
be needed to change them,
See
AUDIENCE INVENTORY
Ask students to compare the lists they devel:
oped for the audience inventory and suggest
changes, additions, or deletions
Gomer
AUDIENCE ASSESSMENT
tribute to sour class an article from a spe
ciabinterest magazine, a newspaper feature 0
‘editorial, an article from the Intertet, or another
brief essay whose appeal toa particular audience
students will be able to recognize fairly easily
Ask students to read the essay ané then to work
together to identify the charaetersties and att
tudes of the intended audience as they think the
author viewed it ak them also 16 identify the
tone of the essay and to decide whether or not it
{s appropriate to the subject, the intended aul
‘ence, and the publication In whic! the essay’ ap-
peated, Tel thom to be ready to point out what
evidence in the essay they used tently the fn-
tended audience and the tone. Ratver than bring
articles to cass yourself, ask students either indi-
vidlually or as teams to bring ina varoly of essays
(writings aimed at particular atliences. Some
targot audiences you might pick -e consumers
“sports fans, parents, businesspeople patients, and
health-care workers
Instrucior’s Annotated Edition
These questions are central to any writing project, and they will
crop up again and again, Except in writing meant only for yourself,
you are always trying to communicate with readers—something
about a particular subject, for a particular purpose.
‘Your audience will often be specified or implied in a writing as-
signment, When you write an editorial for the student newspay
your audience consists of fellow students. When you write a report
‘on a physics experiment, your audience consists of your physics in-
structor and perhaps other physicists or vou" classmates. (See pp.
129-30 for more on audience in academic writing.) Whatever the
audience, considering its needs and expectations can help you form
or focus a question about your subject, gather answers to the ques-
tion, and ultimately decide what to say and how to say it,
Hil koowing what readers need
‘sa reader yourself, you know what readers need
* Context: a link between what they read and their own knowl-
edge and experiences,
lity: an understanding of the writer's purpose and
how itis being achieved.
= Information: the specific facts, examples, and other details that
make the subject clear, concrete, interesting, and convincing.
= Respeet: a sense that the writer respects their values and be-
liefs, their background, and their intelligen
® Voice: a sense that the writer is a real person.
* Clarity and correctness: writing free of tnnecessary stumbling
blocks and mistakes.
For much academic and public writing, readers have definite
needs and expectations. Thus Chapter 6 discusses academic writing
in general, Chapters 49-53 discuss writing in various disciplines,
and Chapter 55 discusses public writing. Even in these areas, you
must make many choices based on audience. In other areas where
the conventions of structure and presentation are vaguer, the
choices are even more numerous. The box opposite contains ques-
tions that can help you define and make these choices,
[B® Pitching your writing to your audience
Your sense of your audience will influence three key elements
of what you writ
= The specific information you use to gain and keep the atten-
in of readers and to guide them to accept your conclusions.
This information may consist of concrete cetails, facts, examples,Questions about audience
Identity and expectations
= Who are my readers?
= What are my readers’ expectations for the kind of writing I'm do-
ing? Do readers expect features such as a particular organization and,
format, distinctive kinds of evidence, or a certain style of document-
ing sources?
= What do | want readers to know or do after reading my work?
How should I make that clear to them?
"= What is my relationship to my reaclers? How formal or informal will
they expect me to be? What role and tone should | assume?
Characteristics, knowledge, and attitudes
= What characteristics of readers are relevant for my subject and
purpose? For instance:
‘Age and sex
Occupation: students, professional colleagues, etc
Social or economic role: subject-matter experts, voters, car buyers,
potential employers, ete
Economic or educational background
Fthnie harkgersinel
Political, religious, or moral beliefs and values
Hobbies or activities
= How will the characteristics of readers influence their attitudes
‘toward my subjecc?
What do readers already know and not know about my subject?
How much do I have to tell thern?
How should | handle any specialized terms? Will readers know
them? Ifnet, should I define them or avoid them?
