3D Seismic Structural Study of Subsurface in Balad Oil Field

3D Seismic Structural Study of Subsurface in
Balad Oil Field – Center of Iraq
A Thesis Submitted to the College of Science

University of Baghdad
In partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the
Degree of Master of Science
In Geophysics
By
Suhail Ubaid Muhsin

B.Sc. in Geology
February
2012
Supervisor′s Certification
I certify that the preparation of this thesis (3D Seismic Structural
Study of subsurface structure in Balad Oil Field-Center of Iraq) was
prepared under my supervision at the department of geology, in the
University of Baghdad, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the
degree of Master of Science in Geology – Geophysics.
Signature:
Name: Dr. Nawal Abed Al-Redha
Title: Professor
Address: University of Baghdad College of Science
Date: / 2 / 2012
In view of the available recommendation, I forward this thesis for

debate by the examining committee.
Signature:
Name: Dr. Ahmad Shihab Al-Banna
Title: Professor
Address: University of Baghdad (Head Geology Department)
Date: / 2 / 2012
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‫ﻫﻫﻫﻫﻫﺪﺪﺪ‬
‫ﺍﺍ‬
‫ﻫﻫﻫﻫﻫ‬
‫ﺑﺴﺴ ﺴﺣﺣﺣﺣﺣﺣﺣﻫﻫﻫ‬
‫�ﺴ�‬
‫�� ﺍﻟﻌــﻠﻲ ﺍﻟﻌ‬
‫��ـﺪﻱ ﺍﻟﻌـــﺰـﻳﺟـ ﻲﻓ ﺰـﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﺨـــﻠـﺪ‬

‫ﺍﻟـــﻰ ﻭﺍﻟ‬
‫ﺍﻟـــﻰ ﺃﻣـــﻲ ﺍﻟﻐـــﺎﻟــﻴﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟـــﻰ ﺯﻭﺟـﺘـﻲ ﺍﻟﺤــ ﻨﻮﻨ ‪ .....‬ﺃﻭﻻﺩﻱ ﺃﺣــــﺘﺒﻲ‬
‫��ـﻴﻖ‬
‫ﺍﻟـــﻰ ﺍﻷﻫــــﻷ ﻭﺍﻷﺣـــﺒ ﻷ ﻭﺎﻷﻷــﺪﻗﺎء ﻭﻣـﻦ ﺩﻋــــﺎ ﻟــﻲ ﺑﺎﻟـﺘﻮﻓـ‬
‫ﻓﻗ ﻲـــﻄﻊ ﻣﺸــــﻮﺍﺭ ﺍﻟـﺪﺭﺍﺳـــﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌــﻠـﻴﺎ‬
‫ﺃﻫــــﺬ ـﻜﻢ ﻩﻳــﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺮﺳــﺎﻟﺔ ﻭﻫــﻲ ﺛﻤـــﺮﺓ ﺣــﺒﻲ ﻟــﻜﻢ ﻭﻋــﻨﺎﻳــﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟـﺒﺎﺭﻱء ﻋﺰ ﻭﺟﻞ‪.‬‬
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to express my thanks to the thesis supervisor, Professor Doctor of

Geophysics, Nawal Abed Al-Ridha of the Department of Geology, University of
Baghdad.
My thanks go to the chief Geophysist, Mr. Ayad Fadhel Abbas of the

Department of Geophysical studies at the Oil Exploration Company for suggesting
the problem of the research.
My thanks extend to my Colleagues during work namely, Aws Riydh Abd-AL

Jalil from Processing Department, Mr. Kadhim Ghali Salim, Mr. Mohammed
Sadi Fadhel, Mr.Wleed Shaker Tawfiq and Mr. Abdul-Zahra Iskander Salman
from Interpretation Department, Dr. Haithem DawoodAlki, Mr. Aouf Abdul-
Rahman Abdul-Salam, Mr. Hussein Shwayel Aoudeh, Mr. Ali Hamza Hajoj and
Mr. Saffa Sami Helal from Geology Department, Miss Raghad Ibrahem Kredy
from Data Bank Department of the Oil Exploration Company for thier assistance
and support in the computer programming and printing facilities.
Finally, the author wishes to acknowledge the help and support of the Dean
of the college of Science, the Head and the faculty members of the Department of
Geology of the University of Baghdad.
Abstract
Seismic reflection structural study of (250) km² of Balad Oil field located in
central part of Iraq within Salah Al-din province (Balad area) was carried out. The
Balad 3D seismic survey which previously achieved at 1992 is interpreted.
Top Hartha, intra Hartha, top Sadi and top Khasib reflectors were defined by
doing synthetic traces calculated from sonic- logs of the wells (Ba_1), (Ba_4),
(Ba_8) and (Ba_9).
Faults were picked using instantaneous phase attribute of seismic sections and
variance attribute of seismic time slices across 3D seismic volume of the studied
reflectors. A listric growth normal fault is affecting the succession and is cut by
strike slip fault. In addition, minor normal faults (Dendritic and tension) are
developed on the listric normal growth fault and influenced the studied reflectors.
Time, velocity and depth maps are drawn depending on the structural
interpretation of the picked reflectors, and showed a new structural picture.
A major graben was separated by Strike slip fault into two parts (north and south
parts). Its structural picture represents faulted syncline. Another graben appears in
the northeast part. The structural maps also show that Balad field represents an
elongated faulted fold divided into two parts, the first lies on south-east side and
represents Balad field main dome, the other lies in the north-east side of the study
area and represents a horst area. Actually, the two parts represent one structural
fold separated by a strike slip fault. All these structural features trend NW-SE
direction. As a result of this complex structural system, good hydrocarbon
structural traps are formed, which are considered promising.
Additionally, instantaneous phase and variance seismic attributes technique
are used; amplitude extraction, reflection strength and instantaneous frequency are
done to verify and confirm this structural interpretation.
Finally geophysical and geological models are constructed as a resultant of this 3D
seismic interpretation.
TABLE OF CONTENT
Chapter One
Subjects page
Introduction 1
1.1 Location of the study area 2
1.2 Geology of the study area 4
1.2.1 Surface geology 4
1.2.2 Subsurface geology 5
1.3 Regional tectonic and geological history 6
1.4 The Middle-Upper Cretaceous Albian cycles 7
1.4.1 Cenomanian - Early Turonian cycle 8
1.4.2 Coniacian - Early Campanian cycle 9
1.4.3 Campanian - Mastrichtian cycle 9
1.5 Depositional Environments 9
1.5.1 Khasib Formation 9
1.5.2 Sadi Formation 9
1.5.3 Hartha Formation 10
1.6 The hydrocarbon probability 11
1.7 The previous studies of the Balad area 12
1.7.1 The gravity survey 12
1.7.2 The magnetic survey 13
1.7.3 The seismic survey 14
1.8 Previous 3D Seismic Reflection Surveys 19
1.9 The aim of current search 20
Chapter Two
Introduction 21
2.1 Seismic reflection theory 21
2.2 Geometry of reflection prospecting 22
2.3 Acoustic impedance 24
2.4 Reflection coefficient 25
2.5 Seismic velocity 26
2.5.1 Instantaneous velocity (Vinst) 26
2.5.2 Average velocity (Vave) 27
2.5.3 Interval velocity (Vint) 27
2.5.4 Stacking velocity (Vst.) 27
2.5.5 Root-Mean-Square velocity (Vrms) 28
2.6 Basic Concepts in 2D & 3D Surveys 28
2.7 Principles of 3D seismic survey 30
2.7.1 3D seismic survey terms 30
2.7.2 Fold 34
2.7.3 Offset & Azimuth Distributions 35
2.7.4 Binnig & Bin size 36
2.7.5 Land 3D Layouts 37
2.7.5.1 Full fold 3D 37
2.7.5.2 Swath or strip spread 37
2.7.5.3 Orthogonal (cross spread) 37
2.7.5.4 Daerps pool 38
2.7.5.5 Zig-Zag 38
2.8 Factors which affected the amplitude of seismic waves 40
2.9 Principles in processing 41
2.9.1 Fourier transform 41
2.9.2 Resolution 41
2.10 Reflection data processing 42
2.11 Seismic interpretation 52
2.12 Seismic attribute analysis 54
Chapter Three
Introduction 55
3.1 Balad 3D survey 55
3.2 Re-processing 58
3.3 Data base 59
3.4 Workstation description and the used programs 60
3.5 Base map preparation 61
3.6 Generate Synthetic seismograms and reflectors definition 62
Chapter Four
4.1 Seismic reflectors delineation and description 68
4.2 Faults recognition and mapping 71
4.3 Structural pictures of the picked horizons 76
4.3.1 Time maps 76
4.3.2 Velocity maps 81
4.3.3 Depth maps 87
4.4 Seismic attributes 92
4.4.1 Instantaneous frequency attribute 92
4.4.2 Seismic reflection strength attribute 98
4.4.3 RMS amplitude attribute 104
4.5 Structural geophysical and geological model 109
Chapter Five
Conclusions and Recommendations 112
5-1 Conclusions 112
5-2 Recommendation 114
TABLE OF ILLUSTRATION
Figures Page
(1-1a, b) Location maps of the study area. 3

