LINEAR AND NON-LINEAR ANALYSIS

Linear analysis:
Linear analysis methods are considered only if elastic material behaviour is
considered, P-Delta formulation may still be applied.
Non-linear analysis:

Nonlinear structural behaviour may be associated with either geometric or

material response, each described as follows.

Geometric nonlinearity:

It concerns the P-Delta effects associated with application of external loading

upon the displaced configuration of a structure.

P-Delta effect:

This effect is also known as geometric nonlinearity, involves the equilibrium and
compatibility relationships of a structural system loaded about its deflected
configuration. Of particular concern is the application of gravity load on laterally
displaced multi-story building structures. This condition magnifies story drift and
certain mechanical behaviours while reducing deformation capacity.

P-Delta effect typically involves large external forces upon relatively small
displacements. If deformations become sufficiently large as to break from linear
compatibility relationships, then Large-Displacement and Large-Deformation
analyses become necessary. The two sources of P-Delta effect are illustrated in
Figure 1, and described as follows:
  P-δ effect, or P-"small-delta", is associated with local deformation relative
to the element chord between end nodes. Typically, P-δ only becomes
significant at unreasonably large displacement values, or in especially
slender columns. So long as a structure adheres to the slenderness
requirements pertinent to earthquake engineering, it is not advisable to
model P-δ, since it may significantly increase computational time without
providing the benefit of useful information. An easier way to capture this
behaviour is to subdivide critical elements into multiple segments,
transferring behaviour into P-Δ effect (Powell 2006).

 P-Δ effect, or P-"big-delta", is associated with displacements relative to

member ends. Unlike P-δ, this type of P-Delta effect is critical to nonlinear
modelling and analysis. As indicated intuitively by Figure 2, gravity
loading will influence structural response under significant lateral
displacement. P-Δ may contribute to loss of lateral resistance, ratcheting of
residual deformations, and dynamic instability. As shown in Figure 3,
effective lateral stiffness decreases, reducing strength capacity in all phases
of the force-deformation relationship (PEER/ATC 2010). To consider P-Δ
effect directly, gravity load should be present during nonlinear analysis.
Application will cause minimal increase to computational time, and will
remain accurate for drift levels up to 10%

The two primary means for including P-Delta effect in nonlinear analysis include:

1. For each load combination, create a nonlinear analysis case which includes
the P-Delta geometric-nonlinearity parameter.
2. For the gravity loads anticipated, create an Initial P-Delta Analysis case
which includes the P-Delta geometric-nonlinearity parameter, then
 consider all other analyses as linear while using the stiffness matrix
developed for this one set of P-Delta loads.

Material nonlinearity:

It concerns inelastic structural response in which the behaviour of a component,

system, or connection deviates from the initial stiffness tangent characteristic of
linear-elastic behaviour.

Material nonlinearity is associated with the inelastic behaviour of a component

or system. Inelastic behaviour may be characterized by a force-deformation (F-
D) relationship, also known as a backbone curve, which measures strength against
translational or rotational deformation. The general F-D relationship shown to the
right indicates that once a structure achieves its yield strength, additional loading
will cause response to deviate from the initial tangent stiffness (elastic
behaviour). Nonlinear response may then increase (hardening) to an ultimate
point before degrading (softening) to a residual strength value.

A variety of F-D relationships may characterize material nonlinearity, including

the following:

 Monotonic curve
 Hysteretic cycle
 Interaction surface
Monotonic curve

A monotonic curve is produced when a load pattern is progressively applied to a

component or system such that the deformation parameter (independent variable)
continuously increases from zero to an ultimate condition. The corresponding
force-based parameter (dependent variable) is then plotted across this range,
indicating the pattern of material nonlinearity.

Static-pushover analysis is a nonlinear method which generates a monotonic

response curve. The P-M2-M3 hinge is best suited for modelling a condition of
static pushover. Some examples of monotonic F-D relationships (and their
associated physical mechanism) include stress-strain (axial), moment-curvature
(flexure), and plastic-hinging (rotation).

To simplify the expression of a monotonic F-D relationship, and to provide for

numerically-efficient formulation, the nonlinear curve may be idealized as a
series of linear segments. Figure 2 presents one such model. When the general
curve is compared with the idealized, it evident that an exact formulation maybe
simplified with minimal compromise to accuracy.

