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Folk, R.L., 1954 PDF
Folk, R.L., 1954 PDF
Nomenclature
Author(s): Robert L. Folk
Source: The Journal of Geology, Vol. 62, No. 4 (Jul., 1954), pp. 344-359
Published by: The University of Chicago Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/30065016 .
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ABSTRACT
A system of grain-size nomenclature of terrigenous sediments and sedimentary rocks is introduced
wherein fifteen major textural groups are defined on the ratios of gravel, sand, silt, and clay. Further subdivi-
sion of each class is based on the median diameter of each size fraction present. Next, the mineral composition
of terrigenous sedimentary rocks is considered. A triangular diagram is used to define eight rock types
(orthoquartzite, arkose, graywacke, and five transitional types) based on the mineralogy of the silt-sand-
gravel fraction and ignoring clay content. The writer contends that the current practice of calling all clayey
sandstones "graywackes" is not valid, inasmuch as it represents a confusion of texture with composition. It is
suggested that sedimentary rocks may be best defined by the use of a tripartite name, based on the following
pattern-(grain size): (textural maturity) (mineral composition).
silt and clay portion) with each major specimens. In sedimentary rocks perhaps
group capable of further subdivision. the most outstanding outcrop character-
The last section of the paper presents a istic (often the only one described be-
mineralogical basis for classifying sedi- sides color) is the grain size of a rock,
mentary rocks into eight types, based on whether it be a conglomerate, sand-
the composition of the silt-sand-gravel stone, or shale; yet this is the very field
fraction, independent of clay content. in which most ambiguity exists. We use
The final rock name thus consists of comparison charts for color and often
three separate parts, built on the follow- analyze carefully the mineral and fossil
ing pattern-(grain size): (textural ma- content but leave one of the most im-
turity) (mineral composition). As an portant descriptive features of a rock-
example of this system of nomenclature, the grain size-in a backwash of incon-
a rock might be described as "sandy con- sistent and vague terminology.
glomerate:submature arkose" or "silty The writer hesitates to add one more
very fine sandstone:mature orthoquartz- classification scheme to the large num-
ite." ber already in existence, but he has
found certain difficulties in trying to use
II. GRAIN-SIZE NOMENCLATURE FOR
most of the earlier systems: either they
TERRIGENOUS SEDIMENTS AND
are incomplete (omitting the entire
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
range of possible mixtures between grav-
NEED FOR A CLASSIFICATION el, sand, and mud), or else the grain-size
At the present time there is no gen- name applied does not give a proper
erally accepted system of nomenclature picture of the rock or sediment. The pro-
to describe the complete range of mix- posed scheme of textural nomenclature
tures of gravel, sand, silt, and clay which has been tested in field and laboratory
combine to form sediments and ulti- descriptions over a period of some five
mately sedimentary rocks. Ask ten peo- years and found to be fairly unambigu-
ple to define a conglomerate, pebbly ous and, most important, practical to
sandstone, or sandy mudstone, and ten use and easy to remember, without car-
different answers might be forthcoming. rying any cumbersome charts or tables in
Many schemes have been proposed from the field. Any new classification, of
time to time concerning the nomencla- course, draws heavily upon preceding
ture of aggregates of sedimentary par- ones, and the scheme proposed here owes
ticles (well summarized by Pettijohn, its greatest debt to those of Wentworth
1949, p. 26-30); but few of these have (1922) and Krynine (1948).
been followed in field or even laboratory In all classifications of natural materi-
descriptions except by the author of a als, there are two extremes. The classi-
particular classification and perhaps a fication may be made simple, containing
few of his students. Such refinements are few categories and with the limits of
looked upon as superfluous in many each category ill defined and subject to
quarters; but, if geology and especially the interpretation of each person using
stratigraphy are ever to approach the it. Simple classifications, unencumbered
exactitude of some of the other sciences, it by lengthy rules of procedure, are appeal-
is desirable to have a fairly refined grain- ing because they have few boundaries
size terminology in consistent usage in to be learned; however, such classifica-
the description of geologic sections and tions are often so simple that they are
relatively valueless in exact work and, To place a specimen in one of the fif-
lacking rigid definitions, they permit a teen major groups, only two properties
different usage by each geologist and need be determined: (1) how much grav-
give rise to no end of disputes over the el (material coarser than 2 mm.) it con-
category in which a certain specimen tains-boundaries at 80, 30, 5 per cent,
belongs. The other extreme is a highly and a trace; and (2) the ratio of sand to
complex classification with dozens of mud (silt plus clay), with boundaries at
pigeonholes, accompanied by pages of 9:1, 1:1, and 1:9.