(1-2) Surface geology map of study area, 4
(1-3) Generalized stratigraphic column in Balad and adjacent area. 5
(1-4) Tectonic map of study area. 7
(1-5) The main transversal faults which surrounded Balad field. 8
(1-6) The deposition Environments of studied Formations. 10
(1-7) The distribution of hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Balad field. 11
(1-8) Bouguer gravity map of study area. 12
(1-9) Aeromagnetic map of study area. 13
(1-10) Hartha twt map, after (47 / ‫ ﺵ‬/ A, O.E.C, 1981). 16
(1-11) Hartha depth map, after (19 / J / 18, O.E.C, 1986). 16
(1-12) Intra-Hartha depth map, after (72 / ‫ ﻭ‬/ C, O.E.C, 1989). 17
(1-13) Intra-Hartha depth map, after (73 / ‫ ﻭ‬/ C, O.E.C, 1990). 17
(1-14) Intra-Hartha depth map, after (19 / I / 10, O.E.C, 1997). 18
(1-15) Intra-Hartha depth map, after (19 / J / 28, O.E.C, 2008). 18
(2-1) Diagram of the travel paths of seismic wave propagation through different type of rocks. 21
(2-2) Diagram of the reflection and refraction of incident ray on interference separated between
22
two mediums (V2 > V1).
(2-3) Diagram of the source-receiver distance (offset) in flat reflector case in homogeneous
medium of constant velocity.
22
(2-4) Diagram of the source-receiver distance (offset) in slant reflector case in homogeneous
medium of constant velocity.
23
(2-5) The symmetrical relation between the seismic trace and acoustic impedance and reflection
coefficient logs.
24
(2-6) Steps of the reflection coefficient log derivation. 25
(2-7) Diagram illustrates the deference between 2D & 3D seismic reflection design. 29
(2-8) Diagram illustrates the 3D survey subsurface sampling of fold coverage and the offset
range.
30
(2-9) Diagram illustrates the 3D survey layout terms. 32
(2-10) Diagram illustrates the source lines, receiver lines and Xmin definition. 32
(2-11) Diagram illustrates the 3D survey bin terms. 33
(2-12) Diagram illustrates the 3D survey fold taper. 34
(2-13) Diagram illustrates the Three-zone acquisition model. 34
(2-14) a- illustrated Azimuth distribution (spider diagram), b-Offset distribution (stick diagram). 35
(2-15) Illustrates area of bin dimensions. 36
(2-16) Diagram of the full fold 3D survey. 38
(2-17) Diagram of the swath or strip spread. 39
(2-18) Diagram of the crossed spread types in 3D survey (a) X- type spread (b) L- type spread
(c) T- type spread.
39
(2-19) Diagram of the daerps pool spread. 39
(2-20) Diagram of the zigzag. 39
(2-21) Diagram of the factors which affected the amplitude of seismic waves. 40
(2-22) Comparison of zero-phase and minimum phase wavelet. 42
(2-23) The static correction method and datuming process. 43
(2-24) Seismic migration moves events from their recorded position to true subsurface position. 45
(2-25) Seismic migration, the reflection from point A will be recorded by a coincident source
and receiver at location B.
46
(2-26) Reflection from both points B & C will be recorded at the point A with approximately
have the same travel time out.
46
(2-27) Comparison of CMP gathers at original trace spacing and after shot record interpolation. 47
(2-28) Gather showing primary multiple events and the difference after illustrating move-out. 48
(2-29) Explain of mutes applied during stacking. 49
(2-30) The complex seismic trace and seismic attributes;(a) the space shape of the complex
seismic trace (b) actual seismic trace projection( seismic trace), (c) imaginary trace 54
projection (d) instantaneous phase (e) instantaneous frequency.
(3-1) Diagram illustrates the execution map of 3D survey for Balad area. 57
(3-2) A, shows the original poststack data and B, shows the poststack data after reprocessed
data by ExxonMobil corporation.
58
(3-3) Seismic time slice showing example of data limitations for 3D for Balad survey. 59
(3-4) The main windows of interactive interpretation work station (Geoframe system). 60
(3-5) Illustrates a base map of a study area, (3D Balad survey). 61
(3-6a) Illustrates the seismic sections seismogram of Balad_1 well. 63
(3-6b) Illustrates the seismic sections seismogram of Balad_4 well. 64
(36-c) Illustrates the seismic sections seismogram of Balad_8 well. 65
(36-d) Illustrates the seismic sections seismogram of Balad_9 well. 66
(3-7) Traverse seismic sections illustrate the correlation between wells synthetic trace. 67
(4-1) Picking maps of studied reflectors in all study area (Balad 3D survey). 69
(4-2) Inline section pass through Ba_1 shows general specifications of seismic reflectors. 70
(4-3a) Inline seismic section with instantaneous phase attributes shows the picked faults in the
north part of study area.
72
(4-3b) Inline seismic section with instantaneous phase attributes shows the picked faults in the
south part of study area.
72
(4-4a) Time slice at 1400 ms represents time of Top Khasib reflector without faults
interpretation.
73
(4-4b) Time slice at 1400 ms represents time of Top Khasib reflector with faults interpretation. 73
(4-5) Cross-line seismic section pass in the south graben area illustrates on lap stratigraphy
feature and the variable of the interval time of Hartha and Sadi to south of study area 75
comparing with the fixed interval time of Khasib reflector.
(4-6) Block diagram model illustrated the geometry of faults system in the study area. 75
(4-7) Top Hartha TWT map. 77
(4-8) Intra Hartha TWT map. 78
(4-9) Top Sadi TWT map. 79
(4-10) Top Khasib TWT map. 80
(4-11) The 2D seismic lines paths that used to compute the stack velocities in study area. 82
(4-12) Top Hartha velocity map. 83
(4-13) Intra Hartha velocity map. 84
(4-14) Top Sadi velocity map. 85
(4-15) Top Khasib velocity map. 86
(4-16) Top Hartha depth map. 88
(4-17) Intra Hartha depth map. 89
(4-18) Top Sadi depth map. 90
(4-19) Top Khasib depth map. 91
(4-20) Crossline seismic section shows the variation in instantaneous frequency of studied
reflectors.
92
(4-21) Hartha frequency map. 95
(4-22) Sadi frequency map. 96
(4-23) Khasib frequency map. 97
(4-24) Crossline seismic section shows the variation in reflection strength of studied reflectors. 98
(4-25) Intra Hartha reflection strength map. 101
(4-26) Sadi reflection strength map. 102
(4-27) Khasib reflection strength map. 103
(4-28) Intra Hartha RMS amplitude map. 106
(4-29) Sadi RMS amplitude map. 107
(4-30) Khasib RMS amplitude map. 108
(4-31) The structural seismic model (3D Balad survey). 110
(4-32) The structural geology model (3D Balad survey). 111
(5-1) Color areas which represent the interesting points of recommendation. 115
Chapter one Introduction
Introduction
The geophysical research history of hydrocarbon accumulations returns to the

beginning of the twentieth century using the method of seismic reflection
exploration. Among geophysical techniques, seismic reflection method became
the most widely used in hydrocarbon investigation. The importance of this
method in hydrocarbon exploration is due to different factors, the current state of
sophistication of the technique is largely a result of the enormous investment in its
development made by the hydrocarbon industry, coupled with the development of
advanced electronic and computing technology. Seismic sections can now be
produced to reveal details of geological structures on scales from the top ten of
kilometers of drift to the whole lithosphere (Expedited Site Characterization
(ESC), 2001).
The role of seismic reflection gives more direct and detailed picture of the
subsurface geological structures. It gives seismic sections, time and velocity
contour maps to determine a structural trap, as well as, seismic stratigraphy and
seismic facies. The structure of subsurface formation is mapped by measuring the
variation in the reflection times form one place to another on the surface.
Depth to reflecting interface can be determined from the times using velocity
information that can be obtained from reflected signals or from surveys in
available wells (Dobrin, 1976). A seismic wave, generated in the earth by a near
surface explosion of dynamite, mechanical impact, or vibration, to return to the
surface after reflection from interfaces between formations having different
physical properties. This information could be used to determine the internal
stratigraphic geometry interpretation in terms of environmental deposition
paleogeography and analysis of sedimentary basin (Berg, 1982).
The seismic reflection exploration method passed through numerous
development stages from mid last century to the present time including the field
survey, data processing & interpretation. The recording developed from analog to
a digital, multiple coverage appeared and used digital recording which helped to
expand the role of electronic computers in seismic workshop, a Common Depth
Point (CDP) technique is also used (Yilmaz, 1987). In the middle of seventies
seismic stratigraphy studies appeared. The beginning of the eighties three
dimensional surveys were performed in seismic exploration. Basically, most of
conventional surveys are reconnaissance, while the 3D survey is carried out to
estimate the hydrocarbon accumulations and development of the fields. 3D survey
1
gives huge amount of the seismic data which permit a better interpretation and
gives detailed picture to the subsurface geology (Yilmaz, 2001).
The interpretation of the 3D seismic survey data can give:
1- Accurate determination of the minor geological structures, recognize thin
horizon, minor faults, details of the horizontal and vertical variation also
the facial relations of the subsurface strata. This due to dense distribution of
the common-depth-points and a very high S/N ratio.
2- The carefully processing and interpretation of subsurface geology without
using an interpolation will give more enhanced figure, (Al-Sadi, 1992).
1.1 Location of the study area

The Balad oil field is located in the middle of Iraq along the Tigris River within
Salah Al-din province approximately (60-70Km) to the north of Baghdad as
shown in the figure (1-1). It lies within the universal transverse marketer (U.T.M)
coordinates given in table (1-1).
Table (1-1) coordinates of the study area.
point Northern (m) Eastern (m)

A 3769110 410467
B 3767759 420095
C 3765603 421903
D 3762421 418012
E 3752029 426230
F 3746029 418631
G 3761862 406160
H 3763981 408918
I 3766354 406987
2
Chapter one
3
Introduction
Figure (1-1a, b) location maps of the study area.

1.2 Geology of the study area

1.2.1 Surface geology
According to Iraq geological map, issued by the State Establishment of
Geological Survey and Mining in 1990, the study area is flat land with some
simple uplands which range from (48-58m). The elevation of the study area
increases towards the north-east. The study area is characterized by the
agricultural regions where it has many orchards, irrigation projects, marshes and
swamps, as well as the presence of residential areas, civilian and military
establishments.
The study area is covered by recent and Pleistocene sediments represented by
alluvial deposits and river terraces as shown in the figure (1-2). Generally the
lithology of these formations consist of silt and clay deposits with presence of
sand and gravel (Abdul-Rhaman, 1997).
Figure (1-2) shows surface geology map of the study area and surroundings, after (the State
Establishment of Geological Survey and mining in 1990).
4
1.2.2 Subsurface geology

Balad field is one of the Iraqi oil fields where 9 oil wells were drilled
according to two dimensional seismic surveys. Figure 1-3 shows the generalized
stratigraphic column of the Balad oil field and adjacent area (JAPEX Company,
2006).
In general the formations of the following ages Pliocene till late Jurassic are
characterized by increased thickness towards the east of the region and towards
the Mesopotamia foredeep, while the thickness of older formations (late Jurassic
to the early Triassic) are decreasing towards the northwest part of the region.
Structurally Balad field is divided into two sectors:
• The first sector is located within major graben area, which includes the
wells Ba-1, 3, 4 and 8.
• The second sector is located outside the major graben area (east shoulder,
which includes the wells Ba-2, 5, 6, 7 and 9.
Figure (1-3) generalized stratigraphic column in Balad and adjacent area, after (JAPEX
Company, 2006).
5
1.3 Regional tectonics and geological history

According to divisions of Iraq tectonic map, issued by the State
Establishment of Geological Survey and Mining in 1996 (figure 1-4), Iraq was
divided into three tectonic provinces which trend northwest to southeast, parallel
to the suture between the Eurasian plate and the Arabian plate. These provinces
are the thrust region (Geosynclines), the Mesozoic unstable Shelf (Mesopotamian
foredeep) and Mesozoic Stable Shelf. The map shows that the study area is flat
and there aren't any structural features appear on the surface (Ohan, 1990).
Jassim, et al, 2006, states that Balad field is located on the slope of the near
platform flank of the Mesopotamian basin .It is limited by central faulted zone
from northeast and by the slope of the Afro-Arabian platform from the southwest.
Figure 1-5 shows that Balad field lies in the belt of the Tigris River within the
area of the mobile shelf, and is confined between the two main transversal faults,
the first one is Sirwan transversal fault in the south and the second is Amij-
Samarra transversal fault in the north of Samarra.
Historically, the area was influenced by extension deformations and tectonic

tension over the Arabian plate during Permian/Triassic-Lower Cretaceous,
resulted in fractures and dislocation in the basement rocks, after that, differential
gravitation force occurred during the Triassic – Cretaceous ages caused the
emergence of deep normal faults. Consequently, the normal faults extend north-
south and northwest-southeast trends, the strike slip faults extend east-west and
northwest-southeast trends (Aqrawi et al., 2010).
The separation of Arabian Plate from the African continent in the Oligocene
caused rotational motion of Arabian plate toward the north and north-east. This
led to collision between the Arabian plate with the Eurasian plate from north and
north-east, as a result the forces of compression which effected on the Arabian
Plate, led to compress the Mesopotamia basin. As a result the axis of Balad field
which lies close to the foot hills, shifted parallel trend to elongate axis of Zagros
Mountains (northwest and southeast) directions, also emergence of a dip and
strike directions secondary tension faults (Shaker,1993).
6
Figure (1-4) Tectonic map of study area, after (the State Establishment of Geological
Survey and mining, 1996).
7
Figure (1-5) the main transversal faults which surrounded Balad field, Sirwan and Amij –
Samarra transversal faults, after (Jassim, et al, 2006).
1.4 The Middle-Upper Cretaceous Albian cycles

1.4.1 Cenomanian - Early Turonian cycle
The Cenomanian – Turonian cycle represents the beginning of high
transgressive system tract and comprises the Ahmadi, the Mishrif/Rumaila and
Kifl Formations. The tectonics of Arabian plate was changed, during the Turonian
obduction which occurred along the northeastern to eastern outer continental
margin. The relative influence of tectonism and eustace caused relative changes in
sea level that made the architecture heterogeneity of depositional sequences. Wide
spread uplift and erosion were occurred but soon resumed carbonate
sedimentation. The mid Turonian is an erosional period; the upper part of
Turonian of sequence was widely removed from Arabian plate (Sharland, et al,
2001).
8
1.4.2 Coniacian - Early Campanian cycle

The Coniacian - Early Campanian section comprises the Khasib, Tanuma and
Sadi Formations in ascending order, in most parts of Iraq. Middle shelf is the
main depositional environment for the whole sequence of the Khasib, Tanuma,
and Sadi Formations. However influence of the outer shelf and inner shelf are
well preserved in different time intervals (Sadooni & Aqrawi, 2000).
1.4.3 Campanian - Mastrichtian cycle

The Campanian to Mastrichtian section comprises the Hartha Formation and
the Shiranish Formation in southern and central Iraq. This sedimentary cycle
began with a major marine transgression, and ended with tectonic uplift and
marine regression, where the beginning of the continental collision to the east and
folding of Zagros Mountains caused a down warp of the Balad area. Water depth
increased rapidly between Hartha 300 marker and Shiranish (Sharland, et al,
2001). The sediments above the Hartha 300 marker parasequences were not
exposed and therefore not affected by meteoric diagnosis; thus, reservoir-grade
porosity was not developed (ExxonMobil Company, 2008).
1.5 deposition Environments

1.5.1 Khasib Formation
The Khasib Formation consists of limestone (Biomicrite) creamy white-light
gray slightly hard, marly, locally porous, slightly vuggy towards bottom (with
weak oil staining), pyritic, with incipient dolomitization decreasing downwards
(Northern Petroleum organization, 1985).It represents deposits open marine
environment and dominates the transgressive system tract (TST) which covered
the previous sequence boundary (Chatton and Hart, 1961).
1.5.2 Sadi Formation

