Integration in the complex plane:

Definition:
y B=zn
Let f(z) be any continuous zk
zn-1 (xk,yk)
function of z, analytic on zk-1
not, and let c be any
-z1
piecewise smooth arc
joining points A and B. zo=A

Divide c into smaller arcs x

s k , by the points zk (k=1,2,..,n-1) and let z k  z k  z k 1 , be
infinitesimal chord detrained by s k . Finally, in each segment
s k or c, close an arbitrary point zk , then, if it exists,
n
lim  f ( z k )z k is called the line integral of f(z) along c; denoted
n 
k 1

as; c f ( z ) dz
in the special case, in which A and B coincide and
the path of integration forms a closed curve, the integral is often

called a contour integral; c f ( z ) dz

.

Note that:

(1) The smooth curve is the curve along which the tangent
vector is continuous overall.

(2) The piecewise or sectionally smooth curve is made of

finite number of arcs along each of which the tangent
vector varies continuously.

61
Evaluation: Complex line integral can readily be expressed in
terms of real line integrals as;

Let f ( z )  u ( x, y )  iv( x, y ), dz  dx  idy

 f ( z )dz   (u  iv)(dx  idy )   udx  vdy  i  vdx  udy

c c c c

Properties: From the known properties of real line integrals, it

is seen when the same path of integration is used in each
integral;
B A

(1)  f ( z ) dz    f ( z ) dz ,
A B

B B
(2)  kf ( z )dz  k  f ( z )dz , (k is a constant)
A A

B B B
(3)  [ f ( z )  g ( z )]dz   f ( z )dz   g ( z )dz
A A A

B D B
(4)  f ( z )dz   f ( z )dz   f ( z )dz
A A D

where D is a third point on the arc AB

Definition: The positive direction of rotation around a closed

contour is defined as the direction along which an observer
would proceed in keeping the enclosed are to his left.

Integration by the use of the path:

62
Let c be a piecewise smooth path represented by z=z(t), where
a<t<b. Let f(z) be a continuous function on c. Then,
b

 f ( z )dz   f ( z (t )) z (t )dt
c a

where z  x  iy

Solved Problems:

(1) Integrate f(z)=1/z around the unit circle |z|=1 in the counter
clock wise direction.
1
I  
c :| z | 1 z
dz

The equation of the circle with centre at the origin and radius a
is given in polar form as;

z  aei for a unit circle  z  e i

1
 z  ie i ,  e  i
z

2 2

 e (ie )d  i  d  2i.

 i i
I 
0 0

(2) Find c z dz , where y c in

the circle |z|=2.

2
z  2ei  z  2e  i , z  2ie i
x

2 2

 2e (2i e )d  4i  d  8i .

 i i
I 
0 0

63
(3) Find c z dz , where c is the line segment from 1+i to –i.

The parametric equation of

y
the line joining points zo and z1 is
given by: 1+i
z  zo z  (1  i )
t  t x
z1  z o  i  (1  i )
-i
 z (t )  1  t  i (1  2t )

z (t )  1  t  i (1  2t ), z (t )  1  2i

x  1  t  xi  1  t i  0, x f  0  t f  1

1
1
I   [1  t  i (1  2t )](1  2i )dt  i
0
2

(4) Evaluate  ( z  z c
0 ) m dz ,

where m is an integer and c is

a circle of radius z a and centre

y
zo. z-zo=rei

The parametric zo equation of
the circle with radius a and
centre zo is x given by:
z  z o  re i  z  ire i

( z  z o ) m  (re i ) m  r m e im

2 2

 r e ir e d  ir  e
m im i i ( m 1)
I  m 1
d
0 0

64
  e i ( m 1)  2 r m 1
 ir m 1    [e i ( m 1) 2  1], m  1
 i (m  1)  0 m 1

but ei ( m 1) 2  cos( m  1)(2 )  i sin( m  1)(2 )  1

I = 0 for m  -1 and integer.

2
For m  1  I  i  d  2i
0

Thus, we have obtained the basic result;

0, m  1
 (z  z
c
o ) m dz  
2i , m  1

where c is the circle with centre at zo with arbitrary radius.