detailed instructions on the limits of the The proportion of gravel is in part a
various classes and how they are to be function of the highest current velocity
used. Here the divisions become so small at the time of deposition, together with
that they lose practical significance, and the maximum grain size of the detritus
the burden of learning the categories and that is available; hence even a minute
obeying the reams of instruction becomes
GRAVEL
so great that the classification passes
into limbo.
Notwithstanding these difficulties, if
a classification is ever to become a preci-
sion tool, it must have some degree of
"complication"-i.e., a sufficient num-
ber of subdivisions to be precise, with
consistency in usage insured by a few
simple rules. In the classification of an
essentially continuous series (such as the
grain size of sediments), all divisions are
arbitrary; the boundaries used in the
proposed classification unavoidably re- FIG. la.-The fifteen major textural groups as
flect personal opinion, but it is hoped defined by the relative percentages of gravel (ma-
that they coincide closely with prevalent terial coarser than 2 mm.), sand (material between
0.0625 and 2 mm.), and mud (silt plus clay material
concepts.
finer than 0.0625 mm.). Letters refer to textural
names shown in table 1. Fields are defined by the
DEFINITION OF TEXTURAL GROUPS
percentage of gravel (shown on the left "leg" of the
In brief, the basis of the proposed clas- triangle) and the ratio of sand to mud (shown on
the base). For expansion of the bottom, nongravelly
sification is a triangular diagram on tier into a sand-silt-clay triangle, see fig. lb.
which are plotted the proportions of
gravel (material coarser than 2 mm.), amount of gravel is highly significant.
sand (material between 0.0625 and 2 For this reason the gravel content is
mm.), and mud (here defined as all ma- given major emphasis, and it is the first
terial finer than 0.0625 mm., i.e., silt thing to determine in describing the
plus clay), as shown in figure la. De- specimen. This is best done on the out-
pending on the relative proportions of crop by naked-eye examination, perhaps
these three constituents, fifteen major aided by a percentage comparison chart;
textural groups are defined--for ex- thin sections and hand specimens com-
ample, sandy conglomerate, slightly monly give too small a sample to be rep-
conglomeratic mudstone, or sandstone resentative of the gravel content. Using
(table 1). this scheme, a specimen containing more
than 80 per cent gravel is termed "con- mudstone, depending on the sand:mud
glomerate"; from 30 to 80 per cent grav- ratio.
el, "sandy conglomerate" or "muddy The proportion of sand to mud is the
conglomerate"; from 5 to 30 per cent next property to be determined, reflect-
gravel, "conglomeratic sandstone" or ing the amount of winnowing at the site
"conglomeratic mudstone"; from a trace of deposition. Four ranks are defined on
(say 0.01 per cent) up to 5 per cent grav- the basis of the sand:mud ratio; in the
el, "slightly conglomeratic sandstone" nonconglomeratic tier, these are sand-
or "slightly conglomeratic mudstone"; stone (ratio of sand to mud over 9:1),
and a specimen containing no gravel at muddy sandstone (ratio 1:1 to 9:1),
all may range from sandstone through sandy mudstone (ratio 1:9 to 1:1), and,
TABLE 1"*
TERMS APPLIED TO MIXTURES OF GRAVEL, SAND, AND MUD
DELIMITED IN FIGURE 1
Major Textural Class Examples of Usage
A. Gravel. Cobblegravel
Conglomerate Granule conglomerate
B. Sandy gravel Sandy pebble gravel
Sandy conglomerate Sandy boulder conglomerate
C. Muddy sandy gravel. Muddy sandy granule gravel
Muddy sandy conglomerate Clayey sandy pebble conglomerate
D. Muddy gravel Silty boulder gravel
Muddy conglomerate Muddy pebble conglomerate
E. Gravellysand Pebbly coarse sand
Conglomeraticsandstone Granular very fine sandstone
F. Gravellymuddysand Pebbly silty fine sand
Conglomeraticmuddy sandstone Bouldery muddy coarse sandstone
G. Gravellymud Cobbly clay
Conglomeratic mudstone. Pebbly siltstone