The Sadi Formation consists of limestone (Biospary micrite) white beige-
light gray brown, hard, dense, recrystallized, slightly argillaceous, locally chalky,
dolomitic in places, rarely stylolitic, pyritic, with common calcite/bitumen filling
veins, with shaly limestone (at places) light gray-gray, brown. The Traces of
bitumen at top parts (2115 – 2167m RTKB), fine grained, flaky (Northern
Petroleum organization, 1985). It represents deposits of open marine environment
(Chatton and Hart, 1961).
9
1.5.3 Hartha Formation

The interval from (1674 – 1911m RTKB) consists of intercalation of chalky
limestone (Biospary micrite) white–whitish grey, soft, semi-plastic, finely
grained, pyritic, and limestone (spary micrite) light gray-gray yellowish grey,
medium hard-hard, recrystallized/locally dolomitize, argillaceous in part. It
represents deposits of open marine environment.
The interval from (1911 - 2110m RTKB*) consists of limestone (Biospary
micrite) light brown-brown, grayish brown, medium hard, recrystallized/locally
dolomitize, slightly argillaceous (shaly), pyritic, rarely stylolitic, slightly porous-
porous impregnated with heavy oil with rare shelky limestone (spary micrite)
light brown, soft, finely grained, pyritic at places. The sediments of the upper
Hartha recorded a transition from shallow marine to deep inner shelf
environments (figure 1-6) (Northern Petroleum organization, 1985).
Figure (1-6) the deposition Environments of studied formations, after (sharland, 2001).
*RTKB: is Rotary Table Kelly Bush.
10
1.6 The hydrocarbon probability

The results of drilling, logs and laboratory tests proved the presence of gas in
the Hartha reservoir in the well Ba-3 which is located North West of study area
within the graben sector, also, gas was noted in the wells Ba-2, 6 and 7 which lies
south-east of study area within larger and wide Dom lies outside major graben
sector (east shoulder). (Figure 1-7) shows valuable oil was found in the Hartha
reservoir of all sectors of the field. The reservoirs Sadi and Khasib have presence
of oil in the south-east of study area in the wells Ba-2, 5, 6, 7 and 9 within wide
Dom, also oil is found in the reservoir Sadi in a well Ba-4 which drilled in the
south part of study area within graben sector. A little of oil with weak flow was
found in Ratawi, Chiagara and Najmah Formations, also produced Heavy oil from
the Rumaila and Moudud Formations in well Ba-3 in the Balad field as presented
by ExxonMobil oil Company (2008).
Figure (1-7) the distribution of hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Balad field as presented by
ExxonMobil oil Company (2008).
11
1.7 The Previous studies of Balad area

1.7.1 The gravity survey
The gravity survey was carried out in the area in the1950s. The Bouguer
gravity map by the General Company of Geological Survey and Mining (1994)
shows decreasing of gravity values in NE direction of Iraq. This gradient in
gravity values is associated with thick Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary rocks
up to 8000m thick. Bouguer values are indicative of basement rocks depth, this
means that the depth of Basement rocks increase to the NE trend. Also the map
shows the presence of anomaly as a nose about (-45 miligal) in the north-west
part of the study area (figure 1-8). This anomaly may be due to difference in rock
densities and topography of basement rocks (Ohan, 1990).
Figure (1-8) Bouguer gravity map of study area and surroundings, after (general company
of geological survey and mining 1994).
12
1.7.2 The magnetic survey

In 1974, the French Company (CGG) carried out an aeromagnetic survey for Iraq.
The aeromagnetic survey map shows presence of positive magnetic anomaly
extends E-W and is located in the south part of the area; also study area is
surrounded by many probable faults extending along E-W, NE-SW and NW-SE
trends. Also the map indicates that depth of basement rocks in the study area
ranges from (11-12) Km. (figure 1-9) (Ohan, 1990).
Figure (1-9) Aeromagnetic map of study area, after (CGG company, 1974).
13
1.7.3 The seismic surveys

1. In (1974-1975), the reconnaissance of two dimensional seismic surveys,
Samraa-Thrthar was carried out by the Iraqi seismic party no. 4. The seismic
lines are indicated by the symbol (ST) (Ohan, 1990).
2. In (1979-1981), the detailed two dimensional seismic surveys, Baghdad-Fetaha'

were carried out by the Iraqi seismic party no. 6. The seismic lines are
indicated by the symbol (BF). Four reflectors (Fetaha', Hartha, Shuaiba, and
Gotnia) were recognized. The study showed that the Balad structure at Hartha
reflector appears as a nose (Monocline) extending with NW-SE trend (figure 1-
10) (Quality Control Section, 1981).
3. In1981, the detailed two dimensional seismic surveys, Balad-Dijail were

carried out by the Iraqi seismic party no. 6. The seismic lines are indicated by
the symbol (BD) .Three reflectors (Hartha, Shuaiba, and Gotnia) are
recognized. The study shows that the Balad structure at Hartha reflector is an
anticline (faulted trap) located southeast of study area where the Ba-2 well was
drilled. Also a nose (faulted trap) located northwest of an Anticline and has
same axis extending in NW-SE trend. Presences of two main grabens contain
structural nose (faulted trap) where Ba-1 well was drilled (figure 1-11)
(Estimation Studies Department, 1986).
4. In1986, the detailed two dimensional seismic surveys, Balad-Dijail were

carried out by the Iraqi seismic party no. 10, and completed in 1987 by the Iraqi
seismic party no.11. The seismic lines are indicated by the symbol (BD). Five
reflectors (top-Hartha, intra-Hartha, Khasib, Shuaiba, and Gotnia) were
recognized. The study showed that the Balad structure at Hartha reflector is an
anticline (faulted trap) located southeast of study area where the Ba-2 well was
drilled. Presence of main graben contains of small structural faulted traps on
both sides, where the Ba-1and 4wells were drilled (figure 1-12). All these
structural features extending in NW-SE trend. The north part of study area
wasn’t mapped because of bad quality (Ohan, 1989).
5. In 1990, reinterpretation of previous seismic data was carried out, and Balad
structure at intra-Hartha reflector is an anticline (faulted traps) located
southeast of study area where the Ba-2, 5, 6 and 7 wells were drilled. Also two
small closures (faulted traps) located northwest of an Anticline, separated by
two saddles where Ba-3well was drilled in the second saddles. Presence of
main graben consists of small structural faulted traps on both sides of graben,
where the Ba-1, 4and 8 wells were drilled (figure 1-13). All these structural
features extending in NW-SE trend (Ohan, 1990).
14
6. The Halliburton Corporation and Iraqi third seismic crew executed three-
dimensional survey in the Balad area (1990-1992). Interpretation of the data of
four reflectors (intra-Hartha, Tanuma, Khasib and Kifl) were picked. They
show that the Balad structure at intra-Hartha reflector is an anticline (faulted
traps) located in the southeast of the study area where the Ba-2, 5, 6, 7 and 9
wells were drilled. Also multi small faulted traps located north of an Anticline.
Two main grabens contain of multi small faulted closures on both sides where
the Ba-1, 3, 4, 8 wells were drilled (figure 1-14). Depending on this map the,
Balad field was divided to the following hydrocarbon sectors:
• Af and Bf sectors which locate in east shoulder.
• Cg, Dg and Eg which locate in grabens.
All these structural features are extending in NW-SE trend (Abdul-Rhaman,
1997).
7. In 2008, Exxon-Mobil made some enhancement of quality of 3D seismic

volume and prepared reinterpretation study of the Balad Field. Five reflectors
(intra-Hartha, sadi, Tanuma, Khasib and Kifl) were picked, they show that the
Balad structure at intra-Hartha reflector is an anticline (faulted traps) located
southeast of study area where the Ba-2, 5, 6, 7 and 9 wells were drilled.
Another Anticline (faulted traps) located to the north of Balad field and
separated by saddle. Presence of two main grabens where the Ba-1, 3, 4and 8
wells were drilled (figure 1-15). All these structural features extending in NW-
SE trend (Exxon-Mobil Company, 2008).
15
Figure (1-10) Hartha twt map relative to S.L., after (Quality Control Section, 1981).
Figure (1-11) Hartha depth map relative to S.L., after (Estimation Studies Department, 1986).
16
Figure (1-12) intra-Hartha depth ma relative to S.L.p, after (Ohan, 1989).
Figure (1-13) intra-Hartha depth map relative to S.L., after (Ohan, 1990).
17
Figure (1-14) intra-Hartha depth map relative to S.L., after (Abdul-Rhaman, 1997).
Figure (1-15) intra-Hartha depth map relative to S.L., after (Exxon-Mobile Company, 2008).
18
1.8 Historical review of 3D Seismic Reflection Surveys

The first 3D seismic survey that appears in the literature was reported by
Corsmit et al. (1988). Their small-scale survey was conducted on a tidal flat in the
Netherlands; covering an area of 22 m × 36 m. Four-fold data were acquired with
a bin size of 1 m × 1m.
Green et al. (1995) and Lanz et al. (1996) compared 2D and 3D seismic
surveys over glacial sediments at a landfill site in Switzerland. 2D data were
collected with a CMP interval of 1.25 m, while the 3D acquisition yielded 2.5 ×
2.5m bins. Although the 2D data densely sampled the subsurface, the complex
geology at the site resulted in data contaminated by out of plane reflections and
diffractions. The authors determined that 3D data were necessary to properly
image shallow reflectors and delineate their geometries as 3D data allowed for the
migration and proper positioning of out of plane and scattered energy.
House et al. (1996) describe the results of a 3D survey collected in Haddam,
Connecticut. Although they were successful in identifying the bedrock surface
using seismic methods, much of the data were unusable because of low fold,
offset and Azimuthal sampling variations across the survey area.
Barnes and Mereu (1996) reported a 3D seismic survey acquired near
London, Ontario, over unconsolidated glaciolacustrine and till sediments
overlying bedrock at 70 m deep, coarse sampling (3 m x 6 m bin size) led to
shallow reflector images that were less favorable than their 2D. The 3D seismic
surveys conducted to this point suffered from low fold, poor offset or azimuth
distributions, relatively large bin sizes (coarse gridding), or a combination of
several of the listed factors, resulting in poor imaging of shallow reflectors.
Büker et al., (2000) report a comprehensive, high-resolution 3D seismic
survey located in the Suhre Valley, Switzerland. The authors showed that dense
sampling (bin sizes of 1.5 m x 1.5 m) and a relatively high population of near
offset traces (at least 6 traces within 20 meters in this case) in each bin were
necessary to accurately image the shallowest reflector, ranging from 15–40 meters
in depth. In short, the authors showed that high fold data with well sampled
offset/azimuth distributions and multiple near offset traces in each bin are
necessary when considering the application of 3D seismic reflection methods to
the shallow subsurface.
In Iraq, few papers were published such as Sadi's papers (1992-1996) and
the Oil Exploration Company reports on 3D survey of the Balad and Kifl areas.
The 3D Kifl survey was carried out by the Iraqi seismic party no. 3 in 1993. The
zigzag pattern of source points with deviation of (45) degree relative to receiver
lines is selected for field execution because it provide homogenous coverage of
the depth points with fold 3000%.
19
Awaina (1996) used the 3D seismic reflection data for Kifl oil field to study the
Zubair Formation and how the oil is trapped in it.
Fadhil (2010) used the 3D seismic reflection data for Kifl oil field to study the
seismic stratigraphy of the lower Cretaceous Formations.
1.9 Aim of the study

In general, Balad field is one of the complex subsurface structures. Several
seismic interpretations studies were achieved but they didn’t deal and produce
persuasive picture of subsurface traps.
The aim of this research is to apply a new software interpretation system
(Geoframe) to reinterpret a (3D) seismic data available in Oil Exploration
Company for surveys carried out in Balad Oil field to depict the following:
1- Detailed structural oil traps in Balad field in time and depth domains for the
following formations: Hartha, Sadi & Khasib reservoirs.
2- Study the seismic attributes of the studied reflectors like instantaneous phase
and variance attributes to get persuasive picture of subsurface structural traps,
also amplitude and frequency attributes to predict the hydrocarbon
accumulations.
20
Chapter two Theoretical background
Introduction
The seismic method is rather simple in concept. An energy source is used to
produce seismic waves (similar to sound) that travel through the earth to detectors
of motion, on land, or pressure, at sea. The detectors convert the motion or
pressure variations to electricity that is recorded by electronic instruments
(Parasnis, 1979).
There are two paths between source and receiver of a particular interest,
reflection and refraction. In figure (2-1) layers 1 and 2 differ in rock type, in the
rate at which seismic waves travel velocity, and density. When the seismic waves
encounter the boundary between layers 1 and 2 some of the energy is reflected
back to the surface in layer 1 and some is transmitted into layer 2. If the seismic
velocity of layer 2 is faster than in layer 1, there will be an angle at which the
transmitted seismic wave is bent or refracted to travel along the boundary between
layers, as shown in these two path types are the bases of seismic reflection and
refraction surveys (Mamdouh and Fisher, 2009).
Figure (2.1) diagram of the travel paths of seismic wave propagation through different type of
rocks after (Mamdouh and Fisher, 2009).
2.1 Seismic reflection theory

