Combinatorics and “Higher” Mathematics

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 128
 For relaxation,
General Bradley did algebra problems,
and he worked at integral calculus
when he was flying an airplane
— or flying in his airplane.
He said it relaxed him, made him think.
— Chet Hansen, Major,
aide to 5-star General Omar Bradley (1893–1981)

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 129
 Growth of Factorials
n n! n n!
0 1 8 40320
1 1 9 362880
2 2 10 3628800
3 6 11 39916800
4 24 12 479001600
5 120 13 6227020800
6 720 14 87178291200
7 5040 15 1307674368000

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 130
 A Logplot (Base Two)
Logplot of n!
1200
1000
800
600
400
200

50 100 150 200

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 131
 A Useful Lower Bound for n!
Lemma 23 n! > (n/e)n .
Proof:
ln(n!) = ln 1 + ln 2 + ln 3 + · · · + ln n
n
= ln k
k=1
n  k
> ln x dx as ln x is increasing
k=1 k−1
 n
= ln x dx
0
n
= [ x ln x − x ]x=0
= n ln n − n.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 132
 ln x

k-1 k

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 133
 How Good Is the Bound?
n! over lower bound

100

80

60

40

20

250 500 750 1000125015001750

Conclusion: good but probably not of the same order as n!.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 134
 A Marginally Better Bound
Lemma 24 n! > e(n/e)n .
Proof:
ln(n!) = ln 1 + ln 2 + ln 3 + · · · + ln n
n
= ln k
k=2
n  k
> ln x dx
k=2 k−1
 n
≥ ln x dx
1
n
= [ x ln x − x ]x=1
= n ln n − n + 1.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 135
 A Useful Upper Bound for C(n, m)
Lemma 25 C(n, m) < (ne/m)m for any 0 < m < n.a
Proof:
n!
C(n, m) =
(n − m)! m!
n(n − 1) · · · (n − m + 1)
=
m!
nm
≤
m!
nm
< by Lemma 23 (p. 132)
(m/e)m
= (ne/m)m .
a Obtain the slightly tighter bound (ne/m)m /e with Lemma 24
(p. 135).

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 136
 Stirling’s Formulaa (1730)
• The notation f (x) ∼ g(x) means

lim f (x)/g(x) = 1,
x→∞

i.e.,
f (x) = g(x) + o(g(x))
as x → ∞.b
• Stirling’s formula says:
√
Theorem 26 n! ∼ 2πn (n/e)n .
Corollary 27 e = limn→∞ n/(n!)1/n .
a James Stirling (1692–1770); but actually due to Abraham DeMoivre
(1667–1754)!
b It does not imply f (x) − g(x) → 0.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 137
 Goodness of Approximation to n!
n! over approximation

1.0008

1.0006

1.0004

1.0002

200 400 600 800

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 138
 Approximation of C(n, m)
• Stirling’s formula can be used to approximate C(n, m)
better than Lemma 25 (p. 136) under some conditions.
• For that purpose, a more refined Stirling’s formula is
stated below without proof:a
√  n n 1 √  n n 1
2πn e 12n+1 < n! < 2πn e 12n . (20)
e e
a Robbins (1955).

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 139
 The Proof (concluded)
• Now from inequalities (20) on p. 139,

C(n, m)
n!
=
(n − m)! m!
√  n 1
2πn n
e e 12n
<   1 n−m√  m 1
n−m
2π(n − m) e 12(n−m)+1 2πm m
e e e 12m+1

 m  n−m
1 n n n
= √
2π m n−m m(n − m)
1−12n−144(m−n)2 −144mn
×e (··· )(··· )(··· )
 m  n−m
1 n n n
< √ . (21)
2π m n−m m(n − m)