H. Slightly gravelly sand Slightly granular medium sand
Slightly conglomeratic sandstone Slightly pebbly coarse sandstone
I. Slightly gravelly muddy sand Slightly pebbly muddy medium sand
Slightly conglomeratic muddy sandstone Slightly cobbly silty fine sandstone
J. Slightly gravelly sandy mud Slightly granular fine sandy mud
Slightly conglomeratic sandy mudstone Slightly pebbly coarse sandy claystone
K. Slightly gravelly mud Slightly pebbly clay
Slightly conglomeratic mudstone Slightly cobbly mudstone
L. Sand (specify sorting) Well-sorted fine sand
Sandstone (specify sorting) Poorly sorted medium sandstone
M. tMuddy sand. Well-sorted silty very fine sand
Muddy sandstone. Muddy coarse sandstone
N fSandy mud Fine sandy clay
Sandy mudstone(specify structure) Coarse sandy siltstone (if fissile, coarse
sandy silt-shale)
O. Mud Silt
Mudstone (specify structure) Mudstone (if fissile, mud-shale)
* Both unconsolidated and consolidated equivalents are shown in this table. It is suggested that the italicized
terms be further specified as to their grain size, as shown in the examples.
t Textural classes M, N, and O are expanded, as shown in fig. lb. For classes N and O see also table 2.
finally, mudstone (ratio under 1:9). The fine sand, and very fine sand. This can
ratio lines remain at the same value be done very easily by reference to a
throughout the triangle; e.g., sandy con- comparison set of sand grains of the sev-
glomerate is also divided from muddy eral sizes.
sandy conglomerate by a sand:mud ratio For muds a somewhat different pro-
of 9:1 (fig. la). This division is fairly cedure is used, the name depending on
easy to make with a hand lens, unless a the relative proportion of silt versus clay.
large amount of coarse silt and very fine This proportion is usually very difficult
sand is present. to determine with a hand lens, and the
These two simple determinations are only really satisfactory way is to make a
sufficient to place a specimen in one of thin-section (preferable) or a grain-size
the fifteen major textural groups shown analysis by pipette or hydrometer. In
in table 1. One might simply stop at this many samples it might be best just to
point and say no more about the grain use the broad term "mud" and not at-
size; yet a great deal of information is tempt to split it any further. But the
gained by specifying, whenever practica- mud fraction of many sediments is ob-
ble, the median diameter of each of the viously composed dominantly of silt,
fractions present. Thus two specimens while the mud fraction of others is just
belonging to the conglomeratic sand- as certainly composed largely of clay;
stone group have quite different signifi- therefore, it is considered worth while to
cance if one is a bouldery fine sandstone make an attempt, if at all practicable,
and the other is a pebbly very coarse to estimate this ratio. A threefold divi-
sandstone. sion is suggested: if the mud fraction con-
These fine subdivisions are determined tains more than 67 per cent silt (i.e.,
by specifying the median diameter of each silt-to-clay ratio greater than 2:1), the
fraction considered independently of any material should be called "silt" or
other fraction that may be present. For "silty"; if more than 67 per cent clay is
some specimens this is, of course, not present, it should be called "clay" or
possible; but in most it can be accom- "clayey"; and for intermediate mix-
plished sufficiently well for field pur- tures, the term "mud" or "muddy"
poses, especially if the material is bi- (used in a restricted sense) is proposed.
modal. The size terms of Wentworth Thus the major group of muddy sand-
(1922) are used for the various classes. stone may be divided into clayey fine
Thus, if gravel is present, one deter- sandstone, silty very fine sandstone,
mines whether the median of the gravel muddy coarse sandstone, and so on,
fraction considered alone falls in the since both the grain size of the sand
granule, pebble, cobble, or boulder fraction and the mud composition are to
class; for example, the major group of be specified (fig. lb).