Seismic reflection theory states that the angle at which a ray is reflected is
equal to the angle of incidence (figure 2-2). Both the angle of incidence and the
angle of reflection are measured from the normal to the boundary between two
layers having different seismic impedances (Sheriff, 1976).
θi = θr . … … . (2 − 1)
Where: θi: is incident angle.
θr: is reflected angle.
21
Figure (2.2) diagram of the reflection and refraction of incident ray on interference separated
between two mediums (V2 > V1) after (Mamdouh and Fisher, 2009).
2.2 Geometry of reflection prospecting

The essence of seismic reflection technique is to measure the time taken for a
seismic wave to travel from a source (at a known location near the surface) down
into the ground where it is reflected back to the surface and then detected at a
receiver which is also near the surface at a known position. This time is known as
Two- Way-Travel time (Milson, 2003).
The simplest cases of transmission of seismic waves are the case of
propagation in the homogeneous medium of a constant velocity (figure 2-3). The
surface distance between source point and receiver point is called offset distance
(Dobrin, 1960). The travel time of the reflections for different offset between
source and receiver is calculated using:
Figure (2-3) diagram of the source-receiver distance (offset) in flat reflector case in
homogeneous medium of constant velocity after (Dobrin, 1960).
22
2 h 2 + x/2 2
t= … … . (2 − 2)
V
v 2t2 x 2
–
h= … … . (2 − 3)
2
When x = 0
2h
𝑡0 = ……. 2 − 4 Where:
2
X: represents the separating distance between source and receiver points.
h: represent depth of the reflector.
v: represents the seismic wave velocity above the reflector surface.
𝑡0 : represents normal two way time (path time in the normal reflection case, where
source-receiver points in the same location, and is called zero offset time or
two-way-time (TWT)).
The time difference between travel time at finite offset and zero offset time (𝑡0 ) is
called normal move-out time (NMO), and according 𝑡0 (Robinson and Treitel,
1983), it is calculated as following:
t² = 𝑡0 ² + (x /v)² … … (2 − 5)
The other case is the reflector has a dip beneath the overburden of uniform velocity
(Lowrie, 2007). Then it can be shown that:
t = 𝑡0 ² + x² cos²α /v² … … (2 − 6) Where:

α: represents the component of the reflector dip angle.
Thus, the (NMO) has the same as horizontal layer case, but the apparent velocity is
v/cosαα(figure 2-4).
Figure (2-4) diagram of the source-receiver distance (offset) in slant reflector case in
homogeneous medium of constant velocity (Dobrin, 1960).
23
2.3 Acoustic impedance

The acoustic impedance expresses properties of the sound waves
(compression) which pass through material and lead to granules movement and
give it a certain velocity (AL-Sadi, 1982).
The relative sizes of the transmitted and reflected amplitudes depend on the
contrast in acoustic impedances of the rocks on each side of the interface. While it
is difficult to precisely relate acoustic impedance to actual rock properties, the
acoustic impedance of a rock is determined by multiplying its density by its P-
wave velocity. Acoustic impedance is generally designated as Z.
Z=ρ×V …………… 2 − 7
Consider a P-wave of amplitude A0 that is normally incident on an interface

between two layers having seismic impedances (product of velocity and density) of
Z1 and Z2 (figure 2-5). The result is a transmitted ray of amplitude A2 that travels
on through the interface in the same direction as the incident ray, and a reflected
ray of amplitude A1 that returns to the surface along the path of the incident ray
(Kleyn, 1983), (Dobrin & Savit, 1988).
Figure (2-5) the symmetrical relation between the seismic trace and acoustic impedance and
reflection coefficient logs, after (AL-Sadi, 1982).
24
2.4 Reflection coefficient

The ratio between reflected energy to incident energy is representing reflection
coefficient (Kleyn, 1983), the successive reflection coefficients on the surfaces
separating between layers (interfaces) are called the reflectivity function or
reflection coefficient log. This log is derived from acoustic impedance log as
shown in figure (2-6). The reflectivity function is earth property represents the
geological information we are looking for (Lindseth, R., 1979).
Figure (2-6) the steps of the reflection coefficient log derivation, after (Lindseth, R., 1979).
Ar 𝑍2 − 𝑍1 … … . (2 − 8)
𝑅𝑐 =
Ai
= 𝑍2 + 𝑍1
𝑉2× ρ 2 − (𝑉1× ρ 1) … … . (2 − 9)
Rc =
𝑉2× ρ 2 + (𝑉1× ρ 1)
Where:
Rc: is reflection coefficient.
Ai: is consequent amplitude of the incident energy.
Ar: is consequent amplitude of the reflected energy.
When velocity is constant, a density contrast will cause a reflection and vice
versa. In other words, any abrupt change in acoustic impedance causes a reflection
to occur, and energy not reflected is transmitted. With a large R, less transmission
occurs, and hence signal-to-noise ratio reduces below such an interface (Lindseth,
R., 1979).
25
2.5 Seismic velocity

Seismic velocities are considered the main factor and most important in
seismic surveys of the three stages (field survey, processing and interpretations) to
achieve the best quality of seismic data (Anstey, 1976).
In the seismic exploration, velocities are collected based on the following methods:
1. Well measurements which include well logging, well velocity survey and
vertical seismic profile (VSP).
2. Velocity analysis during processing stage.
3. Laboratory measurements.
4. Seismic refraction method.
The seismic wave's velocities affected by the physical properties of rock layers
beneath the surface (McQuilline et al., 1984) (Kearey et al, 2002) which are:
• Petrophysics property of rocks (lithology, density, porosity, pores size and
shape, fluids content, minerals content and saturation).
• Compaction and tectonic movements.
• Depth of subsurface rocks and age of rocks.
• Cracks and joints.
• Anisotropy.
• Pressure & Temperature.
Because of the change in the tilt of seismic wave path proportional to the
surfaces of geological layers and the number of these surfaces that enter in the
seismic velocities calculation, there are different types of seismic velocities, some
with accurate values and some are approximate (Dobrin, 1976; Yilmaz, 1987).
2.5.1 Instantaneous velocity (Vinst)

It represents the velocity of the wave front at a certain point toward the seismic
wave propagation that is perpendicular to the wave front in isotropic media. Also
express as an interfaces velocity of chip has thickness (dz) close to zero.
Mathematically expressed by:
𝑑𝑧
Vinst = 𝑑𝑡 … … . (2 − 10)
𝑑𝑧
Where: : represent differential of the depth with time (Dobrin, 1976).
𝑑𝑡
26
2.5.2 Average velocity (Vave)

It represents the real average velocity of real reference level to a certain point
below the surface (Dobrin, 1976), mathematically expressed by:
n
𝑍𝑘 n
𝑉𝑘 𝑡𝑘 𝑍 (𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 )
Vave =
1
= =
1
… … . (2 − 11)
1 𝑡𝑘 1 𝑡𝑘 𝑇(𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 )
n n
Where:
Z:: ppppsssnnts thickness of layer.
t𝑘: represents interval time of layer .
V𝑘: represents interval velocityof layer .
Z: represents total depth.
T: represents total time.
2.5.3 Interval velocity (Vint)

It represents the real velocity between two certain points, and equal to the distance
between two points (thickness) divided by the time between them (interval-time).
Mathematically expressed by:
𝑧 2−𝑧 1 Δz
Vint = = … … . (2 − 12)
𝑡 2−𝑡 1 Δt
Where:
Z1, t1: represents vertical depth & time at first point.
Z2, t2: represents vertical depth & time at second point.
Δz: represents thickness between two points.
Δt: represents the time deference between two points.
2.5.4 Stacking velocity (Vst.)

Stacking velocity (horizontal gathering) based on the following relationship:
X²
T²x = T²o + … … . (2 − 13)
V²st
Where:
Τx: represents time at the point (x).
Τo: represents vertical TWT.

X: represents distance between energy source & receiver.
27
vst: represents the adopted velocity for the dynamic correction to make stacking.
Approximately, it's large of the Root-Mean-Square velocity (Vrms) or occasionally,
equal (McQuilline et al., 1984).
2.5.5 Root-Mean-Square velocity (Vrms)

It's the square root of the average squared velocity. Mathematically, it's expressed
by the following equation:
½
𝑉1 𝑡 11 + 𝑉2² 𝑡 2² + …+𝑉 n² 𝑡 n
² n
𝑉 𝑡𝑘 ²
Vrms, n = [
𝑡 1+ 𝑡 2+ …+ 𝑡 n
]
½
[
=
1
n
1
𝑘
𝑡𝑘
] … . . (2 − 14)
Where:
𝑉𝑘 𝑡𝑘: represent velocity & time of certain layer in case, the presence of horizontal
and parallel layers (Dobrin, 1976).
2.6 Basic Concepts in 2D & 3D Surveys

Subsurface geological features of interest in hydrocarbon exploration are three
dimensional in nature. A 2D seismic section is a cross-section of 3D seismic
response. And despite the fact that 2D seismic section contains signal from all
directions, including out of plane of the profile, 2D migration normally assumes
that all signal comes from the plane of the profile itself. Although out of plane
reflections (side-sweeps) are often recognizable by the experienced seismic
interpreter, the out of plane signal sometimes causes 2D migrated section to mistie.
These misties are due to inadequate imaging of the subsurface resulting from
the use of 2D rather than 3D migration. On the other hand, 3D migration of 3D
data provides adequate and detailed 3D image of the subsurface, leading to a more
reliable interpretation (Yilmaz, 1987).
In 2D survey, the spread consists of straight line of shots and receiver points,
while in 3D survey; the spread consists of areal distribution of receiver and shot
points (figure 2-7). Each shot point has several common depth points distributed on
area of reflector (AL-Sadi, 1992). The source interval of 2D survey must be
extended to include a definition of the source line. For 3D surveys, source line
must be defined, since for most common designs, the source line is orthogonal to
the receiver lines (Walton, 1972). The receiver lines become straight, as many
28
receiver lines are laid out as the equipment for acquisition allows. Also, the
receiver lines, layout may not be straight lines but circles, checkerboards and other
patterns developed for 3D surveys. Thus the simple parameters that defined the
traditional 2D line now must be extended to include more geometry (Bones and
Herkenhoff , 2006).
In 2D survey designs, centers of the subsurface coverage in the form of

common-depth points (CDP). For 3D surveys, the CDP is termed a bin
(figure 2-8); these bins may be square or rectangular and define the spatial
resolution of the data sampling. Subsurface sampling will be, as with the CDP, half
the surface size. The accent of 2D lines is on the fold of coverage and the offset
range. For 3D survey the fold may less, but the azimuth range is added to the offset
range as a parameter. If structure is complex, then good azimuths range becomes
more important. Where structure is complex the velocity analysis must include an
Azimuthal property (Yilmaz, 1987).
In 3D survey, using the computers are necessary to design the preplanning,

because of the multiple source and receiver lines, the difficulty of computing, fold
coverage, azimuthally distribution, and offset ranges in the bins. Interpretations are
usually conducted on workstations for 2D & 3D (Gerhardstein & Brown, 1984),
(Kiran, 2005).
Figure (2-7) diagram illustrates the deference between 2D & 3D seismic reflection design
after (Sheriff, 1980).
29
Figure (2-8) diagram illustrates the 3D survey subsurface sampling of fold coverage and the
offset range after (Kiran, 2005).
2.7 Principles of 3D seismic survey