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 140
 Approximation of C(n, m), 1 ≤ m ≤ n/2
C(n, m)
 m  n−m
1 n n n 1
12n+1
− 1
12(n−m)
− 1
12m
> √ e
2π m n−m m(n − m)
 m  n−m −12m−1
1 n n n − 1
= √ e 12(n−m)(12n+1) 12m
2π m n−m m(n − m)
 m  n−m −12m−1
1 n n n 12m(24m+1)
− 1
12m
≥ √ e
2π m n−m m(n − m)
 m  n−m
1 n n n − 1 + 1
= √ e 6m (24m+1)
2π m n−m m(n − m)
 m  n−m
1 n n n − 1
> √ e 6m . (22)
2π m n−m m(n − m)

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 141
 The Proof (continued)
• Combining inequalities (21) on p. 140 and (22) on p. 141
under 1 ≤ m ≤ n/2, we conclude that
   n−m 
1 1 n m n n
e− 6m √
2π m n−m m(n − m)
< C(n, m)
   n−m 
1 n m n n
< √ .
2π m n−m m(n − m)

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 142
 The Proof (concluded)
• So
 n−m 
1  n m n n
C(n, m) ∼ √ (23)
2π m n−m m(n − m)

as m → ∞ and n − m → ∞.
• An alternative formulation is
1
C(n, m) ∼ √ (pp q q )−n ,
2πpqn
Δ Δ
where p = m/n and q = 1 − p.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 143
 Application: Probability of Return to Origin
• Suppose the binomial random walk has a probability of
2−1 = 0.5 of going in either direction (p. 47).
– This is called a symmetric random walk.
• The number of ways it is at the origin after 2n steps is
2n
a
n by Eq. (4) on p. 44.

• The probability for this to happen is


2n
√ 1 n n 2   
2π
2 2 n 1 1
n
≈ ≈ =O √ (24)
22n 22n πn n
by Eq. (23) on p. 143.
 
a Wehave seen 2nn
many times before (e.g., p. 57, p. 61, p. 119, and
p. 123). We will continue to encounter it.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 144
 Application: Probability of Return to Origin
(concluded)
• Suppose 100 U.S. Senators vote on a bill randomly.a
• What is the probability of a tie (which has to be broken
by the Vice President)?
• By Eq. (24), it equals
100

50 1
= 0.0795892 ≈ .
2100 12
• The probability is surprisingly high.
• It rises to 0.176197 with 20 Senators in late 18th century.
a Dixit & Nalebuff (1993).

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 145
 Application: Deviation
• Consider the symmetric random walk again.
• Its average position at the end is 0.
• Assume n is even.
• Given c > 0, after n steps what is the probability for the
√
walk to end at a position ≥ c n for n sufficiently large?

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 146
 Application: Deviation (continued)
• The probability that the walk ends at position k after n
steps is  
n −n
n+k 2
2
by Eq. (4) on p. 44, where k is even.
√
• The probability that k ≥ c n is about
√

n    c n  
n 1 n
n+k 2−n ≈ − n+k 2−n
√ 2 2 2
k=c n k=2

by Eq. (9) on p. 58.

– The integer k must also be even.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 147
 Application: Deviation (concluded)
• But
√
c n   √  
1  n 1 c n n
− n+k 2−n ≥ − 2−n n
2 2 2 2 2
k=2

according to the unimodal property (p. 28).a

– That k is even accounts for the 2 in the denominator.
• Finally, the desired probability is
√   
1 −n c n n 1 1
−2 n ≥ −c
2 2 2 2 2π
by Eq. (24) on p. 144 for n sufficiently large.
a Corrected
by Mr. Gong-Ching Lin (B00703082) on March 8, 2012
and Mr. Rajon Geng (B03902010) on March 5, 2016.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 148
 An Upper Bound for C(2n, n)
2n
√
Lemma 28 n < 4n / nπ .
Proof: From inequality (21) on p. 140,
 
2n
n
 n  2n−n 
1 2n 2n 2n
< √
2π n 2n − n n(2n − n)
1
= √ 4n .
nπ
Note that Lemma 25 (p. 136) gives a much looser upper
bound of (2e)n ∼ 5.43656n .