sandy conglomerate can be subdivided This necessity for dividing silt from
into sandy granule conglomerate, sandy clay brings up the subject of the pos-
pebble conglomerate, sandy cobble con- sible desirability of a slight upward re-
glomerate, and sandy boulder conglom- vision of the "silt" range of the Went-
erate. For the sand fraction, the median worth scale (although one hesitates very
is also estimated separately, using the strongly to hint at such iconoclasm).
standard Wentworth grades of very For many purposes, a more prac-
coarse sand, coarse sand, medium sand, tical division between sand and silt
Textural
Class Unindurated Indurated, Not Fissile Indurated and Fissile
lowing model for textural description is or color?); (3) orientation of grains; and,
offered. Following the specimen number, finally, (4) particle shapes. Mention is
stratigraphic and geographic position, then made of the correlation of size with
and other pertinent information, the composition (for example, the gravel
method of study is recorded, whether it fraction might consist entirely of shell
be by hand-lens, binocular-microscope, fragments, whereas the sand fraction was
thin-section, or mechanical analysis. A entirely quartz). An example of this
space is left for the grain-size name,
method follows:
which, of course, is filled in after the de-
scription has been made. Next, the size I. Samplenumberand location: (Give per-
tinent data)
characteristics of the sediment as a II. Method of study: Hand lens, in outcrop
whole and then of each of the three size III. Grain-size name: Pebbly muddy fine sand-
fractions are reported. For the entire sed- stone
iment, the range between the sixteenth IV. Detailed size description
and eighty-fourth percentiles of the size A. Entire sediment
distribution should be given, as this gives 1. Median: 0.2-0.3 mm.
2. Sorting: Poor
a much truer picture of the nature of the 3. 16-84 per cent range: Clay size to
sediment than simply mentioning the about 5 mm.
extreme range. Possible discontinuities 4. Extreme range: Clay size to 20 mm.
Despite the good example set by the position; we do not say that, in order to
igneous petrographers, there has been a be a trachyte, the rock must be light
widespread tendency to confuse grain gray or show a trachitic structure.
size or texture with mineral composition There are now at least three schools of
in the nomenclature of sedimentary thought concerning the definition of
rocks. Especially is this true for the terms graywacke. Krynine (1948) considered
"graywacke" and "subgraywacke," it be to a mixture of quartz, chert, meta-
which, by now, have become almost un- morphic-rock fragments, and mica, set
usable because of the varying concepts in a matrix of clay-size material that is
of several schools of thought. The trend also dominantly micaceous (not kaolin-
has been to class all clay-bearing sand- itic); thus his classification adheres very
stones as "graywacke" or "subgray- closely to a mineralogical basis. He split
wacke," paying little or no heed to the graywackes into two types, the low-rank
composition and mineralogy of the silt, graywacke (by far the more common),
sand, and gravel fractions. It is as if the containing little or no feldspar, and the
igneous petrographers should decide to high-rank graywacke (relatively rare),
call all aphanite porphyries "rhyolite," containing considerable feldspar, mostly
without thought of the composition of plagioclase. Pettijohn (1949, p. 227), fol-
the phenocrysts. A procedure like this lowed by Krumbein and Sloss4 (1951,
would be catastrophic, and the writer p. 130), considered that any rock con-
holds that the practice of calling all taining more than 20 per cent clay and
clayey sandstones "graywackes" is just fine-grained mica was either a subgray-
as catastrophic in the nomenclature of wacke (if it contained less than 10 per
sedimentary rocks. Rock types, delineat- cent feldspar) or a graywacke (if it con-
ing sedimentary petrological provinces tained more than 10 per cent feldspar).