What Ideas, aruments, or information might surprise, excite, or
offend readers? How should | handle these points?
= What misconceptions might readers have of my subject and/or
‘my approach to it? How can | dispel these misconceptions?
Uses and format
= What will readers do with my writing? Should | expect them to
read every word from the top, to scan for information, to look for
conclusions? Can |help by providing a summary, headings, illstra-
tions, or other aids’ (See pp. 111-26 on document design)
You can download these questions from abfongman.com/fitebrown.
Save them in a fle of :heir own, duplicate the file for each writing pro-
ject, and insert appropriate answers between the questions. Print your
answers for reference és you develop your paper.
Audience u
UNCC ee)
Geeta
COLLABORATIVE POSTINGS
Have your students work together to compose
8 posting for an Intemet newsgroup in which
they practice pitching their writing to a nonse-
cific audience In their postings they should try
{o include sufficient (or even extra} information,
to assume the role of an equal in the conversa-
tion they are entering, and to vite in a. level2 Assessing the writing situation
RESOURCES AND IDEAS
Bacon, Nora, “Building = Swan's Nest for In-
‘struction in Rhetorie.” Colle Composition
sand Communication S14 Q2000): 589-60.
[Bacon shows how cammaniey based siting
assignments help studonts understand how
purpose and style most changeas a result of
hetorical conten.
(Ong, Walter J, S.J. “The Writers Audience Is Al
‘ways a Fltin,” PMLA 90 (1975) 9-21. Ong.
fzues that writers must construc audiences i
‘hei imaginations asan essential par of the act
of soricng and that readers mu play the role
defined for them by the writer's tof imagina
tion, OF course, students are probably aware
that in many writing circumstances, such 95
swrting fora profesor oF a managor at work,
the audiences real not Fictional t's worth dis
cussing how a writers task car be shaped by
hisorher knowledge of actual riders.
Vandenberg, Peter. Pick Up Ths Cross and Fol-
Tow: (responsibilty and the Teaching of
"Writing for Audience.” Composition Stes
Freslnan English News 20 (Fall 1982}: 84-97,
Vandenberg reviews debates over the chang-
Ing concep of audience and papoints some
fof the contradictions that stulents face as,
they try to write for particular audiences,
ree
I
lave students work in groups ertique and
revise one oftheir paragraphlength responses to
Exercise 1.6. In networked classrooms, students
‘can “publish” the revised paragraphs forthe class.
ANSWERS: EXERCISE 1.6
Possible answers
1. For elementary school students: physical of
fects in simple terms; statisies in simple
figures; dfficuky of quiting once addicted;
Importance of resisting peer pressure
Role: combined teacher ane parent. Tone:
‘warm, slighty admonitory.
For adult smolers: graphic depiction of
physical effects; detailed staisies influence
‘0 childien effect on smokers appearance,
‘dor, breath.
‘Rok: combined friend and ecturer. Tone
Instructor's Annotated Edition
or other evidence that makes your ideas clear, supports your as-
sertions, and suits your readers’ background, biases, and spe-
cial interests.
= The role you choose to play in relation to your readers, De-
pending on your purpose and your attitude toward your topic,
‘you will want readers to perceive you in acertain way. The pos-
sible roles are many and varied—for instance, scholar, story=
teller, lecturer, guide, reporter, advocate, nspirer,
= The tone you use. Tone in writing is like tone of voice in speak-
Ing: words and sentence structures on the page convey some of
the same information as pitch and volume in the voice. De-
pending on your writing situation and what you think your
readers will expect and respond to, your tone may be formal or
informal. The attitude you convey may be serious or light,
forceful or calm, irritated or cheerful.
Even when you're writing on the same subject, your informa-
tion, role, and tone may change substantially for different audiences.