(5) Find
2
 z dz y 1+i
c

where c is the line segment from the

origin to the point 1+i.

0 x
z  zo z0
t   t  z  (1  i)t  t  it
z1  z o 1 i  0

z 2  (1  i ) 2 t 2  2it 2 , z  1  i

x  t , xi  0  t i  0, x f  1  t f  1

1
2 1 2
I   (2t i )(1  i )dt  i (1  i )( t 3 )  ( 1  i )
2

0
3 0 3

(6) Find  [Re ( z )  Im( z )]dz

2

c
along the line from z=0 to z=i
followed by the line from z=i to z=1+i.

For path c1: zo= 0, z1=i.

y
z 0
 t  z  it  z  i
i0
i > c2 1+i

c1^65
x
Re( z )  0, Im( z )  t  Re 2 ( z )  Im( z )  t

y  t , yi  0  ti  0 , y f  1  t f  1

1 1
I1   (t )(i )dz  i (t 2 / 2)   i / 2
0 0

z i
For path c 2 : z o  i , z1  1  i 
1 i  i
t  z t i

z  1, Re( z )  t , Im( z )  1  Re 2 ( z )  Im( z )  t 2  1

x  t , xi  t i  0, x f  t f  1

1
 t3  4
I 2   (t 2  1)dt    t  |10 
0 3  3

4 1
I  I1  I 2  i .
3 2

(7) Find  z dz, c : from 1 i along y  x2 to 1 i

c

Let x  t  y  t 2  z  x  iy  t  it 2
y
z  1  2ti , z  t  it 2 -1+i 1+i
x  t , xi  t i  1, x f  t f  1

1 1
2
I   (t  it 2 )(1  2ti )dt   (t  2t 3  t 2 i)dt  i.
1 1
3 x
Dependence of Path:

(8) Integrate f(z)=Re(z)=x from zi=0 to z f  1 i along the

following paths:

(a) the line segment from

y zi to zf.

(b) along the x-axis from 0 to 1 and1+i

then, vertically to 1+i.
y=x
>
^
(b2)
(a)
66
>
(0,0) (b1) x
 For the path in (a): zo=0, z1=1+i.
z0
 t  z  (1  i )t  t  it
1 i  0

Re( z )  t , z  1  i

x  t , xi  ti  0 , x f  t f  1

1
I a   t (1  i )dt  (1  i )(t 2 / 2) |10  (1  i ) / 2
0

z0
For the path in (b1) :
1 0
 t  z  t , Re( z )  t

1
z  1  I b1   tdt  (t 2 / 2) |10  1 / 2
0

z 1
For the path in (b2): 1  i  1  t  z  1  it  z  i

Re( z )  1, y  t  y i  t i  0, y f  t f  1

1
I b2   (1)(i )dt  it |10  i
0

I b  I b1  I b2  1 / 2  i  I a

Then, we conclude that the value of the line integral depends, in

general, on the geometric shape of c as well as the end points.

Definition: A simple closed curve (s.c.c.) is a closed path that

does not interest or touch itself as shown.

s.c.c. s.c.c. Not s.c.c. Not s.c.c.

67
Definition: A simply connected domain D (S.C.D.) is a domain
such that every simple closed path in D encloses only points of
D. (interior of a circle, ellipse or any simple closed curve).

S.C.D. S.C.D. Doubly C.D. Triply C.D.

(Simply connected domains) (multi-connected domains)

Cauchy's Integral Theorem (1):

If f(z) is analytic in a simply connected domain D, then over

any simple closed curve C in D, we have.
y
 f ( z )dz  0
c D <
C
Important Remarks:

(1) Entire functions:

x
e dz  0,  cos zdz  0,  z dz  0
z n

c c c
(n=0,1,2,….)

(2) Singularities outside the contour:

dz
 sec zdz  0,  z
c c
2
4
 0, where c is the unit circle |z|=1.

68
  3
secz=1/cosz is not analytic at z
2
, 
2
,...

1 /( z 2  4) is not analytic at z  2i .

All these singularities are outside the contour.

(3) For non-analytic functions:

The method of the use of the path can be applied

2

 zdz  e ie it dt  it | 02  2i

 it

c: z 1 0

This does not contradict Cauchy's integral theorem as z is not

analytic.