2.7.1 3D seismic survey terms
 Box (Unit Cell)
This term applies to the area bounded by two adjacent source lines and two
adjacent receiver lines. The box usually represents the smallest area of a 3D survey
that contains the entire survey statistics. In an orthogonal survey, the midpoint bin
located at the exact center of the box has contributions from many source-receiver
pairs (figure 2-9). The shortest offset trace belonging to that bin has the largest
minimum offset of the entire survey (Cordsen et al., 2000), (Dennis and Fred,
2006).
 Receiver Line
The line along receivers which laid out at regular intervals (figure 2-9). The in-line
separation of receiver stations (receiver interval, RI) is usually equal to twice the
in-line dimension of the common midpoint (CMP bin). Normally the field recorder
cables are laid along these lines and geophones are attached as necessary. The
distance between successive receiver lines is commonly referred to as the receiver
line interval (RLI) (Steven, 2008).
30
 Source Line
The line which is along source points taken regular intervals (figure 2-9). The in-
line separation of sources (source interval, SI) is usually equal to twice the
common midpoint (CMP bin) dimension in the cross-line direction. The distance
between successive source lines is usually called the source line interval (SLI)
(Steven, 2008) (Bones and Herkenhoff, 2006).
 Template (patch)
A particular receiver patch into which a number of source points are recorded
(Cordsen et al., 2000). These source points may be inside or outside the patch
(figure 2-9).
 Xmax
The maximum recorded offset, which depends on shooting strategy and patch size.
Xmax is usually the half-diagonal distance of the patch (figure 2-9). Patches with
external source points have a different geometry. A large Xmax is necessary to
record deeper events (Cordsen et al., 2000).
Xmin
The largest minimum offset in a survey (sometimes referred to as LMOS, largest
minimum offset) as described under Box, figures (2-9), (2-10). A small Xmin is
necessary to record shallow events (Brown, 2003).
Figure (2-9) diagram illustrates the 3D survey layout terms after (Cordsen et al., 2000).
31
 CMP Bin (Bin)

A small rectangular area that usually has the dimensions (SI ÷ 2) × (RI ÷ 2)
(figure 2-10). All mid points that lie inside this area or bin are assumed to belong
to the same common midpoint. In other words, all traces that lie in the same bin
will be CMP stacked and contribute to the fold of that bin (Gijs,, 2002).
Figure (2-10) diagram illustrates the source lines, receiver lines and Xmin definition after
(Gijs,, 2002).
 Midpoint
The point located exactly halfway between a source and a receiver location
(figure 2-11). If a 480-channel receiver patch is laid out, each source point will
create 480 midpoints. Midpoints will often be scattered and may not necessarily
form a regular grid (Steven, 2008).
Figure (2-11) diagram illustrates the 3D survey bin terms after (Steven, 2008).
32
 Swath
The term swath has been used with different meanings in the seismic industry.
Commonly, a swath equals the width of the area over which source stations are
recorded without any cross-line rolls. Second, the term describes parallel
acquisition geometry, rather than an orthogonal geometry, in which there are some
stacked lines that have no surface lines associated with them (Kiran, 2005).
 Migration Apron
The width of the fringe area, that needs to be added to the 3D survey to allow
proper migration of any dipping event (figure 2.12). This width does not need to be
the same on all sides of the survey. Although this parameter is a distance rather
than an angle, it has been commonly referred to as the migration aperture.
 Fold Taper
It's the width of the additional fringe area that needs to be added to the 3D surface
area to build up full fold (figure 2-12). Often there is some overlap between the
fold taper and the migration apron because one can tolerate reduced fold on the
outer edges of the migration apron (Gijs,, 2002).
Figure (2-12) diagram illustrates the 3D survey fold taper (Gijs,, 2002).
33
2.7.2 Fold
The numbers of midpoints that are stacked within CMP bin (Dan & Robert,
1996). Although one usually gives one average fold number for any survey, the
fold varies from bin to bin and for different offsets (figure 2-13). 3D fold based on
the following equations:
3D fold = inline fold × crossline fold … . . (2 − 15)
Where:
no .of active receivres ×receivres interval ( RI )

Inline fold = … . . (2 − 16)
2 ×source line interval (SI )
no .of active receivres lines

Crossline fold = … . . (2 − 17)
2
Figure (2-13) diagram illustrates the Three-zone acquisition model.
34
2.7.3 Offset & Azimuth Distributions

The biggest difference between 2D and 3D acquisition is that data are recorded
from many different azimuths. Since the subsurface may exhibit different
properties in different directions, it is important to adequately sample those
different azimuths, including multiple offsets along each azimuth, where for every
source-receiver pair in a patch, there is a corresponding offset and azimuth that is
sampled (Steven, 2008).
A single bin will have as many offsets and azimuths as traces and their
distribution within a bin are predominantly controlled by the fold. Lower-fold data
will have a poorer distribution of offsets and azimuths and higher-fold data will
have a better distribution, assuming that the increase in fold is due to the sampling
of varying ray paths. Figure (2-14) shows the Spider and Stick diagrams which
often used to illustrate the different offsets sampled within a bin. Each offset is
represented by a stick in a triangle where shorter sticks correspond to shorter
offsets and likewise for longer offsets. If every offset were sampled, the triangle
would be solid black. Gaps in the diagram represent offsets that have not been
sampled. As traces are often moved from bin to bin by Dip Move Out (DMO) and
migration processes, analyzing one bin is not as important as looking at a group of
bins when considering how well a range of offsets has been sampled. Even offset
distributions are desired to aid in velocity analysis, Normal Move Out (NMO)
corrections, and migration. Limited or uneven offset distribution can lead to
aliasing of dipping signal, source noise, and primary reflections and may contribute
to artifacts such as acquisition footprints (Cordsen et al., 2000).
Reciever Source
Figure (2-14) a- illustrated Azimuth distribution (spider diagram), b-Offset distribution (stick
diagram) after (Cordsen et al., 2000).
35
2.7.4 Binnig & Bin size

A square or rectangular area whose dimensions are defined by half of the
receiver interval in the inline and cross line directions or by half of the source
interval multiplied by half of the receiver interval for surveys with a coarse
receiver-line interval. All traces in a bin are assumed to have the same midpoint
and will be stacked together in the common midpoint (CMP) stacking process
(Steven, 2008).
Usually, area of bin is limited dimensional bathymetric points are spacing in
both directions (X,Y) in the horizontal plane of survey area (figure 2-15), and it's
calculated by relying on the values of (ΔX, ΔY) which equal to half spacing of
receivers and shot points (Brown, 2003).
Based on the available formations of slope (θ), frequency (f) and velocity (V) can
calculate the bin dimensions (ΔX, ΔY) to get trace spacing as the following:
ΔX = V / 4f sin θx … . . (2 − 18)
From this equation we see that in case of the high frequency and high slope we
need to decrease the dimensions distance of receivers points (2ΔX) and dimensions
distance of shot points (2ΔY).
Figure (2-15) diagram illustrates area of bin dimensions.
36
2.7.5 Land 3D Layouts

Numerous layout strategies have been developed for land 3D surveys. One has
to establish which features are important in the area of the survey in order to select
the best design option (Kiran, 2005).
2.7.5.1 Full fold 3D

A full fold 3D survey is one where source points and receiver stations are
distributed on an even two-dimensional grid with station spacing's equal to the line
spacing's. The grids are offset by one bin size (figure 2-16). A full fold 3D survey
has outstanding offset and azimuth distributions as long as one can afford to record
with a large number of channels. All other 3D designs are basically subsets of such
full-fold surveys, and the designer has to decide which aspects of a 3D design are
absolutely necessary and which can be compromised (Cordsen et al., 2000).
2.7.5.2 Swath or strip spread

The swath acquisition method was used in the earliest 3D designs. In this
geometry Source and receiver lines are parallel and usually coincident. While
source points are taken on one line, receivers are recording not only along the
source line but also along neighboring parallel receiver lines, creating swath lines
halfway between pairs of source and receiver lines (Von Seggern, 1994)
(figure 2-17). The offset distribution in all occupied bin lines is excellent.
However, inadequate sampling in the cross-line direction makes this design,
because many bins are empty. The azimuth mix is very narrow and depends on the
number of live receiver lines in the recording patch and the line spacing. Most
companies prefer to have the source points at the half-integer positions. Parallel
swaths are sometimes considered on land when severe surface restrictions exist, or
when costs have to be minimized. The operational advantages are attractive, but
are achieved at the cost of a poor azimuth mix and poor cross-line sampling
(Yilmaz 1987).
2.7.5.3 Orthogonal (cross spread)

Generally, source and receiver lines are laid out orthogonal to each other
(figure 2-18). Because the receivers cover a large area, this method is sometimes
referred to as the patch method. This geometry is particularly easy for the survey
crew and recording crew, and keeping track of station numbering is
straightforward. In an orthogonal design, the active receiver lines form a
rectangular patch surrounding each source point location creating a series of cross
spreads that overlap each other. This technique allows more surface area to be
acquired prior to receiver stations moves (Von Seggern, 1994).
37
This method is easy to lie out in the field and can accommodate the extra
equipment and roll along operation. Usually all the source points between adjacent
receiver lines are recorded. Then the receiver patch is rolled over one and the
process is repeated. The azimuth distribution for the orthogonal method is uniform
as long as wide recording patch is used.
2.7.5.4 Daerps pool

In this spread, the source and receiver points are distributed along curved line (may
not be regular). It gives common depth points that have irregular geometrical
distribution also the regularity of coverage (fold) degree distribution is controlled
by the curved line regularity, and procedure of source and receiver point
distribution (Walton 1972). This spread is executable in several forms such as
seismic square and seismic loop forms as shown in (figure 2-19).
2.7.5.5 Zig-Zag
The zigzag pattern is popular in desert areas, or other locations where one has good
access between receiver lines. Single source lines are located between adjacent
pairs of receiver lines for a single zigzag (figure 2-20). The source point positions
should be located on a grid to create central midpoints. A 45° angle between the
receiver lines and the source line diagonal. In a mirrored zigzag, every second
source line is flipped to its mirror image. The offset distribution can be improved
further by shooting the 3-D grid in a double zigzag pattern, with two sets of
vibrators. The advantages of a zigzag design are in efficiency of movement with
the vibrator source along very long source lines; vibrators do not have to cross
receiver lines (Cordsen et al., 2000).
Receiver
Shot point
Figure (2-16) diagram of the full fold 3D survey, after (Cordsen et al., 2000).
38
Shot point
Receiver
Figure (2-17) diagram of the swath or strip spread, after (Von Seggern, 1994).
Figure (2-18) diagram of the crossed spread types in 3D survey (a) X- type spread (b) L- type
spread (c) T- type spread after (Von Seggern, 1994)
Figure (2-19) diagram of the daerps pool spread, after (Walton 1972).
Receiver lines
Shots point
Figure (2-20) diagram of the zigzag, after (Cordsen et al., 2000).
39
2.8 Factors which affected the amplitude of seismic waves

During the propagation of seismic waves through the earth, it's amplitude
suffering many effects which can be divided into, surface and subsurface effects
(Sheriff, 1980).
Surface effects include variation of energy from one shot-point to other points,
differences in sensitivity of traces and coupling, recording effects, differences due
to effect of weathering layer, effects due to different location of geophones and
surface noise effects (Rayleigh and love waves).
Subsurface effects include geometrical and Physical causes. Geometrical
causes include, long and short path multiple, single interference between the strata
surface, diffraction, focusing due to structure, spherical divergence. Physical
causes include inelastic attenuation (absorption), scattering, reflectivity and wave
conversion (figure 2-21). Also, these factors to be formed as noise and distorted the
seismic signal. (Telford et al., 1976) and (AL Sadi, 1982) deal, the ratio (signal
/noise) consider as measurement of seismic data quality where, some of these
factors removed it effect by use best survey parameters and other factors removed
it effect in second stage of seismic work (processing stage) by use advanced
programs.
Figure (2-21) diagram of the factors which affected the amplitude of seismic waves (after
Sheriff, 1980).
40
2.9 Principles in processing

2.9.1 Fourier transform
This concept was proposed by Joseph Fourier how stated that any function
such as a time function of limited length represents a summation of an infinitely
long series of sine and cosine waves. Therefore, it can be transferred from a time
domain into frequency domain. The more used mathematical relation in seismic
llll ett ion mtt hod is oouiie’’s integaal expeession Any tim uuntt ion (t such
travel time of seismic signal can be expressed as frequency function 𝐽 𝑤 as
following:
+∞
𝐽 𝜔 = −∞
𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 . 𝑑𝑡 … … … … … (2 − 19)
𝜔 = 2𝜋f … … … … … (2 − 20)
Where:
𝐽 𝜔 = amplitude spectrum.
𝑓(𝑡)= seismic trace as time function.
𝜔 = angular frequency.
f= frequency.
Also can be reverse the process, (i.e. transforms the frequency function J(𝜔) to
time function f(t) as following equation:
1 +∞
f t = j 𝜔 ei𝜔t .d𝜔 … … … … … 2 − 21
2π -∞
This case is called inverse Fourier transforms (I. F.T) (Spiegel; 1974). Any
function in time domain if transformed to frequency domain , we can be returned
to its origin form (time domain) by using inverse Fourier transforms (I. F.T).the
wave amplitude and phase variation with frequency is known amplitude spectrum
and phase spectrum respectively .
2.9.2 Resolution
It's defined as the ability to distinguish between two neighbor points in vertical
or horizontal direction, such that we can tell that there are two separate features
(Kiran, 2005). Seismic resolution power affect by the spectrum of seismic package,
mainly the wavelength (λ) (Yilmaz, 1987).
λ = v / f … . . (2 − 22)
Where
v: represents seismic wave velocity. f: represents seismic wave frequency.
41
2.10 Reflection data processing