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 149
 A Tight Bound for C(2n, n)
2n
√
Lemma 29 n ∼ 4n / nπ .
• From inequality (22) on p. 141,
 
2n
n
 n  2n−n 
1 2n 2n 2n 1
− 6n
> √ e
2π n 2n − n n(2n − n)
1 1
= √ 4n e− 6n .
nπ

• Finally, recall Lemma 28 (p. 149).

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 150
 A Tight Bound for C(2n, n) (concluded)

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 151
 First Return to Origina
What is the probability a symmetric binomial random walk
returns to the origin the first time at step 2n?
• From Eq. (19) on p. 125, the probability is
 
1 2n
2−2n .
2n − 1 n

• The above probability is asymptotically

1
∼ √
2 n3 π
by Lemma 29 (p. 150).
a Recall p. 124.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 152
 Analytic Number Theory

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 153
 A proof is that
which convinces a reasonable man;
a rigorous proof is that
which convinces an unreasonable man.
— Mark Kac (1914–1984)

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 154
 There Are an Infinite Number of Primesa
Theorem 30 (Euclid, 300 B.C.) There are infinitely
many primes.
• A prime is a positive integer larger than 1 whose only
divisors are itself and 1.
• Suppose p1 , p2 , . . . , pk are all the primes.
• Let B = p1 p2 · · · pk + 1.
• Because B > pi for all i, B cannot be a prime.
a Euclid (325 B.C.–265 B.C.). Some claim this is the most important
result in all mathematics, such as Calude (1994).

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 155
 The Proof (concluded)
• So there must be a prime pj such that pj divides
B = p1 p2 · · · pk + 1.
• But that implies pj must divide 1, a contradiction.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 156
 There Are an Infinite Number of Primes: An
Alternative Proofa
• Every number n can be uniquely factorized into prime
factors pk11 pk22 · · · .
• So
∞
 ∞
 ∞

 1  1  1
···
2k 3k 5k
k=0 k=0 k=0
 1
=
2k1 3k2 5k3 · · ·
1
= .
n
n≥1

a Leonhard Euler (1707–1783) in 1737.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 157
 The Proof (concluded)
• The right-hand side is an infinite number (why?).
• The left-hand side equals
1 1 1
··· .
1 − (1/2) 1 − (1/3) 1 − (1/5)

• It is an infinite number only if the number of primes is

infinite.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 158
 Leonhard Euler (1707–1783)

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 159
 The Prime Number Theorema
Let π(n) stand for the number of primes up to n.
Theorem 31 π(n) ∼ n/ ln n.
Corollary 32 The average density of primes from 1 to n is
1/ ln n.
Corollary 33 The nth prime number is about n ln n.
a Jacques
Salomon Hadamard (1865–1963) and Charles De la Vallée
Poussin (1866–1962) in 1896. John Derbyshire (2003), “His daughter
claimed [Hadamard] could not count beyond four, ‘After that came n.’
”

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 160
 Fundamentals of Logic

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 161
 What is truth?
— John 18:38

Probably only a person

with some mathematical knowledge
would think of beginning with 0
instead of with 1.
— Bertrand Russell (1872–1970),
Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy (1919)

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 162
 Propositional Logic:a Connectives
• ¬p: the negation of statement p.
• p ∧ q: the conjunction of statements p and q.
– “p and q.”
• p ∨ q: the disjunction of statements p and q.
– “p or q.”
• p → q: the (material) implication of q by p.
– “Hypothesis p implies conclusion q”; “if p, then
q”.
• p ↔ q: the biconditional of p and q.
– “p if and only if q.”
a Attributed to Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716).