(4) Analyticity sufficient, not necessary:

2
 dz / z  0, where c is the unit circle |z|=1.
c

This result does not follow from Cauchy's integral theorem since
1/z2 is not analytic at z=0. Then, the condition that f is analytic
in D is sufficient rather than necessary.

(5) Simple connectedness essential:

dz
 z
 2 i (by basic result),
c
y
where c is the unit circle |z|=1
< 1
in the positive direction.
x
The integral does not c vanish,
since 1/z is singular inside the
1 3
contour c. The contour c also lies in the annulus 2
| z |
2
, where

69
1/z is analytic but since this domain is not simply connected, so
that Cauchy's integral theorem can not be applied. Hence the
condition that the domain be simply connected is essential.

Cauchy's Integral c1

Theorem (2):
>
c2 c3>
For multiply connected Cross cut
c<4
domains.

Let f(z) be analytic within

and on the

boundary of the domain D between two simple closed curves

c1 and c2. Since D is a multiply connected domain, then C.I.T.

(1) can not be applied. Therefore, a cross-cut is made to
transform the M.C.D to a S.C.D. Then, over the simple closed
curve c (which is composite of c1, c2, c3, and c4) we have:

 f ( z )dz  0 
c

 f ( z )dz   f ( z )dz   f ( z )dz   f ( z )dz  0

c1 c2 c3 c4

where each integral is evaluated over the indicated direction in

the figure.

As the cross-cut removes, c f ( z )dz  c f ( z )dz  0

3 4

  f ( z )dz    f ( z )dz
y
< c1
c1 c2

  f ( z )dz   f ( z )dz D c<

c1 c2 2

70
x
where the both integrals are valuation in the counter clock wise
direction. Since, there may be points in the interior of c2 where
f(z) is not analytic, we can not assert that either of these integrals
is zero. However, they both have the same value.

This leads to the important result that the integral of f(z) over a
simple closed curve c1 can be transformed to the integral over
any other simple closed curve c2 if f(z) is analytic in the domain
between the two curves c1 and c2. This result is known as the
principle of deformation of the path.

Example: Generalization of the basic results.

For any simple closed path c containing zo, instead of the circle
with centre at zo, we have for integer m
0, m  1
 (z  z
c
o ) m dz  
2i, m  1

The integral along the circle is transformed to the integral along

any other closed path since the integrand is analytic in the
domain between the two paths. Then, the circle with center at zo
is deformed into any arbitrary closed path c containing zo.

dz
Example: Find  z 2  1 , where c is as shown
c

y
1  1 1 
I    dz
2 c  z 1 z 1
c2 c1 <
>
-1 1 x
71
c is not a s.c.c., but can be

divided into two s.c.c's c1 and c2 , then I becomes

1 dz 1 dz 1 dz 1 dz
I       
2 c1 z  1 2 c1 z  1 2 c2 z  1 2 c2 z  1

The second and third integrals in the right side vanish by C.I.T.
since the integrands are analytic inside the contours. The first
and fourth integrals in the right side can be evaluated using
basic result as;
1 1
I ( 2i )  ( 2i )  2i
2 2

where the first integrals in the positive direction while the fourth
one is in the negative direction.
y
Cauchy's Integral Theorem
(3):
c<3 c<2 c1
Let c1 be a simple closed curve
D
and let each of the < x simple
cn
closed

curves c2,c3,…,cn lies completely

in the interior of c1, but exterior to each other (they do not

intersect). Then

 f ( z )dz   f ( z )dz  ....   f ( z )dz

c1 c2 cn

provided f(z) is analytic inside and on the boundary of the

multiply connected domain formed of c1 as the exterior

72
boundary curve and c2,…,cn as interior boundary curves. All the
integrals are taken in the positive sense for c1.

Cauchy's Integral Theorem (4): Path Independence.

In any simply connected domain in which f(z) is analytic, the

integral of f(z) is independent of the path (we can use any path
and evaluate the integral along it).