The aim of seismic data acquisition and processing is to deliver products that
mimic cross-sections through the earth. In order to do this, the correct amount and
types of data must be acquired, processing applied to remove unwanted energy
(such as multiples), and to place the required events in the correct location. At the
same time, a balance needs to be struck between cost and timelines of data, while
attaining also the important objectives of safe operations and doing no harm to the
environment (Kiran, 2005).
Generally, Seismic data processing consists of the following steps:
Reformat
tt’s starting from field tapes, reformatting include converting the data from
standard industry format into whatever format the processing system uses.
Designature
tt’s take the wavelet that was created by the source and converts it to a more
compact form. A decision needs to be made at this point whether the output should
be zero or minimum-phase (Bacon et al., 2003).
A zero-phase wavelet is one that is symmetrical about its centre, while a minimum-
phase wavelet is one that starts at time zero and has as much energy near the start
as physically possible (figure 2.22).
Figure (2.22) comparison of zero-phase and minimum phase wavelet after

(Bacon et al., 2003).
Resample
The data usually resample to 4 ms, which is sufficient for frequencies up to 125Hz.
An anti-alias filter is applied to ensure that any higher frequencies in the near
surface do not alias on to lower frequencies. This resampling reduces the volume
of data and speeds up all of the later processing stages.
42
Marge navigation with the seismic header

tt’s th important proeess o sssigning th oocccct positioning information to the
traces as referred to in the acquisition section, so that actual offsets and locations
can be determined (X, Y) coordinate.
Low cut filter

To removes the lowest frequencies from the data. These are often heavily
contaminated by noise (Lavergne, 1989).
Remove bad traces

tt’s an editing; any traces that appear excessively noisy owing to poor coupling or
equipment failure are removed.
Spherical divergence
Appling a time-varying gain to the data to boost up the amplitudes of the later
arrivals compared to the earlier ones. As the wavefront from the source travels
deeper into the earth, it covers a larger area, also suffers amplitude decay due to
transmission losses and attenuation. Spherical divergence correction is applied to
remove the loss in amplitude due to the wavefront expanding with depth (Newman,
1973).
Static correction
Corrections applied to seismic data to compensate for the effects of variations in
elevation, weathering thickness, weathering velocity, or reference to a datum
(figure 2.23). Statics are time shifts applied to seismic data to compensate for:
VVV iii tt ionsiinssoueee and receiver depths.
VVV iii tt ionsiin vll ocity/thickness of near surface layers.
aaaaangaaanaaatfffff rr nnfff timss.
Figure (2-23) shows the static correction method and datuming process.
43
Coherent noise removal (FK)

This noise is caused by peculiar wave propagation and arises as structured signals
in seismic sections, FK filter is one of techniques which are frequently adapted to
be used in a local fashion to follow the slowness, amplitude and waveform
variations that seismic waves usually exhibit at the cost of losing slowness
resolution.
De-convolution
The earth operates as low –pass-filter to the passed seismic wave through it. This
property is called convolution, where causes widening in the signal, change in the
wave shape and displacement on the time axis of the signal. This effect is similar
to the effect caused by linear filtering. Removing or minimizing of this effect is
done by designing a reverse filter; this process is called de-convolution (Robinson
and Treitel 1983). A digital operator is designed for each trace that is convolved
with the trace to remove unwanted ringiness. Consistency of wavelet shape and
amplitude becomes increasingly important as more attempts are made to infer
subsurface information from the amplitudes of the reflection events.
Common midpoint (CMP) sort

It is a process that involves sorting all traces have a mid-position between the
source point and receiver point along the seismic line, thus, the seismic line
information are converted from the mode (receiver trace –shot point) into
(horizontal distance – midpoints) (Yilmaz, 1987).
Velocity analysis (1Km grid), first pass

A stacking velocity analysis should be performed as often as necessary to provide a
good velocity field. At times, velocity analyses are done every 1Km in both
directions to create a grid of velocity control points (Cordsen et al., 2000).
Residual static
In this processing step, the traces of each bin are summed to form a stable and
representative pilot trace for each CMP bin. Statics coupling implies that each
receiver position is fired into by many source points and vice versa (Telford at el.,
1976). Cross-correlation methods detect time differences between adjacent
receivers and adjacent source points. These time differences, when multiplied by
the inverse of the geometry matrix, provide the surface-consistent static values at
each receiver and source position.
44
Velocity analysis (1Km grid), second pass

good velocity field. At times, velocity analyses are done every 1Km in both
directions to create a grid of velocity control points for accurate velocity analysis
after residual static (Cordsen et al., 2000).
Sort to common offset

It's an application of Dip Move-out (DMO), so called because it removes the effect
of dip on stacking velocities and trace positions. One of the benefits of DMO is
that it takes a constant offset section and transforms the data to a zero-offset
section, thus allowing conventional post-stack migration to be applied (Yousef et
al., 2009).
Pre-stack time migration

Migration is one of the key steps in seismic data processing; it is the step which
attempts to move the recorded data so that events lie in their correct spatial
location rather than their recorded location (figure 2.24 and figure 2 .25).
Figure (2.24) seismic migration moves events from their recorded position to their true
subsurface position after (Mamdouh and Fisher, 2009).
45
Figure (2.25) seismic migration, the reflection from point A will be recorded by a coincident
source and receiver at location B after (Mamdouh and Fisher, 2009).
Once more there are a large number of options ranging from migrating all the pre-
stack data to stacking data in a CMP followed by post-stack migration. The choice
of whether to migrate data before or after stacking is largely dependent on the
velocity regime and the subsurface dips present in data (Bacon, et al, 2003). Large
dips may mean that shallower events arrive at the same time as deeper events,
giving rise to the two events needing to stack at the same time but with different
velocities (figure. 2.26).
Figure (2.26) Reflection from both points B & C will be recorded at the point A with
approximately have the same travel time out after (Bacon, et, al, 2003).
Re-picked velocities (grid 0.5 Km grid) third pass

good velocity field. At times, velocity analyses are done every 0.5 Km in both
directions to create a grid of velocity control points after pre-stack time migration
to get final velocity analysis.
46
Radon de-multiple
The time interval between successive shots is unchanged from the single source
case, because a source cannot be fired until the listening period for the previous
shot has ended. When the dual sources are fired alternately, there are half as many
shots contributing to every CMP. This may lead to data aliasing of any steeply
dipping multiples within a CMP gather (Western Geco, 2005).
For example, Figure (2.27) shows a common geometry of 25m receiver group
intervals within a cable and two sources fired alternately, with a shot every 25m.
This means that each source is fired only every 50 m. The fold in a CMP gather
will be only one-quarter of the number of traces in a shot gather, and the offset
increment in a CMP gather will be four times that in a shot gather (Steven, 2008).
Figure (2.27) comparison of CMP gathers at original trace spacing and after shot record
interpolation after (Steven, 2008).
47
Normal Move-Out (NMO)

The data are Normal Move-Out (NMO) corrected to approximately flatten either
the multiple or primary events, then transformed to Radon or FK space and the
unwanted events are removed by rejecting the multiple events (fig.2.28).
Figure (2.28) gather showing primary multiple events and the difference after
illustrating move-out after (Cordsen et al., 2000).
Stack to generate three volumes (near, far and full offset stack)
After the final velocity analysis and move-out correction the data are stacked.
Stacking together traces that contain the same reflection information both improves
the signal to (random) noise content (by the square root of the number of traces
stacked) and reduces any residual coherent noise such as multiples which stack at
velocities different from the primary events.
48
Mute
During stacking, mutes zeroing the data within specified zones area applied to the
data to ensure that NMO stretch is not a problem and that any residual multiples
left on the near-offset traces do not contaminate the stacked section (figure 2. 29).
Figure (2.29) Explain of mutes applied during stacking.
Random Noise Attenuation (3D RNA)

3D RNA is used on 3D seismic data for enhance coherent events relative to
random noise by depends filtering technique that automatically selects the range of
dips to enhance based on the dips in the data which reduce random noise, increase
continuity of events and attenuate nonlinear noise (Western Geco, 2005).
K-notch filter
tt’s mmm ov som o th cccccts o th ptt tccc lff t in th dat rrom th qqquisition
variability. Since different CMPs will contain a different combination of traces in a
regular pattern this may show itself in the final stacked section.
49
Fxy De-convolution
tt’s. 3D nois m‫ﻷﻷ‬mml‫ﻷ‬l l o s ssss s s ss s ssss sss s s s s s sss ss s s ss sss s ssssss s ss
more successful with 3D data than 2D owing to the extra dimension, Usually
relatively small operators are used, working on may be five traces in both
directions. This allows the filters to adapt to relatively sudden changes in reflector
dip while retaining sufficient data to distinguish signal from random noise
(Yilmaz, 2001).
Zero phase conversion

sssssss ss-migration processing, at this stage the data should look like a cross-
section through the earth with reflections corresponding to changes in acoustic
properties and unwanted events such as multiples and noise removed. The final
step is to convert the data to zero-phase which centers the peak of the seismic
wavelet on the impedance contrast. An operator is determined by least-squares
matching the seismic data to the reflectivity generated from the well data
(McQuilline, 1984).The fit between the seismic trace and the well log generated
synthetic is compared and the trace location that gives the best match is chosen as
the trace for estimation of the wavelet.
Spectral equalization
This processing aims to give a balanced seismic trace with time. This means that
the enhancement of amplitude and took it as average for each time window. The
seismic trace amplitude decreases due to moving the wavelet into deeper areas, but
it remain conservative on the original shape, therefore, we need to scaling of
variable time to a trace by using the windows may be overlapping together to
enlargement (enhancement the resolution) of the deep reflectors amplitudes, and to
obtain on concordance between them and a shallow reflection amplitudes
(McQuilline, 1984).
Band-pass filter
Its applying time-varying band-pass filters to reduce the higher frequencies with
time, to eliminate those that are mostly noise due to their attenuation on passing
through the rocks.
Scaling
ssss applying time-varying trace scaling to ensure a balanced-looking section with
time. One approach is to apply Automatic Gain Control (AGC). This applies a
time-varying gain to each trace individually, with the gain calculated so as to keep
the average absolute amplitude constant within a window that slides down the
trace.
50
2.11 Seismic interpretation