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 163
 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716)

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 164
 Truth Tablea
• A truth table with n primitive statements or
boolean variables has 2n rows or truth assignments.
– For example, the compound statement

(p ∨ (p ∧ q)) ∧ ¬r

contains 3 primitive statements p, q, r.

• A truth table gives a statement a truth value under all
possible truth assignments.
– The truth table for p ∨ (p ∧ q) ∧ ¬r contains 23 = 8
truth assignments.
a Post
(1921); Wittgenstein (1922). 1 and T0 are used to denote true;
0 and F0 are used to denote false.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 165
 Truth Tables of Connectivesa
p ¬p
0 1
1 0

p q p∧q p∨q p→q p↔q

0 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
a They are definitions.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 166
 The Truth Table for (p ∨ (p ∧ q)) ∧ ¬r
p q r p∧q ¬r p ∨ (p ∧ q) (p ∨ (p ∧ q)) ∧ ¬r
0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 1 0

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 167
 Tautologya and Contradiction
• A statement is a tautology if it is true for all truth
assignments for its component primitive statements.
– For example, p ∨ ¬p.
– Note that tautology is a metalogical statement.
a Wittgenstein (1889–1951) in 1922. Wittgenstein is one of the most
important philosophers of all time. Russell (1919), “The importance of
‘tautology’ for a definition of mathematics was pointed out to me by my
former pupil Ludwig Wittgenstein, who was working on the problem. I
do not know whether he has solved it, or even whether he is alive or
dead.” “God has arrived,” the great economist Keynes (1883–1946) said
of him on January 18, 1928. “I met him on the 5:15 train.”

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 168
 Tautology and Contradiction (continued)
• A statement is a contradiction if it is false for all truth
assignments for its component primitive statements.
• When p → q is a tautology, we say p logically implies
q, written as p ⇒ q.
– Note that p ⇒ q is a metalogical statement.
• If
(p1 ∧ p2 ∧ · · · ∧ pn ) → q
is a tautology, we say conclusion q follows validly from
premises p1 , p2 , . . . , pn .

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 169
 Tautology and Contradiction (concluded)
• Verifying a tautology can be done by checking if all
entries of the truth table give a true.
• Verifying a contradiction can be done by checking if all
entries of the truth table give a false.
• But neither is efficient: Both take an exponential
amount of time.a
• A statement is a contingency if it is neither a
tautology nor a contradiction.
a Both
are known computationally hard problems; they are coNP-
complete (Cook, 1971).

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 170
 Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951)

Wittgenstein (1922),
“Whereof one cannot
speak, thereof one must
be silent.”

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 171
 Stephen Arthur Cooka (1939–)

Richard Karp, “It is to our

everlasting shame that we
were unable to persuade
the math department [of
UC-Berkeley] to give him
tenure.”

a TuringAward (1982). See http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/107226

for an interview in 2002.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 172
 An Example of a Valid Argument
q follows validly from

(p → r) ∧ (¬q → p) ∧ ¬r.

• Write down the truth table for

[(p → r) ∧ (¬q → p) ∧ ¬r] → q.

• Verify that it is true under all possible truth

assignments for p, q, r (see next page).

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 173
 An Example of a Valid Argument (concluded)

p q r p→r ¬q → p ¬r [(p → r) ∧ (¬q → p) ∧ ¬r] → q

0 0 0 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 0 1

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 174
 An Example of a Potentially Invalid Argumenta

“The premises he used were false,

therefore his conclusions were false.”
— Dudley Sharp of Justice For All

a “Federal
judge rules U.S. death penalty is unconstitutional,” The
Star-Ledger, Tuesday, July 2, 2002.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 175
 Statement, Meta-statement, and What?
• “Einstein was born in Japan.”
• “It is not true that Einstein was born in Japan.”
• “This sentence is false.”a
• “Both of us had said the very same thing. Did we both
speak the truth—or one of us did—or neither?”b
• No Name Restaurant (Boston).
a Calledliar’s paradox.
b Joseph Conrad (1900), Lord Jim.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 176
 Logical Equivalence
• Statements p and q are logically equivalent (written
as p ⇔ q) when p and q have the same truth value for all
truth value assignments for the primitive statements.
• For example, p → q ⇔ ¬p ∨ q.a
p q p→q ¬p ∨ q
0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
• Rule of replacement: p → q can be replaced by ¬p ∨ q.
a Frege (1879).