Cauchy's Integral Theorem (5): Existence of Definite

Integral:

If f(z) is analytic in a simply connected domain D, then, for all

paths in D, joining any two points zo and z1 in D, we have
z1

 f ( z )dz  G( z )  G( z
zo
1 o ),

where G(z) is any anti-derivative of f(z) ( G ( z )  f ( z) )

Solved Problems:

(1) Find  cos

2

c
zdz
from  i to i along |z|= in the right half-
plane. y

Since cos 2 z is entire, then i

i i ^
1 1
 cos zdz  i( 2  2 cos 2 z )dz
2

x
-i
z sin 2 z i sin(2i ) i
(  ) |i  i   i  sinh(2 )
2 4 2 2

1i

(2) Find  ( z 2  cosh 2 z )dz

0

73
 1 1 1 sinh(2) 
 ( z 3  sinh 2 z ) |10i    2   i (3   2 )
3 2 3 2 3

(3) Find  ze z dz  [ ze z  e z ] |1i  [iei  ei  e  e]  ei (i  1)

1

i
dz
(4) Find  z
 ln z |1i  ln(i )  ln(1)
1

 i ( / 2)  i (0)  i ( / 2) (using the principal value of the logarithm).

Remark: Both values of the logarithm at the two limits of the

integral must correspond to a specific branch of lnz which is
analytic in a simply connected
D
domain which c. y
r
c
Cauchy's Integral Formula: 
cr
If f(z) is analytic within and on zo

the boundary c of a simply connected domain D whose

boundary c is sectionally smooth, and if zox is any point in the
interior of D, then
1 f ( z)
f ( zo )  
2i c z  z o
dz

Proof:
f ( z) f ( z)
I zz
c o
dz  
z  zo
dz ,
cr

where cr : | z  zo | r as f(z) is analytic in the domain between c

and cr .
2 2
f ( z o  re i ) i
I 
0 re i
ire d   i 
0
f ( z o  re i ) d

74
 2

As r  0, I  i  f ( z o )d  if ( z o )(2 )  2i f ( z o )

0

Solved Problems:
z 1
(1) Evaluate c

z2 1
dz , where c is a circle of radius one with

centre at:

(a) z=i, (b) z=0.5+i, (c) z=-i/2, (d) z=1

Solution:
z 1

z 1 y
The integrand z 2  1 ( z  i )( z  i ) is singular at z=+i.
2
z 1
i× 1 ca
(a) I   ( z  i)( z  i) dz
ca

( z  1) /( z  i )  z  1 x
  z i
dz  2i 
 z  i  z i
  (1  i )
ca
-i×
( z  1) /( z  i )
(b) I  dz   (1  i ) y
cb
z i

i× 
cb
( z  1) /( z  i )
(c) I  
cc
z i
dz
y 1/2 x

 z  1 -i×
 2i    (1  i )
 z  i  z   i i×

 -1/2 x
-iy× cc
z 1
(d) I  z 2
1
dz  0

i×
cd

since f(z) is analytic every where


inside and on |z-1|=1. 1 x
-i ×
75
 ez
(2) Find 
z2
dz , where c is any contour enclosing z=2.
c

I  2i (e z ) | z 2  2ie 2 (by C.I.F.)

If the contour c does not contain z=2  I=0 by C.I.T.(1).

y
z3  6
(3)  dz , where c:|z|=1
c 2z  i

z3  6 1 z3  6 1/2 ×
I   2z  i
dz 
2  z i/2
dz

1 x
1 
 (2i )( z 3  6) | z i / 2   6i
2 8

ez
(4) Evaluate 
z2 1
dz , where c is defined as:
c

(a) | z  i | 1, (b) | z  3i / 2 | 1, (c) | z  2 | 1, (d) | z | 2

ez ez
f ( z)  
z  1 ( z  i )( z  i )
2 is singular at z=+i.

