Methodology

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about research methods. For software engineering frameworks, see Software
development methodology.

Methodology is the systematic, theoretical analysis of the methods applied to a field of study. It
comprises the theoretical analysis of the body of methods and principles associated with a branch
of knowledge. Typically, it encompasses concepts such as paradigm, theoretical model, phases
and quantitative or qualitative techniques.[1]

A methodology does not set out to provide solutions - it is therefore, not the same as a
method. Instead, a methodology offers the theoretical underpinning for understanding
which method, set of methods, or [best practice]s can be applied to a specific case, for
example, to calculate a specific result.

It has been defined also as follows:

Methodology, theory, paradigm, algorithm, and method

The methodology is the general research strategy that outlines the way in which research is to be
undertaken and, among other things, identifies the methods to be used in it. These methods,
described in the methodology, define the means or modes of data collection or, sometimes, how
a specific result is to be calculated.[4] Methodology does not define specific methods, even
though much attention is given to the nature and kinds of processes to be followed in a particular
procedure or to attain an objective.

When proper to a study of methodology, such processes constitute a constructive generic

framework, and may therefore be broken down into sub-processes, combined, or their sequence
changed.[5]

A paradigm is similar to a methodology in that it is also a constructive framework. In theoretical

work, the development of paradigms satisfies most or all of the criteria for methodology.[6] An
algorithm, like a paradigm, is also a type of constructive framework, meaning that the
construction is a logical, rather than a physical, array of connected elements.

Any description of a means of calculation of a specific result is always a description of a method

and never a description of a methodology. It is thus important to avoid using methodology as a
synonym for method or body of methods. Doing this shifts it away from its true epistemological
meaning and reduces it to being the procedure itself, or the set of tools, or the instruments that
should have been its outcome. A methodology is the design process for carrying out research or
the development of a procedure and is not in itself an instrument, or method, or procedure for
doing things
Research Methodology
Research Methodology

Sources of literature, literature survey, reference methodology, writing techniques of thesis, how
to write a research article, learning of software’s operation used in research e.g. Endnote®,
SPSS® etc., using statistical techniques etc.

Recommended Books

Pharmacology:

1. Goodman & Gilman’s The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, McGraw Hill book
company, New York, USA, 2001.
2. Winguard and Bord, Human Pharmacology. Mosby Year Book, Boston, 1991.
3. James M Ritter and Lionel De Levis, A Text book of Clinical Pharmacology, Oxford
University press, New York, 1995.
4. R S Satorkar and S D Bhandarkar, Pharmacology and Pharmaco-therapeutics. Popular
Prakashan, Bombay, 1993.
5. J D Tripathy, Essentials of Medical Pharmacology, Japees Brother, New Delhi, 4th Ed
2000.
6. D. R Laurance, Clinical Pharmacology, ELBS, London 6th Ed. 1987
 7. Katzung B G, Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, McGraw-Hill medical publisher, New
York, 8th Ed. 2001.
8. Lippincott, Pharmacology, Lippincot William & Willkin, USA 2001.
9. Manuchair Abdia, Pharmacology, Little Brown & Company, London, 1993.
10. Bertram GK, Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, Paramount Publishing Business &
Professional Group USA, 6th Ed. 1995.
11. William F Ganong W,F Review of Medical Physiology. Prentice Hall International Inc,
New Jersey.
12. Bennett & Brown, Clinical Pharmacology, 2003
13. Rang & Dale’s Pharmacology

I. WHAT IS RESEARCH?
Research
is a logical and systematic search for new and useful information on
a particular
topic. In the well-known nursery rhyme
Twinkle Twinkle Little Star
How I Wonder What You Are
the use of the words
how
and
what
essentially summarizes what research is. It is an investi-
gation of finding solutions to scientific and social problems through o
bjective and systematic
analysis. It is a search for knowledge, that is, a discovery of hidden
truths. Here knowl-
edge means information about matters. The information might be co
llected from different
sources like experience, human beings, books, journals, nature,
etc. A research can lead to
new contributions to the existing knowledge. Only through researc
h is it possible to make
progress in a field. Research is indeed civilization and determines the e
conomic, social and
political development of a nation. The results of scientific research
very often force a change
in the philosophical view of problems which extend far beyond the res
tricted domain of
science itself.
Research is not confined to science and technology only. There are
vast areas of research
in other disciplines such as languages, literature, history and sociolo
gy. Whatever might be
the subject, research has to be an active, diligent and systematic
process of inquiry in order
to discover, interpret or revise facts, events, be

What are Mitochondria?

Mitochondria: Power houses, factories, waste disposal and recycling centres, and assassins...

What are mitochondria and what do they do?

The “powerhouses of the cell”, that’s how many people know mitochondria. The parts of cells
that turn sugars, fats and proteins that we eat, into forms of chemical energy that the body can
use to carry on living.

Every living thing is made of cells: tiny compartments contained by a membrane. Cells are the
smallest things that can reproduce themselves. When we look inside cells, we see that they have
sub-compartments that are smaller still, known as “Organelles” which perform different
functions that are essential for the cell to live.
Mitochondria are organelles found in the cells of every complex organism. They produce about
90% of the chemical energy that cells need to survive. No energy; no life! So it's easy to see why
when mitochondria go wrong, serious diseases are the result, and why it is important we
understand how mitochondria work.

However, mitochondria do much more than just produce energy. They also produce chemicals
that your body needs for other purposes, break down waste products so they’re less harmful, and
recycle some of those waste products to save energy.

Mitochondria also have a special role in making cells die (apoptosis). This may sound strange,
but it is vital for the processes of growth and development. Sometimes cells don’t die when they
should, and start to grow uncontrollably. This is how a tumour starts to grow, so you shouldn’t
be surprised that mitochondria play an important part in cancer and are seen as targets for anti-
cancer drugs.

To produce all of that energy, mitochondria require oxygen. Mitochondria effectively burn your
food in a carefully controlled way to produce that chemical energy by a process called “oxidative
phosphorylation”. And just as a fire goes out without oxygen, if mitochondria lack oxygen, they
also stop working => No energy; No life!

During a heart attack, or a stroke, the blood stops delivering oxygen to the heart and brain. These
two organs do a lot of work and need a lot of energy. Without oxygen, the mitochondria stop
working, and the cells in the brain or heart are damaged or even die. Perversely, if the oxygen
does return, then the mitochondria get overwhelmed and produce a lot of “free radicals”. These
are very reactive chemicals which cause a lot of additional damage - called “Reperfusion injury”.