(Doeglas, 1940), must be set up on the The classification of Tallman (1949) re-
firm basis of mineral composition, not on lied on texture to an even greater extent,
the insecure basis of the clay content of inasmuch as all rocks containing more
the sediment, which is a reflection largely than 25 per cent clay were termed "gray-
of the vicissitudes of the local environ- wacke," regardless of feldspar content,
ment. Furthermore, a series of rock types 4 Dapples, Krumbein, and Sloss (1953), in the
cannot be systematically defined on the latest of a series of papers designed to organize the
basis of several more or less unrelated entire field of sedimentary knowledge, have appar-
ently abandoned their earlier classification and
criteria; thus a graywacke should not be propose a new petrographic scheme which is based
defined as a rock having micas and meta- to a greater extent on mineral composition and
follows Krynine's system very closely as to end-
morphic rock fragments, and consider- member grouping. All the classifications are agreed
able clayey matrix, and graded bedding, that there should be a quartz-plus-chert pole and a
and a dark-gray color. Possibly most feldspar pole; disagreement comes in deciding the
graywackes do have these additional constituents to be grouped under the third pole of
the composition triangle. Krynine puts micas,
characteristics, but the only essential metamorphic-rock fragments, and micaceous clayey
defining property is the mineral composi- matrix there; Pettijohn restricts it to clay plus
tion of the silt-sand-gravel fraction; the sericite and chlorite; Dapples, Krumbein, and Sloss
include "assorted rock fragments" (nature un-
other features are only satellitic, descrip- specified), together with a fine-grained matrix of
tive properties which have no place in sericite, biotite, chlorite, and clays; and Folk uses
strongly deformed polycrystalline quartz, meta-
the definition of the rock type. We tell quartzite and other metamorphic-rock fragments,
rhyolites from trachytes by mineral com- and the coarser micas but does not include clays.
and rocks with between 10 and 25 per magma. The same principle holds true in
cent clay were classed as subgraywacke, sedimentary rocks: the lithologic ter-
provided that they contained less than rane of the source area provides an
10 per cent feldspar. Tallman did not tell underlying unity, expressed in the min-
us what to do if his "subgraywacke," eralogy of the silt-sand-gravel fraction,
defined by clay content, contained more to a whole host of related rock types
than 10 per cent feldspar; his classifica- which may vary over a wide range of
tion has another conspicuous blank spot texture and textural maturity. Just as
near the quartz pole, which is discovered magmatic differentiation may cause
if his definitions are recast in the form of some variation in the different parts of
a triangular diagram. If one were to use one intrusive body, so selective sorting
either of the last two systems in describ- and selective abrasion ("transportive
ing a sedimentary sequence derived from differentiation") may cause considerable
a granitic source, one's terminology variations in mineral content; but these
would fluctuate back and forth between differences are only quantitative, not
"arkose" and "graywacke" merely at qualitative. Although the interaction
the whim of the depositional agent, since between source-area lithology, climate,
a rock containing more than 25 percent and rate of erosion may produce clay
clay would automatically become a gray- minerals indicative of a particular com-
wacke, regardless of the fact that the bination (e.g., kaolinite from intense
silt-sand-gravel fraction consisted of weathering of granite, or illite from an
nothing but quartz, feldspar, and granite area of low-rank metamorphic rocks),
fragments! Surely, this cannot be the the later authigenic changes of the clay
path to a systematic, petrologically sig- minerals are so extensive as to cloud, in
nificant description of sediments. Why many cases, the character of their origi-
not simply call the clay-bearing sand- nal source terrane; therefore, they are
stones "clayey sandstone" (in the pre- not considered as entering into this min-
ceding example "clayey sandstone:ar- eralogical classification.