Solution: y
e z /( z  i )  ez 
(a) I  z i dz  2i z  i
  z i
ca ca
i×
e cc
 2i  e i
2i

2 x
e z /( z  i )  ez 
(b) I  dz  2i   -i ×
c
zi  z  i  z i
b

-3/2y
cb
 e  i

i×
(c) I = 0. c1
cd
ez x
(d) I  ( z  i )( z  i ) -i× c2
cd

76
 e z /( z  i ) e z /( z  i )
 dz   dz
c1
z i c2
z i

 ez   ez 
 2i   2i 
 z  i  z i  z  i  z i

 ei  e  i  2i sin i

Notice that: Id  Ia  Ib

Cauchy’s Integral Formula (2):

If f(z) is analytic on c1 and c2 and in the ring-shaped domain

bounded by c1 and c2 and zo is any point in that domain then,

zo
^
> c1
c2

1 f ( z) 1 f (z)
f (zo )  
2i c1 z  z o
dz  
2i c2 z  z o
dz

where each of the above two integrals

is taken in the positive direction.

Cauchy’s Integral Theorem (6):

If f(z) is analytic through out a simply connected domain D, then

at any interior point zo of D, the derivative of f(z) of all orders
exist and are analytic, moreover,
n! f ( z )dz
f n ( zo )  
2i c ( z  z o ) n 1

where c is the boundary of D.

77
Note: Real functions of a real variable do not possess the
derivative properties described by the last theorem. For
example x7/3 has first and second derivatives but no derivatives
of higher order exist. y
Solved Problems:
c
sin z ^
(1)  z4
dz ×
c: z 1  2
1 x
sin z
z4
is singular at z=0 which lies inside the contour c.

sin z 2i d 3
I  c ( z  0)31 dz 
3! dz 3
(sin z ) | z  0

i i
 (  cos z ) | z 0  
3 3

1
(2) Evaluate  | z| 1
z 2 ( z  4)
dz
y

Singular points are at z=0, 4

1 /( z  4) 2i d  1  × ×
I  
| z| 1
z 11
dz    | z 0
1! dz  z  4 
0 4 x

 1  i
 2i  | z 0  
 ( z  4)
2
 8

5 z 2  3z  2
(3) Evaluate c ( z  1) 3 dz

where c is any simple closed curve enclosing z=1.

The integrand is singular at z=1, by C.I.T.(6)

5 z 2  3z  2 2i d 2
I  dz  (5 z 2  3 z  2) | z 1
c
( z  1) 21 2! dz 2

 i (10) | z 1  10i.

78
 5 z 2  3z  2 5( z  1) 2  7( z  1)  4
or I  dz  c dz
( z  1) 3 ( z  1) 3

dz dz dz
 5  7  4
c
z 1 c
( z  1) 2
c
( z  1) 3

 5( 2i )  7(0)  4(0)  10i (by basic result).

dz
(4) Find c

z 3, where c is given by:

(a) |z|=1, (b) |z+i|=4

1
f ( z) 
z 3
is singular at z=3.

dz
(a) I   0 since z=3 is outside the contour.
| z|1 z  3

dz
(b) I  
| z i|  4
z 3
 2i (1)  2i (by C.I.F. or basic result)

cos z ez
(5) Evaluate (a) 
c z 
dz , (b) 
c
z ( z  1)
dz,

sin z
(c)  ( z   / 2)( z  2 ) dz, where c is the circle |z-1|=3.
c

Solution:

(a) f is singular at z=

cos z
I  dz  2i (cos z ) | z   2i
c
z 

(b) f is singular at z=0,-1

ez e z /( z  1) ez / z
I  dz   dz   dz
c
z ( z  1) c1
z c2
z 1

 ez   ez 
 2i  z 0  2i  | z 1  2i  2ie 1  2i (1  e 1 )
 z 1  z 

79
(c) f is singular at z=/2, 2 but only z=/2 lies inside c, then

sin z /( z  2 )  sin z  2i  4i

I  
c
z  /2
dz  2i 
 z  2  z

2

 3 / 2

3

(6) Find each of the following integrals:

ez sin z cos z
(a)  dz , (b)  z   dz , (c)  z ( z 2
 8)
dz ,
c z  i / 2 c c

where c is the square whose sides are x=+2, y=+2.

y

Solution: y=2

(a) f is singular at z=i/2

x
(inside c). x=2
x=2

y=2

I  2i (e z ) z  i / 2  2iei / 2  2i (i (1))  2 

(b) f is singular at z= (outside c)  I = 0

(c) f is singular at z=0, + 2 2i (only z=0 is inside c).