Both memes below were written by a student who worked parttime
in a small company and wanted to get the company to conserve pa-
per. But the two memos address different readers
eaerees emma
Ever notice how much paper collects in your lye esl hand
trash bake every day? We meat often be Gackt
recyeled with Ite efor | promise Bascal
Yon need todo i sat bag or box near your fol heey
Me dapeat wastrel RT ben,
space Is cramped in these little cubicles. But Tone:informa, personal
‘thats eile More crowding when the ears (om me Wey
seach its
To management
In my four months here, have observed that all nfrmaton spect
of us throw out baskets of potentially recyclabe _fesers ew sfcampany
paper every day. Considering the drain on our Sasol: lees 9
forest resources and the pressure on landfils femotcon
that paper causes, we could make a ValUabe pale serous though
contribution to the environmental movement feponile emionee
by helping to recycle the paper we we, Atte Je
compary where | worked before, employees Tepe fomalseous
separate clean wastepaper from other trash at {oestrestutes vol
their desks. The maintenance staf collate trash conten, no you
in two receptacles, and the trash hauler (the “omations)
same one we use here) makes separate pickups
{ido not know what the hauler charges for han-
dling recyclable material
‘Typically for business writing, the information grows more specific
and the tone more formal as the rank and number of readers rise.Instructor's Annotated Edition
If you are writing online—for instance, to an Internet news-
group—you may not know enough about your audience to pitch
‘your writing (o particular expectations and needs. Consider, then,
providing more information than you otherwise might, assuming
the role of an equal ‘perhaps a colleague), and using @ level tone
(neither hostile nor chummy, neither very formal nor very informal).
EXERCISE 1.6 Considering audience
Choose one of the following subjects, and, for each audience speci-
| fied, ask the questions on page 11. Decide on four points you would
make, the role you would assume, and the tone you would adopt for,
| each audience. Then write a paragraph for each based on your deci-
sions. (You can do this exercise online at ablangman.com/ltlebrown.)
1. The effects of smoking: for elementary school students and for
| adult smokers
2. Your opposition to a proposed law requiring adult bicyclists to
‘wear helmets: for cyclists who oppose the law and for people who
favorit
| 3. Why your neignbors should remove the wrecked truck from their
front yard: for your neighbors and for your town zoning board
i
How did audience figure in 2 piece of writ
{your choice of infomation, your role, and your tone? At vihat point in
‘the writing process did you find it most productive to consider your
| Wwe your readers? How did your arenes af hem inuence
|
| readers conscouse
|
| Use the questions cn page 11 to determine as much as you can about
| the probable tends youre snproges oe Becele 3). What
| doef your anabis revel about the specie information your readers
reel? What cdo you want to esure, end whet tone wil bet con
| vey your etude tonard you tpt
eae
When you write, your purpase is your chief reason for commu
nicating something about a topic to a particular audience. Purpose
thus links both the specific situation in which you are working and
the goal you hope to achieve. It is your answer to a potential
reader's question, “So what?"
Purpose B
2. For cyclists who also oppose the law status
fof law: reasons for opposition; need For ae=
om; suaprested actions
Role: peer, motivator. Tone: informal
urgent
For prople who favor the low: acknowl
‘edgment of pro-law postion; disadvantages
‘of helmas; lek of proven need; infringe
ment of vests rights.
Role: Fellow citizen. Tone: informative
reasonable, appealing to shared vallcs
3. For your neighbors: feelings. of neighber
hood residents: dangers to children and
pes; lowered property values; threat of pet
{om to ening board
Role: peer. Tone: direct, «bit angry.
Fr the zoning board violation of zoning
regulations; length of time the erecked
truck has been present; number of unsuc-
cessful appeals to neighbors; dangers to
children and pets
Role: plaintiff Tone: serious, reasonable
ANSWERS: EKERCISE 1.7
Individual response.
Smee
Students can often experience difficulty in
‘identifying the implied readers of their own
work, Have students work in small groups to
compare their responses to Exercise 18, to help
fone another identify the probable readers of their
essays-insprogress, and to note places in each es
say where toc much oF t00 litle information is
supplied
ANSWERS: EXERCISE 1
Individual response.