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 177
 More Logical Equivalences (Prove Them)
• p ↔ q ⇔ (p ∧ q) ∨ (¬p ∧ ¬q).
• ¬(p ↔ q) ⇔ p ↔ ¬q.
• p → q ⇔ ¬q → ¬p.
• ¬p ↔ q ⇔ p ↔ ¬q.
• ¬(p ↔ q) ⇔ ¬p ↔ q.
• (p → q) ∨ (p → r) ⇔ p → (q ∨ r).
• (p → r) ∨ (q → r) ⇔ (p ∧ q) → r.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 178
 More Logical Equivalences (concluded)
• ¬p → (q → r) ⇔ q → (p ∨ r).
• p ↔ q ⇔ (p → q) ∧ (q → p).
• p ↔ q ⇔ ¬p ↔ ¬q.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 179
 More on Material Implicationa
• Note that

p→q ⇔ ¬p ∨ q
⇔ q ∨ ¬p
⇔ ¬(¬q) ∨ ¬p
⇔ ¬q → ¬p.

• This is a standard proof method in mathematics.

• But there are controversies surrounding it called the
paradoxes of material implication.
– “If the pig can fly, then Paris is in China” is true.
a The term is due to Russell.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 180
 DeMorgan’sa Laws
• ¬(p ∨ q) ⇔ ¬p ∧ ¬q.
• ¬(p ∧ q) ⇔ ¬p ∨ ¬q.
• It can be used to transform any statement into an
equivalent one where ¬ applies only to primitive
statements.
– For example,

¬(x1 ∨ (x2 ∧ ¬x3 )) ⇔ (¬x1 ) ∧ ¬(x2 ∧ ¬x3 )

⇔ (¬x1 ) ∧ (¬x2 ∨ ¬¬x3 )
⇔ (¬x1 ) ∧ (¬x2 ∨ x3 ).
a Augustus DeMorgan (1806–1871) or William of Ockham (1288–
1348).

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 181
 DeMorgan’s Laws (concluded)
• Here is a proof of the second law:
p q ¬(p ∧ q) ¬p ∨ ¬q
0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 182
 Other Laws of Logic
• ¬¬p ⇔ p.
– Law of double negation.
• p ∨ q ⇔ q ∨ p; p ∧ q ⇔ q ∧ p.
– Commutative laws.
• p ∨ (q ∨ r) ⇔ (p ∨ q) ∨ r; p ∧ (q ∧ r) ⇔ (p ∧ q) ∧ r.
– Associative laws.
• p ∨ (q ∧ r) ⇔ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r);
p ∧ (q ∨ r) ⇔ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r).
– Distributive laws.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 183
 Other Laws of Logic (continued)
• p ∨ p ⇔ p; p ∧ p ⇔ p.
– Idempotent laws.
• p ∨ false ⇔ p; p ∧ true ⇔ p.
– Identity laws.
• p ∨ ¬p ⇔ true; p ∧ ¬p ⇔ false.
– Inverse laws.
• p ∨ true ⇔ true; p ∧ false ⇔ false.
– Domination laws.
• p ∨ (p ∧ q) ⇔ p; p ∧ (p ∨ q) ⇔ p.
– Absorption laws.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 184
 Other Laws of Logic (continued)
• p ⇔ q if and only if p ⇒ q and q ⇒ p.
• [ p ∧ (p → q) ] ⇒ q.
– Modus ponens or rule of detachment.
• [ (p → q) ∧ (q → r) ] ⇒ (p → r).
– Law of the syllogism.
• [ (p → q) ∧ ¬q ] ⇒ ¬p.
– Modus tollens or law of contrapositive.
• (¬p → false) ⇒ p.
– Reductio ad absurdum or rule of contradiction.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 185
 Other Laws of Logic (concluded)
• [ (p ∨ q) ∧ ¬p ] ⇒ q.
– Disjunctive syllogism.
• p ⇒ (p ∨ q).
– Addition.
• (p ∧ q) ⇒ p.
– Simplification.
• [ (p) ∧ (q) ] ⇒ (p ∧ q).
– Conjunction.
• [ (p ∨ q) ∧ (¬p ∨ r) ] ⇒ (q ∨ r).
– Resolution.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 186
 Law of Double Negation (P. 183) in Practice