kose"), instead of confusing rock tex- For quantitative mineralogical defini-
tures with rock mineralogy and thereby tions of terrigenous sedimentary-rock
making it impossible to set up meaning- types, the writer suggests the triangular
ful sedimentary petrological provinces? diagram in figure 2, inspired largely by
In igneous rocks the chemical com- the published work and informal discus-
position of the magma in a batholith is sions of Krynine (1948); but the writer
the chief factor controlling the lithologic has made modifications in the mineral
types that will develop in the chamber assemblages represented by each pole,
itself or as border facies and satellitic in the divisions of the fields, and in some
bodies. These border facies may have of the rock names. The three poles of
different grain sizes; some portions of this triangle are labeled for brevity Q,
the magma may be extruded and thereby F, and M. The Q (for quartz) pole rep-
come to have an aphanitic groundmass; resents minerals of the ultra-stable, silica
magmatic differentiation may alter the group (i.e., chert plus all types of quartz
composition of the minor intrusive except metamorphic strained polycrys-
bodies; but the whole assemblage has an talline quartz) and indicates that the
underlying unity which is the result of detritus has either been derived from a
the chemical composition of the mother- sedimentary source or else has under-
FIG. 2.'-The eight types of terrigenous sedimentary rocks, as defined by the mineral composition of the
detrital silt-sand-gravel fraction, disregarding chemical cements and detrital clays. Not drawn to scale;
limits indicated by the percentages shown at the edges of the triangle.
including micaceous hash of coarse silt wacke" in figure 2. A few rocks show
size or larger; recognizable metamorphic- evidence of a complex source area, in
rock fragments, such as gneiss, schist, that they contain materials of both igne-
phyllite, slate, and stretched meta- ous and metamorphic derivation; these
quartzite; and composite grains of pres- less common rocks are the impure ar-
sure-metamorphic quartz (Krynine, kose, feldspathic graywacke, and feld-
1940), showing undulose extinction, often spathic subgraywacke. None of the three
accompanied by stretching or suturing, poles can be as ideal as one might hope,
and composed of two or more individuals inasmuch as feldspar and mica may both
with distinctly different crystallographic be derived from granite or gneiss, and
orientation (sand grains composed of such constituents as polycrystalline
single crystallographic units with undu- metamorphic quartz must, for practical
lose extinction are not included; neither reasons, be placed with the metamorphic
are composite grains which lack undulose constituents instead of with ordinary
extinction or pronounced suturing or quartz; but it is believed that this is the
most meaningful division that can be micas, fragments of slate, schist, phyl-
made if one wishes to base a quantitative lite, and metaquartzite, and containing
classification on the lithology of the very little feldspar. They have an abun-
source area. dant micaceous-clayey matrix and are
In using this system of nomenclature, very poorly sorted and angular. Yet as
one determines the percentages of each one travels farther and farther westward
of the constituents of the Q, F, and M into western Pennsylvania and Ohio, one
poles and recomputes them to 100 per encounters rocks of the very same age
cent, in order to plot them on the com- that consist of cleanly washed, well-
position triangle. The percentages of sorted white sandstones that appear to
chemical cements or of odd clastic con- the naked eye to consist of nothing but
stituents, like carbonate-rockfragments, quartz. According to Pettijohn, Tall-
fossils, glauconite, or heavy minerals, man, and Krumbein and Sloss, we should
are ignored.Most important,one ignores call these rocks "orthoquartzites," be-
the percentageof clay in determiningthe cause they contain no clay; but if one
mineralogical name, because the pres- examines thin sections of these nicely
ence or absenceof a clay matrix is com- sorted rocks, one finds abundant evi-
pletely accounted for in the grain-size dence of a metamorphic provenance:
term for the .rock(see Sec. II). This fact stretched metaquartzite, strongly de-
illustrates sharplythe differencebetween formed polycrystalline quartz grains,
the proposed classificationand those of even a few particles of schist or phyllite
Tallman (1949) and Pettijohn (1949); a which have somehow escaped destruc-
rock consisting of plutonic quartz mixed tion in their long travel from the east. It
with some clay is called an "immature certainly elucidates the stratigraphic
clayey orthoquartzite" in this system relations better to term these "mature
but is a graywacke according to the graywackes," indicating that they pass
earlier classifications. A rock consisting eastward into immature graywackes,
of metaquartzitefragmentsand stretched than to confuse the issue by calling
polycrystallinequartz, lackingin clay, is them "orthoquartzites" merely because
a submature to supermaturegraywacke the clay has been washed out. The
accordingto this writer, but is an ortho- writer needs to make no apology to the
quartzite according to the other systems. criticism that you cannot recognize
Inasmuch as the definition of gray- these cleanly washed sandstones as gray-
wacke is the chief point of difference be- wacke in the field; what igneous petrog-
tween the writer's classification and rapher assigns his final rock-classifica-
those of most other workers, it may be tion names in the field without resort to
well to explore this differencemore fully thin sections?