cos z /( z 2  8)  cos z  i
I  dz  2i 2  z 0 
c
z  z 8 4

e3z e3z
(7) Find  c
z ( z 2  4)
dz  
z 3
z ( z  2i )( z  2i )
dz

f is singular at z=0, +2i (all are inside c).

e3 z /( z 2  4) e3 z / z ( z  2i) e3 z / z ( z  2i )
I 
c1
z
dz   z  2i
c2
dz   z  2i dz
c3

 e3 z   e3 z   e3 z 
 2i 2  z 0  2i  z 2i  2i  z  2 i
 z  4  z ( z  2i )   z ( z  2i ) 

80
 1 1 1  1 1 
 2i  e 6i  e 6i   2i  cos 6   i sin 2 (3)
 4 8 8   4 4 

dzy
dz e3 z
(8) Find  | z|  2
z2 1
dz  
| z|  2
( z  i )( z  i )

× c
f is singular at z= +i (all are insidei c).
1 2
I 
1 /( z  i )
dz  
1 /( z  i ) x
zi z i
dz -i× c2
c1 c2

 1   1 
 2i   2i 
 z  i  z i  z  i  z  i

1 1
 2i    0
 2i 2i 

dz
(9) Find  | z|  3
z ( z  1)( z  4)

f is singular at z=0,-1,-4 but z=-4 is outside c.

1 /(( z  1)( z  4)) 1 /( z ( z  4))
I  dz   dz
c1
z c2
z 1

 1   1  i 2i i
 2i   2i    
 ( z  1)( z  4)  z 0  z ( z  4)  z 1 2 3 6

z 1
(10) Find  z c
3
 2z 2
dz around the following contours;

(a) |z|=1, (b) |z-2-i|=2, (c) |z-1-2i|=2

y
f is singular at z  2 z  z ( z  2)  0  z  0,2
3 2 2

( z  1) /( z  2)
(a) z  1 I   dz
c
z2 ×
0 1 x
2i d  z  1   3  3i
    2i 
2 

1! dz  z  2  z 0  ( z  2)  z  0 2

( z  1) / z 2
(b) z  2  i  2 I   dz
c
z2

81
  z 1 3i
 2i 2  
 z  z 2 2

(c) z  1  2i  2  I  0

z4
(11) Find  z c
2
 2z  5
dz around the following contours;

(a) |z|=1, (b) |z+1-i|=2, (c) |z+1+i|=2

f is singular at z 2  2z  5  0 

( z  1) 2  4  ( z  1  2i )( z  1  2i )  0

Singular points at z  1 2i

(a) I 0

( z  4) /( z  1  2i )
(b) I  dz
c
z  1  2i

 z4  
 2i   (3  2i )
 z  1  2i  z 1 2i 2

( z  4) /( z  1  2i )
(c) I  dz
c
z  1  2i

 z4  
 2i    (3  2i )
 z  1  2i  z 12 i 2

Infinite Series in the complex plane:

Most of the definitions and theorems relating to infinite series of

real terms can be applied, with little on no change, to series
whose terms are complex.
y
Taylor's Series:
R
z0 z

82
x
Let f(z) is analytic in the neighborhood of zo, then, it can be
expanded in a power series in powers of z-zo in the form,

f ( z)   an ( z  zo ) n
n 0

( z  zo ) 2
f ( z )  f ( z o )  f ( zo )( z  zo )  f ( zo )  ...
2!

This Taylor's expansion is a valid representation of f(z) at all

points z in the interior of any circle having its centre at zo and
within which f(z) is analytic. If we let  be the largest circle
with centre at zo , and within which f(z) is everywhere analytic,
then, Taylor's series of f(z) converges to f(z) at all points in the
interior of  .

Important Remarks:

(1) Taylor's expansion is the only possible power series

representation for f(z).

(2) If zo  0 , then the resulting series is usually called

Maclaurin's series.

(3) The domain of convergence for Taylor's series is given by

| z  z o | R , where R is the radius of the circle of convergence, (R
is the distance from z0 to the nearest singular point of f(z), that
is the point it which f(z) fails to be analytic). The series
diverges for | z  z 0 | R . If the nearest singular point lies at
infinity, then the series converges for all z.