“I ain’t never done no harm to no one.”

— Bertrand Russell (1957),
“Mr. Strawson on referring”

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 187
 Duality
• Let s be a statement and contain no logical connectives
other than ¬, ∨, and ∧.
• The dual of s, sd , is the statement obtained from s by
replacing each occurrence of
– ∧ with ∨,
– ∨ with ∧,
– true with false,
– false with true.
• But ¬ is unchanged.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 188
 Duality (concluded)
• For example, the dual of (p ∧ ¬q) ∨ (r ∧ true) is

(p ∨ ¬q) ∧ (r ∨ false).

• DeMorgan’s laws (p. 181) are duality pairs.

• All the laws from the commutative laws (p. 183) to the
absorption laws are duality pairs.
Theorem 34 (The principle of duality) If s ⇔ t, then
sd ⇔ td .

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 189
 Set Theory

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 190
 The point of philosophy is
to start with something so simple
as not to seem worth stating,
and to end with something
so paradoxical that no one will believe it.
— Bertrand Russell (1872–1970)

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 191
 Set Theorya
• Let A and B be sets.
• x ∈ A means x is an element of A.
• x ∈ A means x is not an element of A.
• A ⊆ B (A is a subset of B) means every element of A is
an element of B.
• A = B means A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.
• A  B (A is a proper subset of B) means A ⊆ B but
A = B.
• ∅ is the empty set, and ∅ ⊆ A for any set A.
a Foundedby Georg Cantor (1845–1918) in 1874. Set theory is the
cornerstone of modern mathematics.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 192
 Set Operations
• A ∪ B is the union of A and B.
• A ∩ B is the intersection of A and B.
• AΔB is the symmetric difference of A and B, or

{ x : (x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B) ∨ (x ∈ B ∧ x ∈ A) }. (25)

– E.g., { 1, 2, 3, 4 }Δ{ 3, 4, 5, 6 } = { 1, 2, 5, 6 }.
• A and B are disjoint if A ∩ B = ∅.
• Ā is the complement of A.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 193
 Set Operations (concluded)
• A − B = { x : x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B }.
– E.g., { 1, 2, 3, 4 } − { 3, 4, 5, 6 } = { 1, 2 }.
– In general, A − B = B − A.

• i∈I Ai = { x : x ∈ Ai for some i ∈ I }.
– For example, if I = N, then

Ai = A0 ∪ A1 ∪ · · · .
i∈I

• i∈I Ai = { x : x ∈ Ai for all i ∈ I }.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 194
 Interesting Relationsa
• AΔB = BΔA.
• AΔB = (A ∪ B) − (A ∩ B).
• AΔB = (A − B) ∪ (B − A).
a Contributed by Ms. Chiyoko Yamazaki (B92902108) on October 4,
2004.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 195
 DeMorgan’s Laws
 
Ai = Ai ,
i∈I i∈I
 
Ai = Ai .
i∈I i∈I

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 196
 Russell’sa Paradox (1901)
• Consider the set

R = { A : A ∈ A }.

• If R ∈ R, then R ∈ R by the definition.