Seismic interpretation is directed toward geological understanding of the
subsurface geological picture, in order to delineate structural traps by mapping the
top of a reservoir.
However, how does recognize where the reservoirs are likely to be in an
undrilled area? What reflectors are most likely to be the top of a reservoir body? If
there are some well data available, perhaps reservoirs have already been
encountered, but what is their lateral extent likely to be? What lateral changes in
reservoir quality are likely, and how should they be related to changes in seismic
appearance? These questions are of course just as relevant for 2D seismic as for
3D, but the dense data provided by 3D seismic offers more scope for defining the
external geometry and internal architecture of reservoir bodies. The detailed 3D
seismic map view is often more instructive than an individual section (Bacon, et al,
2003).
Seismic Stratigraphy is divided into seismic-sequence (facies) analysis and

reflection-character analysis. It is determine the nature of sedimentary rocks and
their fluid content from analysis of seismic data. In seismic-sequence analysis the
first step is to separate seismic-sequence units, also called seismic-facies units.
This is usually done by mapping unconformities where they are shown by
angularity (Kiran, 2005). Some important features that should be reviewed before
angularity a software system would be: ease of use, contouring options, time-slice
viewing, fault handling, integration of well synthetics, 3D visualization, animation
possibilities and the ability to make arbitrary lines through the data volume, import
and export options, merging of several 3D data sets, and processing options such as
filtering or phase rotation (Brown, 2003).
Seismic data can be displayed in many different formats, such as variable

intensity (VI), variable area (VA), or a combination of the two as variable intensity
and area (VIVA). Variable intensity displays can utilize a number of different color
bars to highlight particular features. When horizon times are picked on a
workstation, reflection amplitudes can be measured simultaneously or extracted at
a later stage. Some software packages allow the user to pick horizon times in both
the vertical and horizontal planes. The picks can be displayed for each horizon
individually or in combination with others (Gijs, 2002).
Geological mapping is usually available before any 3D interpretation. These

maps provide useful information for interpretation, with existing 2D or 3D data
sets, one often knows which horizon, isochron, amplitude, or other attribute maps
51
are needed to define the prospect. The following list is a sample of maps and
displays that should be considered:
• Time structure.
• Flattened seismic sections.
• Isochron.
• Amplitude.
• Amplitude difference.
• Instantaneous frequency.
• Instantaneous phase.
• Time slices.
• Horizon slices.
• Chair displays.
• 3D visualization.
• Shadowing.
• Transparency displays.
• Coherence cube.
The interpreter should always look for acquisition footprints in the data when
analyzing 3D images. If there is a clear relationship between the acquisition
geometry and trends or anomalies in the interpreted maps, one should attempt to
remove these non-geological artifacts in processing, if possible (Cordsen et al.,
2000).
The acquisition geometry should always be available as an overlay on any
interpretation map. Such correlation is easiest to notice on amplitude maps and
time slices. Since acquisition footprints are worse in the shallower section and at
lower fold, it may be necessary to review fold maps at equivalent time slices in
order to research any correlation between them. Once a problem has been
encountered, the minimum and maximum offset, unique offset and unique fold, as
well as the migration apron displays, may help clarify the problem (Brown, 2003).
52
2.12 Seismic attribute analysis

The amplitude of a normally reflected wave is directly related to the reflection
coefficient at the interface, and hence the physical properties (density and velocity)
of the formations. Thus, variations in amplitude along a reflector should indicate
changes in the properties of the formations (Anstey, 1976).
The seismic trace represents the variable function between the amplitude and
time in the time domain. The Hilbert transform (figure 2-30) is a kind of filtering
which does not affect the amplitude of the spectral component, but it causes
changes in the phases of these components by 90° to obtain the imaginary part of
the complex function that we get from knowledge of the real part which represents
the conventional seismic section (Taner et al., 1979).
From the original seismic data, new seismic attribute volumes are processed
and time slice sets constructed. In time slice display, lithological lateral variations
may be easier identified as the sedimentation develops horizontal. Computation in
the time slice plane may well enhance lithology distributions patterns without a
prior knowledge of velocity and density (Dan & Robert, 1996).
After considerable analysis, the interpreted seismic attribute (two-way time,
isochron, interval velocity, amplitude strength, instantaneous phase, instantaneous
frequency, etc.) may contain the geological information necessary to uncover the
subsurface anatomy, to detect the reservoir anomaly. The reservoir is usually
mapped and characterized by comparison or calibration to previous similar cases.
A typical seismic interpretation workstation displays the seismic data in vertical,
horizontal and arbitrary crossing planes as images (Dobrin and Savit, 1988).
Conventional seismic reflection sections are displayed in variable area format
where positive half-cycles of the waveforms of seismic traces are filled in black.
This has the desirable effect of merging the shaded areas from trace to trace to
form continuous black lines across the section. These black lines guide the eye of
the interpreter to correlate features across the section, and hence make a structural
interpretation. These properties can be viewed by presenting an image of the
seismic section where the amplitude of the seismic wave is displayed as a colour
scale Changes of amplitude along a continuous reflector will then be emphasized
by the colour change, rather than hidden in a broad black line (Sheriff, 1980).
Amplitude is merely the simplest example of a property (attribute) of the
seismic wave which can be examined for its geological significance. Others
include the seismic wave phase and the frequency content. The complex 3D
seismic attributes are considered lithological indicators for hydrocarbon reservoirs.
The thick instantaneous frequency slice detects lateral lithological changes and
quantitative evaluation might be experimented with detailed well control
(Kashihara and Hou, 2009).
53
From the waveform amplitudes the acoustic impedance of each formation can
be estimated. On a yet more detailed level, the Amplitude Variation of reflected
wavelets with source–receiver Offset (AVO) within each CMP gather can be
analyzed. This AVO effect can be particularly diagnostic in distinguishing between
amplitude effects due to rock matrix variation and those due to pore fluids (Kearey
et al, 2002).
Figure (2-30) the complex seismic trace and seismic attributes;(a) the space shape of the complex
seismic trace (b) actual seismic trace projection( seismic trace), (c) imaginary
trace projection (d) instantaneous phase (e) instantaneous frequency (after Taner
et al, 1979).
54
Chapter three Data Acquisition
Introduction
The current research is structural interpretation study of the seismic reflection
data for the Balad 3D seismic survey which is the first 3D seismic survey carried
out in Iraq. First, preview field requirements of the 3D Balad survey which was
carried out by the Iraqi seismic 3D crew and Halliburton Corporation. Data
acquisition began in 1990 and was completed in 1992. The original 3D seismic
data of study area was processed in Baghdad, but because of limited computer
capabilities it was necessary to reprocess the data set to get a good quality of the
seismic data to be ready for seismic interpretation. The Oil Exploration Company
(OEC) decided to reprocess the seismic data once again. A decision was made by
the OEC to invite ExxonMobil Petroleum Corporation to work with the OEC in
the reprocessing of the Balad 3D seismic data in 2006.
3.1 Balad 3D survey

The field survey of the Balad area used specific design that ensures easy of
execution with good quality of recorded data. In general, the pre-planning report
was interested in the geological objectives of:
1- Study the faults system and the affecting forces.
2- Study the detailed structural picture of the reservoirs in the field.
3- Study the seismic attributes of the picked reflectors.
Meanwhile, the geophysical requirements determined from old two-dimensional

survey in the area include the following:
1- Two way time to the desired reflector.
2- The approximate depth of the desired reflector.
3- Root-mean-square velocity.
4- Maximum dip of reflector.
5- Maximum and dominant frequency.
6- Depth of shallow guide reflector.
The pre-planning report includes the final design plan of Balad area table (3-1)
with 3D fold coverage for each depth point in the full fold area which has been
used in field operations. The surface area is agricultured, so the orthogonal pattern
of sources points relative to receiver lines were selected on land of field execution
in Balad 3D Design (figure 3-1).
In general the survey requirements can be summarized as follows:
55
Table (3-1) reveals field data requirements of the pre-planning of the Balad 3D survey in (1990).
Design parameters of Balad 3D survey

Specifications parameters
Spread shape Rectangular
Bin size 25x25 m
Receiver line interval 200 m
Source line interval 200 m
Receiver interval 50 m
Source interval 50 m
Vibration points per salvo 4
Number of live receiver lines 4
Live receivers per line 120
Live patch (template) length 5950 m
Live patch (template) width 600 m
Aspect Ratio 0.1
In-line fold 15
Cross-line fold 2
Fold 3000%
Maximum offset 2965 m
Maximum minimum offset 265 m
Live channels required 480
Bearing 38°
Recording parameters
Specifications Value
Instrument type MDS 18
Number of channels 480
Recording density (bdi) 6250
Sampling period 2 m.sec
Recording length 5000 sec
Geophone type SM4
Tape format SEGD (DEMUX)
Recording filter ( 12-125) Hz
Recording gain 36
56
Source parameters
Specifications Quantity
Source type (vibrators) LRS 315
Vibrator pattern 1x4x12
vibration/location 4
Vibrator inline stagger 2.3
Sweep frequency 12 – 70 Hz
Sweep length 16 sec
Total sweeps per point 48
Figure (3-1) diagram illustrates the execution map of 3D survey for Balad area.
57
3.2 Re-processing
A series of post-stack enhancements were applied on the data to enhance structural
imaging (figure 3-2).
Enhancements include two noise attenuation processes, random noise attenuation
and acquisition footprint attenuation. These processes filter noise from the data and
improve both reflection continuity and calculation of derivative data or attributes
such as discontinuity and reflection strength.
Figure (3-2) A, shows the original poststack data and B, shows the poststack data after
reprocessed data by ExxonMobil corporation (19 / J / 28, 2008).
58
3.3 Data base

3D seismic volume of the Balad survey didn’t cover the study area completely,
both natural and industrial obstruction limited acquisition to 250 km² of the 436
km² initially planned. Additionally, 100 contiguous lines of data are missing from
the volume, resulting gap from inline 24245 to inline 24345 from data (figure 3-3).
Nine exploration and estimation wells were drilled in the field, marker and sonic
logs information were available for all wells with some missing in intervals of
sonic logs, also check shot surveys were limited for only six wells Ba_1, 2, 3, 4, 8
and 9.
Figure (3-3) seismic time slice showing example of data limitations for 3D for Balad survey.
59
3.4 Workstation description and the used programs

The interactive workstation (GeoFrame) available in OEC was used to achieve
of the interpretation. It is an electronic computer uses (Red hat) as operating
system, the later is a copy of UNIX (operating system). There are several programs
operating with this interactive workstation such as geology, seismic, reservoir
engineering and Petrophysics programs (Schlumberger, 2004).
Figure (3-4) is a window which displays the main application of GeoFrame system.
Figure (3-4) the main windows of interactive interpretation work station (Geoframe system).
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3.5 Base map preparation

Processed seismic data are loaded in the interactive workstation of
interpretation in SEG-Y format and before starting; special subprograms must be
operated to define the required data for loading. This process is called (project
creation) for achieving the interpretation process on an interactive workstation.
After that, the base map of the study area is constructed. This process includes
entering the first and last inline number, the first and last cross line number, the
separated distance between bin size along inline direction and cross line direction
(figure 3-5). Also includes definition of the geographic coordinates in UTM
coordinates system of study area.
Figure (3-5) illustrates a base map of a study area, (3D Balad survey).
61
3.6 Generate Synthetic seismograms and reflectors definition

Synthetic seismograms were generated for four wells (Ba_1, 4, 8 and 9) using
GeoFrame software package (figures 3-6a, b, c and d).
Lindsith, 1979 referred to the main steps for generation of the synthetic
seismogram which they are:
1-computing the acoustic impedance ( 𝑧 = 𝜌 × 𝑣 ) Where:
𝑣: is seismic velocity. ρ: is density measured from log.
2-computing the reflection coefficients of the vertical incident wave on reflector
separating two series time intervals such ( i ) and (i+1) that have values of acoustic
impedance (ρi vi) and (ρi+1, vi+1) respectively. According to Lindsith, 1979 we
can compute the reflection coefficients as the following:
𝜌𝑖 +1 𝑣𝑖+1 − 𝜌𝑖 𝑣𝑖
𝑅𝑐𝑖 = 𝜌𝑖 +1 𝑣𝑖+1 + 𝜌𝑖 𝑣𝑖
Where:
(𝜌𝑖, 𝜌𝑖 + 1) the density at the interval ( i ), ( i+1 )
(𝑣𝑖 , 𝑣𝑖 + 1) the velocity at the interval ( i ), ( i+1 )
3- Convolution process between the reflection coefficients and experimentally
selected wavelet is made to obtain the synthetic seismogram. The sonic log data
are compared with the well velocity survey which represents the direct method to
obtain the geological velocity (average velocity) of geological strata. These have
ability to extract the relation between the time and depth functions in the well
location.
The sonic logs were transformed from the depth to the time domain using the
check shots that were provided and used to make synthetics from the computed
reflectivity series convolved with a Ricker and extraction wavelet to match the
dominant frequency of reprocessed 3D seismic data.
Figure (3-7) represents the traverse seismic sections passing through the well
locations and synthetic traces of reflectors are displayed. The match between
seismic traces and synthetic traces is good. The picked reflectors wavelets
appeared as peaks on synthetic trace (positive reflection) but in different intensity.
62
Chapter three
63
Data Acquisition
Figure (3-6a) illustrates the seismic sections seismogram of Balad_1 well.

Chapter three
64
Data Acquisition
Figure (3-6b) illustrates the seismic sections seismogram of Balad_4 well.

Chapter three
65
Data Acquisition
Figure (3-6c) illustrates the seismic sections seismogram of Balad_8 well

Chapter three
66
Data Acquisition
Figure (3-6d) illustrates the seismic sections seismogram of Balad_9 well.