Serviceability parameters may then be superimposed onto the nonlinear F-D

relationship to provide insight into structural performance. Property owners and
the general public are very much interested in performance measures which relate
to daily use. Therefore it may be useful to introduce such limit states as
immediate-occupancy (IO), life-safety (LS), and collapse-prevention (CP), which
indicate the correlation between material nonlinearity and deterministic
projections for structural damage sustained. Figure 3 depicts the serviceability
limit states of a F-D relationship.
 Figure 3 - Serviceability limit states

Limit states may also be specific to inelastic behavioural thresholds. For example,
under static pushover, a confined reinforced-concrete column may experience 1).
Yielding of longitudinal steel; 2) Spalling of cover concrete; 3) Crushing of core
concrete; 4) Fracture of transverse reinforcement; and 5) Fracture of longitudinal
steel.

Hysteretic cycle:

Another relationship type which indicates material nonlinearity is the hysteretic

cycle. When the F-D relationship is developed for a component or system
subjected to cyclic loading, hysteretic loops are produced. When modelling
hysteretic dynamics, the fibre hinge is best applied.

Figure 4 illustrates hysteretic behaviour. Again, translational or rotational

deformation is the independent variable. As the orientation of loading continually
reverses, a strength-based parameter is plotted against the physical oscillation of
the system. Hysteresis is useful for characterizing dynamic response under
application of a time-history record.
 Figure 4 - Hysteresis loop

As seen in Figure 4, both stiffness and strength deviate from their initial
relationship once yielding occurs. This behaviour advances with additional
hysteretic cycles, and becomes more pronounced with greater inelastic
deformations. Initially, strength may increase through hardening behaviour,
though ultimately, stiffness and strength will both degrade through softening
behaviour. Whereas strength gain or loss is indicated by the strength level
achieved, the decrease in slope upon load reversal indicates degradation of
stiffness. Ductility describes the ability of a system to maintain post-peak strength
levels during hysteretic behaviour and increasing levels of deformation.

As hysteresis loops develop, the profile of peak values forms the cyclic envelope.
The backbone curve produced by the cyclic envelope will be less than the
monotonic curve which would result from the same structure being subjected to
monotonic loading. This may be attributed to strength and stiffness degradation.
An important provision of nonlinear modelling is the accurate characterization of
strength and stiffness relationships as a structure progresses through hysteretic
behavior. PERFORM-3D is a computational tool which offers this capability.

Depending on structural geometry and materials, a hysteretic cycle may follow

one of many different possible patterns. Four possible hysteretic-behaviour types
are illustrated in Figure 5:
 Figure 5 - Hysteresis loop types

Interaction surface:

An interaction surface is developed for a structural element when the combined

relationship between various strength parameters is plotted. Von Mises, Mroz, or
another such plasticity theory may be used to develop a 2D or 3D surface which
represents a performance envelope for a given limit state. Behaviour exceeds the
limit state when the performance measure is outside the envelope. An example
may be a 3D P-M2-M3 interaction surface describing the yielding of a column
under combined axial, strong-axis, and weak-axis bending. These three
performance measures interact in a way which may be plotted to create a 3D
ellipse. A response measure outside of the P-M-M envelope would indicate that
the column has yielded.

Linear vs. nonlinear analysis

Linear and nonlinear methods may be static or dynamic. A few of the traditional
analysis methods, and the relations between their attributes, are presented in
Figure
1. Linear Static Method (Strength Based)
Strength-based analysis is a static-linear procedure in which structural
components are specified such that their elastic capacities exceed the demands of
loading conditions. Strength-based demand-capacity (D-C) ratios indicate the
adequacy of each component. Since only the elastic stiffness properties are
applied to the analytical model, strength-based analysis is the most simplified and
least time-consuming analysis method.
2. Linear Dynamic Method (Response-spectrum analysis)
Response-spectrum analysis is a dynamic-linear method in which maximum
structural response is plotted as a function of structural period for a given time-
history record and level of damping. For a set of structural mode shapes and
corresponding natural frequencies, the linear superposition of SDOF systems
represents response. Response measures may be in terms of peak Acceleration,
velocity, or displacement relative to the ground or the structure. Structures must
remain essentially elastic since response-spectrum analysis is dependent upon the
superposition of gravity and lateral effects. Results may be enveloped to form a
smooth design spectrum.