IDENTIFYING PURPOSE
Use paragraphs drawn from magazine arti=
les, essays ina reader, or student papers as the
basis for class discussion of the purposes of wnit-
ing. You may ask students ta work individually
‘or in groups v9 compare the aims of individual
paragraphs with the overall purpose of the essay
from which they are taken and to decide what
role the paragraphs play within the essay,“ Assessing the wing situation
RESOURCES AND IDEAS
Ede, Lisa, and Andrea Lunsford. “Audience Ad-
‘dressedAudionce Invoked: The Role of Audi-
ence in Composition Theory ard Pedagogy.”
College Composition and Conmtaricetion 38
(1984): 155-71. The authors suggest a negoti-
ated balance between the writers desires and
the audience’ needs, See also their “Repre-
senting Audience: ‘Successful’ Discourse and
Disciplinary Critique” in Collewe Composition
anid Communication 47 (1996). 67-7
‘Kirsch, Gots, and Duane H. Roen. 4 Sense af Au
ence in’ Written Commattcaton, Newbury
Park: Sage, 1990, ixtoen inter sciplinary es-
says on atdience treat the subject from a
‘number of extcal perspectives.
Park, Douglas B. “Analyzing Audiences.” College
Composition and Commuricaton 37 (1986):
478-88. Understanding the social context of
writing act helps students defite their aux
f. Mary Jo. "Rereading ‘Involed! and ‘Ad-
dressed’ Readers Through a Sosial Lens: To-
wards a Recognition of Multiple: Audiences
Journal of Advarced Composition 16 (1996)
407-24, Ref revows wi
tudionce has boon evoked by composition
hearists and examines. ways that writing
teachers and students can take noltiple aude
lence perspectives into account.
‘Trimbur, John, *“Composion and the Cireula-
tion of Writing” Collge Composition and
Communication 52 (December 2000), 188-
219. Trimbur suggests that tezchers should
enrich composition instruction by alerting
students othe effects broadereirculation of
students work would have of tie manner of
its composiion,
Wells, Susan. “Rogue Cops and Health Care:
What Do We Want from Public Writing?" Cal.
lege Composition end Commanication 47
(1996): 325-41. Wells explores the problems
of addressing a "general public’ audience in
student assignments,
xy, RJ. "Audience Awareness: Methods and
Madness.” Freshax English News 182
1990}: 20, Willey found that hen shetori-
cal, informational, and socal perspectives on
‘audience awareness were consdered in the
‘composition classroom, the soci perspective
‘was the most productive hocaus of is trans-
sctional nacre
Instructor's Annotated Edition
RSE Se
The general purposes for writing
= To entertain readers
* To express your felings or ideas
* To explain something to readers (exposition)
* To persuade readers to accept ar act on your opinion (argument)
[Wl Defining a general purpose
Your purpose may fall into one of four general categories: en-
tertainment, self-expression, explanation, or persuasion. These pur-
poses may overlap in a single piece of writing, but usually one
predominates. And the dominant purpose wil influence your par~
ticular slant on your topic, the supporting details you choose, even
the words you use.
In college or public writing, by far the most common purposes
are explanation and persuasion:
= Writing that is mainly explanatory is often called exposition
(from a Latin word meaning "to explain orset forth”). Using ex-
amples, facts, and other evidence, you present an idea about
your subject so that readers understand it as you do. Almost
any subject is suitable for exposition: how to pitch a knuckle-
ball, why you want to major in business, the implications of a
new discovery in computer science, the interpretation of a
short story, the causes of an economic shump. Exposition is the
ind of writing encountered most often in newspapers, mage
zines, and textbooks.
= Writing that is primarily persuasive is often called argument.