with the aid of several geological exam- Another example is provided by the
ples. The mineralogical definition pro- Upper Ordovician Oswego and Juniata
posed leads to much more meaningful graywackes of central Pennyslvania.
and consistent results than if the gray- These rocks are fine examples of the
wackes are considered merely as sand- graywacke clan, containing well over
stones rich in clay. For example, the Up- 25 per cent slate and schist fragments
per Mississippian and Pennsylvanian and micas; yet many beds contain little
rocksof easternPennsylvaniaare typical clay (in cleanly washed zones, often
immature graywackes, very rich in under 5 per cent) and are texturally sub-
mature to mature. The only rocks in this were regarded as mature orthoquartzites
sequence that contain over 25 per cent and the lagoonal sands as immature
clay (the lower limit of the graywacke clayey orthoquartzites.
class of the cited writers) are the shales! Krynine has pointed out (personal
Is "graywacke" merely to become the communication, 1950) that the constitu-
synonym for a shale? ents of graywackes and subgraywackes
On the other side of the argument, let are divisible into two classes, depending
us consider the Recent sands of the east- on their durability. The less durable con-
ern Gulf Coast. Here the sands of the stituents are those rich in micaceous
beaches and barrier islands consist of material and include schist, phyllite, and
little else than quartz; and if the beaches slate fragments, in addition to mica
became buried, they would be considered flakes themselves. The more durable
as typical mature orthoquartzites. Yet constituents include stretched meta-
in the lagoons behind the islands there quartzite and strongly deformed com-
is a very complex intermixture of these posite quartz. Graywackes and subgray-
same pure orthoquartzitic sands with wackes rich in the micaceous materials
varying quantities of clayey mud. If this (pl. 1, F) imply relative lack of abrasion
entire sequence of sediments became and reworking, because structurally weak
buried, should we call the beach sands fragments of schist and slate cannot
"orthoquartzites" and the lagoon de- stand much wear; hence they are most
posits "graywackes," simply because often texturally immature. As the gray-
they contain clay? This writer believes wacke-type sands become more mature,
that it would lead to better understand- they tend to lose their softer, more mica-
ing of this sequence if the beach sands ceous constituents and pass into sub-
PLATE 1
A, Crossed nicols, X 81. Well-sorted fine sandstone: siliceous supermature orthoquartzite. Detrital grains
consist of quartz with straight or only slightly undulose extinction and are well sorted and rounded. Grains
are separated from the quartz cement by a thin hematite coating. Cambrian Potsdam sandstone, Jefferson
County, New York.
B, Crossed nicols, X 35. Granular medium sandstone: calcitic submature chert-bearing orthoquartzite.
Detrital grains are poorly sorted, but clays have been winnowed out; therefore, the rock is texturally sub-
mature. Observe the large, dark grain of chert in the lower right corner. This rock is an orthoquartzite of the
chert-rich variety. Cretaceous Travis Peak conglomerate, Brown County, Texas.
C, Crossed nicols, X 80. Well-sorted medium sandstone: opal-cemented mature subarkose. This rock is a
subarkose of the plagioclase-rich variety, containing 5-10 per cent feldspar. Grains are well sorted but not
rounded (except for the softer feldspar particles); thus the rock is texturally mature. Pore spaces have been
filled with opal and chalcedonic quartz. Upper Eocene sandstone, Atascosa County, Texas.
D, Crossed nicols, X 39. Granular muddy very coarse sandstone: immature arkose. This rock is an ex-
treme member of the arkose group and represents the potash-feldspar variety of arkose. The specimen con-
tains considerable clayey matrix, the grains are poorly sorted and angular; hence the rock is texturally
immature. Triassic Newark series, New Haven County, Connecticut.
E, Crossed nicols, X 81. Well-sorted fine sandstone: calcitic mature subgraywacke. This specimen rep-
resents a texturally mature sandstone, in which the grains are well sorted but not well rounded. It belongs
to the subgraywacke group (nonmicaceous variety) because it contains 5-10 per cent of stretched poly-
crystalline quartz of ultimate metamorphic derivation (arrows). Pennsylvanian (Cisco) channel sandstone,
Brown County, Texas.