Solved Problems:

83
(1) Expand f ( z )  cos z around z  0.

f  cos z , f    sin z , f    cos z ,....

f (0)  1, f (0)  0, f (0)  1...

z2 z4
cos z  1  
2! 4!
 ...... for all z

Since cosz is entire function, we can use a circle of infinite

radius, the expansion is
y
valid in the whole plane.

(2) Expand f ( z)  e z / z

around z=1.

0 1 x
Since f is singular at z=0, then
the expansion around z=1 is
valid inside the circle with
radius 1 and centre at z=1, that is in the region | z  1 | 1.

ez ez e z
f  , f '   2
, f
z z z

f (1)  e, f ' (1)  0, f " (1)  e,...

y
ez ( z  1) 2
ee  ...... z  1  1.
z 2!

(3) Expand f ( z )  ln(1  z ) around

z=0 and then expand ln[(1  z 

) /(1  z )]
-1 0 x
around z=0.
ln(1  z ) is analytic at z=0, and the nearest

84
singular point lies at z=-1.
1 1
f  ln(1  z ), f '  , f " ,...
1 z (1  z ) 2

f (0)  0, f ' (0)  1, f " (0)  1,...

z2 z3
ln(1  z )  z   ,..... | z | 1 (1)
2 3 y
1 z 
ln   ln(1  z )  ln(1  z )
1 z 

is analytic at z=0, and the

ln(1  z )
x
0 1
nearest singular point lies at z=1.
z 2 z3
ln(1  z )   z 
2

3
,..... | z | 1 (2)

where z in (1) is replaced by –z to get (2). Then we obtain

1 z   z3 
ln   2 z   ...... 
 1  z   3 

which is valid for |z|<1.

Expansions for some basic functions:

(1) e z  1  z  z 2 / 2! z 3 / 3!... z

(2) cos z  1  z 2 / 2! z 4 / 4!... z

(3) sin z  z  z 3 / 3! z 5 / 5!... z

(4) ln(1  z )  z  z 2 / 2  z 3 / 3  ... | z | 1

p ( p  1) 2 p ( p  1)....( p  n  1) n
(5) (1  z ) p  1  pz 
2!
z  .... 
n!
z  ....

| z | 1

85
(6) chz  1  z 2 / 2! z 4 / 4!... z

(7) shz  z  z 3 / 3! z 5 / 5!... z

Solved Problems:

(1) Using differentiation and the binomial expansion; expand:

(a) f ( z )  ln(1  z ) , (b) f ( z )  tan 1 z

1
(a) f  ln(1  z )  f ' 
1 z
 (1  z ) 1  1  z  z 2  ... | z | 1

by integration;
z2 z3
ln(1  z )  z    ...  c
2 3

at z  0 : ln(1  z )  ln(1)  0  c  0

ln(1  z )  z  z 2 / 2  z 3 / 3  ...

1
(b) f  tan 1 z  f '   (1  z 2 ) 1  1  z 2  z 4  ... | z | 1
1 z2

by integration;
y

i×

0 x

-i×

tan 1 z  z  z 3 / 3  z 5 / 5  ......  c

at z  0 : tan 1 z  0  c  0

z3 z5
tan 1 z  z    .... | z | 1
3 5

86
The expansion is valid for |z|<1 since f '  1 /(1  z 2 ) is singular at
1 1 i z 
z  i , or, for tan 1 z  ln  which shows two singularities at
2!  1  iz 

z=-i for zero denominator and z=i for zero numerator.

(2) Expand: (a) sin 2 z , (b) cosh 2 z

1 1 1 1 (2 z ) 2 ( 2 z ) 4
(a) sin 2 z   cos 2 z   (1 
2 2 2 2 2!

4!
 .....)

1 1 1
   z 2  z 4  .... z
2 2 3

1 1
(b) ch 2 z   ch 2 z
2 2

1 1 2 z (2 z ) 2 z z4
  (1    .....)  1    ..... z
2 2 2! 4! 2 12

(3) Expand f ( z )  sin z around z  /4

f  sin z , f '  cos z , f "   sin z ,....

at z   / 4, f  1 / 2, f '  1/ 2 , f "  1 / 2 ,.....