Using examples, facts, and other evidence, you support your po-
sition on a debatable subject so that readers will at least con-
sider your view and perhaps agree with it or act om it. A newspe-
per editorial favoring city council reform a business proposal
for a new personnel policy, a student paper recommending
more required courses or defending a theory about human psy-
chological development—all these are arguments. (Chapters
9-11 discuss argument in some detail and provide examples.)
[® Defining a specific purpose
Purpose can be conceived more specifically, 10, in a way that in-
corporates your particular subject and the outceme you intend—what
you want readers to do or think as a result of reading your writing
Here are some examples of specific purposes:
To explain how Annie Dillard's “Total Eclipse” builds to its climax so
that readers appreciate the author's skillInstructor's Annotated E
‘To explain the methods and results of an engineering experiment so
that readers understand and accept your conclusions
‘To explain why the county has been unable to attract new businesses
so that readers better understand the local economic slump
To persuade reade's to support the college administration's plan for
more required courses
To argue against additional regulation of health-maintenance argani-
zations so that reacers perceive the disadvantages for themselves
‘To argue for additional gun-control laws so that readers agree on thelr
necessity
Often, a writing assignment will specify or imply both a general
and a specific purpose. Say, for instance, that a psychology teacher
assigns a review of the research on infants’ perception of color. You
know that the purpose is generally to explain, more specifically to
summarize and analyze the established findings on the subject. You
want readers to come away understanding the eurrent state of the
investigation into the subject. In addition, you want your instructor
to see that you can competently read others’ work and write about
it, (See p. 130 for more on purpose in academic writing.)
With any writing assignment, try to define your specific pur
pose as soon as you have formed a question about your subject.
Don't worry, though, if you feel uncertain of your purpose at the
start. Sometimes you may not discover your purpose until you begin
drafting, or you may find that your initial sense of purpose changes
as you move through the writing process
EXERCISE 1.9. Finding purpose in assignments
ues
| For each of your questions from Exercise 1.3 (p. 9), suggest a likely
{general purpose (entertainment, self-expression, explanation, persua-
| Sion) and try to define 2 specific purpose as well. Make audience part
‘of your suggestiors: What would you want readers to do or think in
‘each case? (If you completed Exercise 1.3 online, you can add these
suggestions to that fl.)
en
| Look over two or three things you've written in the past year oF so,
| What was your specific purpose in each one? How did the purpose in-
| fluence your writing? Did you achieve your purpose?
EXERCISE 1.17 Defining a purpose foryour essay
For your essay-in-progress, use your thinking so far about topic (Exer-
cise 1.5, p. 9) anc audience (Exercise 1.8, p. 13) to define a general
and specific purpose for your writing.
Purpose 15
Fences
Give your students a series of Web pages to
look at and ark them to evaluate what they find
‘on each page in terms of purpose,
Geet ec
Askestuderts 19 develop thelr responses to Ex
reise Lin groups, paying particular attention
to places where the purposes of piven topie
could differ. This discussion will help students to
explore ways in which a topic might lend itself to
various purpones.
ANSWERS: EXERCISE 1.9
Possible answers
1. How hasdiect distribution of popular music
‘on the wb affected constoners' choices? Ex-
plain how the ability to connect directly
‘vith musicians on the Web results in mare
rmusic choices for consumers. Introduce
readers a bensfit ofthe Web.
2. How does slang help to bind members of the
college exmmunity? Explain how the com
munitystnique slang contributes toa sense
of belorging. Show readers the value of
their slang,
3. How does X' theory about maih anciety ap-
ply to me? Explain the way X's theory =
ects your own experience. Demonstrate to
readers the truth ofthe theory
4. How might term lis affect the House of
Represewatves? Argue sgainst term limits
for logidators. Lead readers to agree that
{erm lirits are unnecessary and potentially
harmful
5, How ha: immigration affected food choices?
Explain how immigrants have vastly in-
creased the variety of foods available. Help,
readers appreciate this benefit of immigra-
ANSWERS: EXERCISE 1.10
Individual response
ANSWER:
EXERCISE 1.11
Individa response