F, Crossed nicols, X 81. Muddy fine sandstone: immature micaceous graywacke. This is a polar-type
graywacke (micaceous variety) in a texturally immature state. It consists chiefly of fragments of fine-grained
metamorphic rocks, micas, and micaceous hash and contains only 1 or 2 per cent feldspar. Pennsylvanian
(Allegheny) sandstone, Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania.
A D
B E
C F
Photomicrographs of sandstone thin sections
graywackes5 (pl. 1, E). In many mature Such supermature arkoses and subarkoses
graywackes and subgraywackes the only typify the Cambro-Ordovician sands in
remaining evidences of a metamorphic the middle Appalachian area.
source area are the most resistant par- Orthoquartzites are also divisible
ticles of stretched metaquartzite and mineralogically into two subgroups: (1)
strongly deformed polycrystalline those that contain little or no chert
quartz; these graywackes can be con- (pl. 1, A) and (2) those that contain con-
sidered as belonging to a nonmicaceous siderable chert (pl. 1, B). The occurrence
subgroup. of chert-bearing orthoquartzites (the
Arkoses and subarkoses are divisible second-cycle orthoquartzites of Krynine)
into two mineralogic groups. In the most presupposes derivation from older sedi-
common type, most of the feldspar is mentary rocks; this type hence is often
microcline or orthoclase (pl. 1, D), in- characterized by inversions in textural
dicating derivation of the sediment from maturity (Folk, 1951), because, although
granites or granite-gneisses. Less com- the rock may be poorly sorted, it often
monly, plagioclase may be more abun- contains rounded grains inherited from
dant (pl. 1, C), indicating either that a earlier sandstones. Most orthoquartzites
less silicic pluton has been the source or are submature to supermature texturally,
that the feldspar is derived from ex- although, as pointed out earlier, certain
trusive rocks or is a direct volcanic prod- specialized environmental conditions
uct. If fragments of extrusive rocks are may result in immature clayey ortho-
present in significant amounts, the name quartzites.
of the rock may be qualified by the term Classification is no substitute for de-
"volcanite-bearing"; if these volcanic scription, and each of the proposed rock
substances are true pyroclastics, the types embraces a wide range of com-
rock may be qualified by calling it a positions. As Rodgers (1950) has sug-
"tuffaceous arkose." gested, we might use a method such as
Although many arkoses are immature that of Alling (1945) to describe the
-that is, they contain a plentiful clayey composition quantitatively. For this
matrix, are poorly sorted and angular- classification, four polar members might
the mature and supermature arkoses and be used: quartz (Q) pole, feldspar (F)
subarkoses are of considerable strati- pole, mica and metamorphic (M) pole,
graphic importance. The latter rocks, and clay (C) pole. Thus an immature
made up of well-sorted or even well- arkose might range in composition from
rounded quartz with plentiful fresh 6 The name "orthoquartzite" (which refers to a
rounded feldspar, are believed to indicate rock composed of quartz-chert detritus, regardless
an arid climate in the source area be- of cementation) is somewhat undesirable, because it
is very commonly confused with the term "quartz-
cause, with the great length of time re- ite" (which refers to a sedimentary or metamorphic
quired to round the quartz and feldspar, rock which breaks through the grains and is highly
the fact that the feldspar remained fresh siliceous). To avoid this difficulty, it might be well
to substitute a new name, such as "quartzrock,"
and abundant indicates that the rate of for the sedimentary rock in which the detrital sand,
chemical decay must have been very low. silt, and gravel fraction consists almost entirely of
quartz and/or chert. Or one might follow Petti-
SKrynine (1951) uses the term "quartzose john's (1949) suggestion and use a locality term;
graywacke" for those graywackes that have lost perhaps "tuscarorite" (for the Lower Silurian
their micaceous constituents through abrasion and Tuscarora orthoquartzite of the northern Appa-
thus tend to approach the orthoquartzite pole. lachians) might prove acceptable.
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