• If R ∈ R, then R ∈ R also by the definition.
• So what is a set?
a Bertrand
Russell (1872–1970), the most important logician of the
20th century if not of all time, won the Nobel Prize in Literature in
1950.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 197
 Bertrand Russell (1872–1970)

Karl Popper (1974), “per-

haps the greatest philoso-
pher since Kant.”

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 198
 Properties of Integers: Mathematical
Induction

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 199
 The conclusions which it draws
from considering one circle are the same
which it would form upon surveying
all the circles in the universe.
— David Hume (1711–1776),
An Enquiry Concerning
Human Understanding (1748)

A finite number means one to which

mathematical induction applies[.]
— Bertrand Russell (1872–1970),
“Science and Hypothesis” (1905)

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 200
 Common Sets in Mathematicsa

N = { 0, 1, . . . },
Z = { . . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . . },
Z+ = { 1, 2, . . . },
R = set of real numbers,
Q = set of rational numbers.

a0is a natural number; Z is from the German Zahl (meaning number);

Q is from the word “quotient.”

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 201
 The Well-Ordering Principlea
Axiom 1 (The well-ordering principle) Every
nonempty subset of Z+ contains a smallest element. (Z+ is
said to be well-ordered.)
• Real numbers are not well-ordered.
– { x ∈ R : x > 1 } does not contain a smallest element.
• Rational numbers are not well-ordered.
– { x ∈ Q : x > 1 } does not contain a smallest element.
a Definedby Cantor in 1883 and proved by Ernst Zermelo (1871–1953)
in 1904 based on his proposed axiom of choice.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 202
 Mathematical Inductiona
Theorem 35 Let S(n) denote an (open) mathematical
statement containing references to a positive integer n such
that
• S(1) is true and
• S(k + 1) is true whenever S(k) is true for arbitrarily
chosen k ∈ Z+ .

Then S(n) is true for all n ∈ Z+ .

a Dedekind and Peano.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 203
 Richard Dedekind (1831–1916)

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 204
 Giuseppe Peano (1858–1932)

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 205
 The Proof
• Intuitively,
– If S(1) is true, then S(2) is true.
– But if S(2) is true, then S(3) is true.
– ···
– So S(n) must be true for all n ∈ Z+ ?
• We need a proof based on more foundational principles.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 206
 The Proof
• Let
F = { t ∈ Z+ : S(t) is false }.
• Assume that F = ∅.
• F has a least element  by the well-ordering principle.
– So S() is false.
• Clearly  > 1 and, hence,  − 1 ∈ Z+ .a
• Because  − 1 ∈ F , S( − 1) is true.
• It follows that S() is true, a contradiction.
• So F = ∅.
a We assume the standard properties of integers. Thanks to a lively
after-class discussion on March 9, 2017.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 207
 Mathematical Induction and the Well-Ordering
Principle
• The proof of induction says that the well-ordering
principle (p. 202) implies mathematical induction.
• Now we prove the converse.
• Let T ⊆ Z+ and T = ∅.
• It suffices to show that T contains a smallest element.
• Let S(n) be the (open) statement:
“no element of T is smaller than n.”

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 208
 The Proof (continued)
• S(1) is true as no positive integers are smaller than 1.
• Suppose S(k + 1) holds whenever S(k) does.
• By mathematical induction, S(n) is true for all n ∈ Z+ .
• This means for any n ∈ Z+ , no element of T is smaller
than n.
• But this is impossible: Any integer in T must be smaller
than some integer.
• Hence there must be a k ∈ Z+ such that S(k) is true but
S(k + 1) is not.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 209
 The Proof (concluded)
• As S(k) holds, no element of T is smaller than k.
• As S(k + 1) does not hold, some elements of T are
smaller than k + 1.
• But as S(k) holds, these elements must equal k.a
• Hence the smallest element of T exists and is k.
a Again, we assume the standard properties of integers.

c
2018 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 210