Response-spectrum analysis (RSA) is a linear-dynamic statistical analysis

method which measures the contribution from each natural mode of vibration to
indicate the likely maximum seismic response of an essentially elastic structure.
Response-spectrum analysis provides insight into dynamic behaviour by
measuring pseudo-spectral acceleration, velocity, or displacement as a function
of structural period for a given time history and level of damping. It is practical
to envelope response spectra such that a smooth curve represents the peak
response for each realization of structural period.

Response-spectrum analysis is useful for design decision-making because it

relates structural type-selection to dynamic performance. Structures of shorter
period experience greater acceleration, whereas those of longer period experience
greater displacement. Structural performance objectives should be taken into
account during preliminary design and response-spectrum analysis.

3. Non-Linear Static Method (Static-pushover analysis)

Static-pushover analysis is a static-nonlinear procedure in which a structural
system is subjected to a monotonic load which increases iteratively, through an
ultimate condition, to indicate a range of elastic and inelastic performance. As a
function of both strength and deformation, the resultant nonlinear force-
deformation (F-D) relationship provides insight into ductility and limit-state
behaviour. Deformation parameters may be translational or rotational. Pushover
is most suitable for systems in which the fundamental mode dominates behavior.
When higher-order modes contribute, as with taller buildings, dynamic analysis
is most effective.

Pushover is a static-nonlinear analysis method where a structure is subjected to

gravity loading and a monotonic displacement-controlled lateral load pattern
which continuously increases through elastic and inelastic behaviour until an
ultimate condition is reached. Lateral load may represent the range of base shear
induced by earthquake loading, and its configuration may be proportional to the
distribution of mass along building height, mode shapes, or another practical
means.

Output generates a static-pushover curve which plots a strength-based parameter

against deflection. For example, performance may relate the strength level
achieved in certain members to the lateral displacement at the top of the structure,
or bending moment may be plotted against plastic rotation. Results provide
insight into the ductile capacity of the structural system, and indicate the
mechanism, load level, and deflection at which failure occurs.

When analysing frame objects, material nonlinearity is assigned to discrete hinge

locations where plastic rotation occurs according to FEMA-356 or another set of
code-based or user-defined criteria. Strength drop, displacement control, and all
other nonlinear software features, including link assignment, P-Delta effect, and
staged construction, are available during static-pushover analysis.

Create the computational model

 Create the computational model, without pushover data, using

conventional modelling techniques.

 Define properties for pushover hinges using Define > Section Properties
> Hinge Properties. Hinges may be defined manually or by using one of
several default specifications which are available.
  Assign the pushover hinges to selected frame objects using Assign >
Frame > Hinges.

 Select Define > Load Patterns to define load patterns which will contain
the loads applied during pushover analysis.

Define a nonlinear static load case

 Select Define > Load Cases > Add New Load Case to define a nonlinear
static load case which will apply the previously-defined load pattern. This
load case may be force-controlled (pushed to a specified force level) or
displacement-controlled (pushed to a specified displacement).

 Select Other Parameters > Results Saved to Multiple States such that
various parameters may be plotted for each increment of applied loading.

Run the analysis

 Select Analyze > Run Analysis to run the static-pushover analysis.

Review results

 To plot base shear vs. monitored displacement, select Display > Show
Static Pushover Curve. Additional variables are also available for
plotting.

 To plot hinge deformation vs. applied loading, select Display > Show
Hinge Results. Moment as a function of plastic rotation is one such
option.

 To review displacement and the step-by-step sequence of hinge

formation, select Display > Show Deformed Shape.

 To review member forces on a step-by-step basis, select Display > Show

Forces/Stresses > Frames/Cables.

 Select Display > Show Plot Functions to plot response at each step of the
pushover analysis, including joint displacement, frame member forces,
etc.
4. Non-Linear Dynamic Method (Time-history analysis)

Time-history analysis is a dynamic-nonlinear technique which may involve either

the FNA or the direct-integration method. FNA is a modal application, whereas
with direct integration, the equations of motion are integrated at a series of time
steps to characterize dynamic response and inelastic behaviour. Loading is time-
dependent, and therefore suitable for the application of a ground-motion record.
Time-history analysis may account for both material nonlinearity and P-Delta
effects.