1 1 1 ( z   / 4) 2
sin z   ( z   / 4)   .... z
2 2 2 2!

(4) Expand ez around z=1

Let z  1  u  e z  e1u  e eu

as z  1,u  0 , then, eu  1  u  u 2 / 2!...

u2 ( z  1) 2
f  e(1  u   ....)  3(1  ( z  1)   ....)
2! 2!
y
(| z  1 |  or z )
3
(5) Expand f ( z) 
3z  z 2

×  ×
0 1 3 x
87
around z=1.

f is singular at z=0 and z=3,

then, the expansion is valid in |z-1|<1.

1 1 1 1
f ( z)    
z 3  z 1  ( z  1) 2  ( z  1)

1
1 ( z  1) 
 1  ( z  1) 
1
 1  
2 2 

1 z  1 ( z  1) 2 
 1  ( z  1)  ( z  1) 2  ....  1    ....
2 2 4 

3 3 9
  ( z  1)  ( z  1) 2  ......
2 4 8

Note that the first expansion is valid for |z-1|<1 and the second
expansion is valid for |z-1|<2, then the final expansion is valid
only under the more restrictive of these two conditions, i.e.
|z-1|<1.

Remark: The notion of the circle of convergence is useful in

determination of the interval of convergence of a series arising
as the expansion of a function of a real variable.

Solved Problems:

88
 1
(1) Knowing that f ( z) 
1 z
 1  z  z 2  ... , converges for

(2, 1)
×

-
×
5 x
(2,-1)

1
| z | 1  f ( x ) 
1 x
 1  x  x 2  ... converges for | x | 1.

(2) Without obtaining the series determine the domain of

convergence of the series representing
ex
f ( x) 
x2  4x  5
around x=0.

Consider the complex version of f(x);

ez
f ( z) 
z 2  4z  5
, it is singular

at the zeros of z 2  4z  5  z  2  i .

Then, Taylor's series for f(z) around z=0, is valid in the disk
| z | 5. This domain is restricted to the real series yields | x | 5

as the open interval of convergence for Taylor's series

representation around x=0 for f(x).

(3) Determine the interval of convergence for the expansion

1
f ( x) 
e 1
x around x=0.

89
 1
f ( z) 
e 1
z and it is singular at z where

e z  1  0  e z  1  e z  ei (  2k ) , k  0,1  2,....

 z  i (  2k ) . The nearest

y
zeros are at z   i , then the
i
series representation is valid for
| z |  . Then, for the real series
0 x
the open interval of
convergence is | x |  . -i

(4) Expand each of the

following functions in y powers of
z:

[1]
×
z2 -1 0 x
f ( z)   z 2 (1  z ) 2
(1  z ) 2

( 3) z 2
 z 2 [1  2 z  (2)
2!

z3
 ( 2)(3)(4)  ...]
3!

 z 2  2 z 3  3 z 4  4 z 5  ... | z | 1

(notice that z=-1 is the nearest singular point)

1
1 1 z2  4z 
[2] f ( z)  2  1 
z  4z  5 5  5



90
 y

2+i

5 x
2-i

1 ( z 2  4 z) ( z 2  4 z) 2 
 1    ....
5 5 25 

1 4 z 11z 2
    ..... | z | 5
5 25 125

(singular points for f(z) are at

z  2  i | z | 4 1  5)

[3] f ( z )  (1  z ) z

f z
ln f  z ln(1  z )   ln(1  z ) 
f 1 z

×
-1 0 x

 z 
f   f  ln(1  z )  
 z  1

 z 
f   f  ln(1  z )  
 z 1

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  1 1 z 
 f    
2 
 1  z z  1 ( z  1) 

f (0)  1, f (0)  (1)[ln(1)  0]  0,

f " ( 0)  2  (1  z) z
 1  z 2


Since (1  z ) z  e z ln(1 z )  nearest singular point is at z  1  the

expansion is valid for | z | 1 .

Or using the binomial expansion;

z (z  1 )z 2 z3
(1  z ) z  1  z (z ) ....  1  z 2  .... z1
2! 2

92