Chapter three
67
Data Acquisition
Figure (3-7) traverse seismic sections illustrate the correlation between wells synthetic trace.
Chapter four Interpretation and Results
4.1 Seismic reflectors delineation and description

The general specifications of seismic reflectors in 3D seismic volume are
described as follows:
1- Quantity
Four reflectors were picked in this study which represent Upper Cretaceous age
and they are:
• First reflector represents top Hartha Formation.
• Second reflector represents intra Hartha Formation.
• Third reflector represents top Sadi Formation.
• Fourth reflector represents top Khasib Formation.
Intra Hartha Formation represents the gas and oil reservoir in the field, Sadi
and Khasib Formation represent the oil reservoir in the Balad field, while top
Hartha was picked to understand the type of faults and it's affect on Balad field
construction to get the final structural and geological models image of traps in
Balad field. Figure (4-1) shows picking maps of studied reflectors in all study
area (Balad 3D survey).
2- Continuity of reflectors
Continuity of the picked reflector can be described as follows:
Top of Hartha reflector has moderate continuity.
Intra Hartha reflector has very good continuity.
Sadi reflector has moderate continuity.
Khasib reflector has very good continuity (figure 4-2).
3- Concordance of reflectors
Seismic sections show the concordance of reflectors to be good especially at the
Tertiary Formations. While at the Upper Cretaceous Formations, the seismic
sections with geophysical and geological models show that there is clear a
variation of reflectors thicknesses especially, in the graben areas. This is due to
presence of the structural and stratigraphic features. In the shoulders of the
graben, the concordance of reflectors are approximately good (figure 4-2).
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4- Quality of the reflectors

In general, the quality of the reflectors in the seismic sections is considered good
at eastern and western shoulders of graben in the study area, this is due to the
high signal to noise (S/N) ratio of the recorded signal where the resolution was
very good, and bad within graben area because of the increment in faults density
(figure 4-2).
Figure (4-1) shows picking maps of studied reflectors in all study area (Balad 3D survey).
A is the picking map of top Hartha. B is the picking map of intra Hartha.
C is the picking map of top Sadi. D is the picking map of top Khasib.
69
Chapter four
70
Interpretation and Results
Figure (4-2) inline section passes through Ba_1 shows general specifications of seismic
reflectors. in study reflectors
4.2 Faults recognition and mapping

The faults determination is achieved according to the principle indications of
faulting on seismic sections as described by Dobrin (1976). They are the
followings:
• Discontinuities in reflections falling along an essentially liner pattern
• Disclosures in tying reflections around loops.
• Divergences in dip not related to stratigraphy.
• Diffraction patterns, particularly those with vertices which line up in a
manner consistent with local faulting.
• Distortion or disappearance of reflections below suspected fault lines.
Taner, et al (1979) has indicated that seismic attribute sections, especially the
instantaneous phase section are very important for the distinction of reflector
surfaces continuity termination because it does not depend on the reflection
strength. Thus, instantaneous phase attributes technique is applied for all seismic
sections in 3D volume. The faults were picked in all the area along each inline,
cross lines and arbitrary lines. Each inline is used because it is normal on the
general dip of reflectors. Thus, the fault is more distinct along the inline sections.
The instantaneous phase section shows that the study area to be affected by
major normal fault which called Listric growth normal fault and its branches
(Dendritic faults); it is interpreted as main major graben with variable width by
approximately (3.5 to 4.0 km) on seismic sections and large displacements of all
studied reflectors except the top Hartha reflector. Another small graben with small
displacement is distinguished in the northeast of study area. Generally, the graben
axes have northwest- southeast trends (approximately N 35˚ S) (figure 4-3a and b).
The variance phase attribute technique is applied on seismic time slices for all
study area of target reflectors. This type of attribute helps to distinguish the
animation of faults and fractures that affected on the studied reflectors to draw
their boundaries on maps. The fault boundaries map shows presence of shift and
discontinuity for major graben boundary in the middle of study area, it was
interpreted as Strike-Slip fault affecting study area and dividing the major graben
to north and south parts (figure 4-4a and b). Then minor tension faults have small
displacements were picked, they locate in the south part of major graben and
eastern shoulder.
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Figure (4-3a) inline seismic section with instantaneous phase attributes shows the
picked faults in the north part of study area.
Figure (4-3b) inline seismic section with instantaneous phase attributes shows the
picked faults in the south part of study area.
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Figure (4-4a) shows a time slice at 1400 ms, represents time of top Khasib reflector
without faults interpretation.
Strike-Slip fault
North graben
South graben
Figure (4-4b) shows a time slice at 1400 ms, represents time of top Khasib reflector with
faults interpretation.
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Based on interpretation of picked reflectors and formations thickness in the

wells drilled in the Balad field, the orogenic movements of the mentioned faults
can be divided as follows:
1 – Stage of Listric growth normal fault:
According to seismic interpretation indicators and well data, this type of normal
faults develops due to increase in weight (thickness) of sediments which are variety
at the head of the hanging wall comparing with thickness at foot wall where it
almost constant and thinner (Lowell, 2003).
The interpretation of seismic sections shows that interval time of Hartha and Sadi
reflectors is variable with presence of the on lap stratigraphy features inside the
major graben area; this refers to the increase in the thickness of sediments to the
south of the study area. While in the shoulders area, the interval time is less and
almost fixed. On the other hand, the interval time of Khasib reflector is almost
fixed and equitable both inside major graben and shoulders area (figure 4-5).
The well data showed that thickness of the Hartha Formation was 460, 560, 439
and 436 meters respectively, of wells Ba_1, 3, 4 and 8 drilled inside major graben
area, compared with the Hartha Formation thickness of 316, 306, 307 309 and 304
meters respectively of wells Ba_ 2, 5, 6, 7 and 9, which were drilled on the east
shoulder of the study area. Additionally, the thickness of Sadi Formation in wells
Ba_1 and 4 was also variable between 183 and 190 meters.
The Khasib thickness was similar in all wells, both within major graben area and
on the east shoulder where it is 119 m in well Ba_9 and 114 meters in the well
Ba_8.
This lead to Listric growth normal fault which begun during the deposition of Sadi
and Hartha Formations as a result of gravitation force, which has occrued after the
first stage of tectonic movements on upper Cretaceous Formations and the
underlying layers.
2 –Stage of Strike-Slip fault:
This fault was developed as a result of the rotation movements of Arabian plate
due to the opening of the Red sea which tack place during the Oligocene age.
3 – Stage of compression:
Separation of the Arabian Plate from the African continent led to collision between
Arabian Plate with the Eurasian plate that occurred in the Oligocene age. This
collision led to compressing of the Mesopotamia basin, shifting the old structural
74
axes from the north-south to the northwest-southeast trend and in addition, tension
faults were developed Figure (4-6).
Figure (4-5) cross-line seismic section passes in the south graben area illustrates on lap
stratigraphy feature and the variable of the interval time of Hartha and Sadi to south of study area
comparing with the fixed interval time of Khasib reflector.
Figure (4-6) block diagram model illustrated the geometry of faults system in the study area.
75
4.3 Structural pictures of the picked horizons

After definition of the studied reflectors by using synthetic seismograms in
time domain for wells (Ba_1, 4, 8, and 9), we picked these reflectors in all area and
mapped the top Hartha, intra Hartha, top Sadi and top Khasib reflectors in time
domain, which are later converted to structural maps in depth domain using
velocity data of these reflectors. Sea level is used as reference datum to all maps.
The structural features of these structural maps are described below:
4.3.1 Time maps

The TWT maps can be described as a major graben area (faulted syncline)
over the area and has variable width (4-4.5km) in the southern part and the east and
west shoulders of the major graben.
The major graben and its shoulders are separated to the north and south parts by
Strike-Slip fault dominated E-W trend. Thus, the study area is divided to the
following regions:
• The north and south graben areas (faulted Synclines) dominated with
NW – SE trend. This area contains small secondary normal faults formed
elongated narrow traps at the right side of the major graben area.
• The east shoulder of the major graben is divided into two parts (south and
north). The south part is a faulted nose confined by south major graben fault.
It represents Balad field trap. The north part is a horst area confined by north
major graben and other local graben faults. The time maps show that Balad
field trap and the horst have one axis dominated by NW – SE trend and
shifted by the strike-slip fault.
• The west shoulder of the major graben represents open nose dominated by
NW – SE trend and located in the northwest part of the area.
Figures (4-7), (4-8), (4-9), (4-10) represent the TWT maps with contour interval
(10ms) for the studied reflectors.
76
Figure (4-7) shows the top Hartha TWT map.
77
Figure (4-8) shows the intra Hartha TWT map.
78
Figure (4-9) shows the top Sadi TWT map.
79
Figure (4-10) shows the top Khasib TWT map.
80
4.3.2 Velocity maps

The average velocity is the suitable velocities which are used to convert the TWT
maps to depth maps. It is considered the more accurate velocity type used in
seismic methods and can be computed directly from well velocity survey (check
shot) (McQuilline, et, al 1984).
In study area there are 6 wells (Ba_1, 2, 3, 4, 8 and 9) with average velocity
values from check shot logs which are used, but (Bd_5, 6 and 7) wells don’t have
check shot logs, therefore, the TWT time values at well locations and depth values
from well markers are used to obtain average velocity values of the studied
reflectors; but it's not enough velocity values to cover all the study area. Thus, we
used the stack velocity values provided from processing department and printed on
2D seismic paper sections are used (figure 4-11).
First, the average velocity maps are drawn from the well data to all studied
reflectors. Stack velocity values were computed along the studied reflectors from
the velocity boxes. Then average values of velocity of each neighbor's group of
stack velocities values were taken. Thus, the stack velocity maps were drawn and
smoothed to all studied reflectors.
Because the stack velocity have values more than the average velocity values,
so the differences in velocity values between them were calculated and removed
from stack velocities map to get the final velocity maps for studied reflectors in
studied area. This method offers good distribution of velocity points in the study
area.
The velocity maps of studied reflectors show the following:

• The top Hartha velocity values increase in the south and there is local
closure in the middle of the area representing increase in velocity values.
The magnitude of velocity values ranges in top Hartha velocity map
from (2680 to 2920 m/sec) (figure 4-12).
• The intra Hartha velocity values increase in the south and there is local
closure in the middle of the area representing increase in velocity values.
Range of the velocity values range in intra Hartha velocity map from
(2800-3040 m/sec) (figure 4-13).
• The top Sadi velocity values increase in the north and the south. The
velocity values in top Sadi velocity map increase from (2880-3120
m/sec) (figure 4-14).
81
• The top Khasib velocity values increase in the north and south. The
velocity ranges from (3020-3480 m/sec) (figure 4-15).
The velocity maps were drawn with contour interval of (20m/sec) of the studied
reflectors.
Figure (4-11) shows the 2D seismic lines paths that used to compute the stack
velocities in study area.
82
Figure (4-12) shows top Hartha velocity map.
83
Figure (4-13) shows intra Hartha velocity map.
84
Figure (4-14) shows top Sadi velocity map.
85
Figure (4-15) shows top Khasib velocity map.
86
4.3.3 Depth maps

In seismic methods, the depth map is obtained by using the time map of a
given reflector with its velocity map, as follows:
Depth at any point = (velocity × time) at this point.
The depth map in seismic reflection method is reflection of the subsurface
picture to time map. Thus, the depth maps also show the same picture of the
studied formations, but the difference lies in the closures dimensions, number of
contour interval between these maps, faults displacements and difference in
number of minor faults located in major graben area.
The structural picture can be described as major graben area (faulted syncline)
along study area with the east and west shoulders of major graben. The major
graben has variable dimensions (4-4.5km) in width, large displacements about
400m, large throw about 300m and heave about 265m in the left side of south
graben at top Khasib Formation.
The major graben and its shoulders are separated into north and south parts by
strike-slip fault dominated with E-W trend. Thus, the study area is divided into the
following regions:
• The north and south graben areas (faulted Synclines) dominated by a
NW – SE trend. This area contains small secondary normal faults forming
elongated narrow traps at right side of the major graben.
• The east shoulder of the major graben is divided into two parts (south and
north). The south part is a faulted nose closed by the south major graben
fault. It represents Balad field trap in the study area. The north part is a horst
area confined by north major graben and other local graben faults. The depth
maps show that Balad field trap and the horst have one axis dominated by
the NW – SE trend and shifted by the strike-slip fault.
• The west shoulder of major graben represents open nose dominated by the
NW – SE trend and located in northwest part of study area.
Figures (4-16), (4-17), (4-18), (4-19) represent the depth maps with contour
interval (20m) for studied formations.
87
Figure (4-16) shows top Hartha depth map.
88
Figure (4-17) shows intra Hartha depth map.
89
Figure (4-18) shows top Sadi depth map.
90
Figure (4-19) shows top Khasib depth map.
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4.4 Seismic attributes

Seismic attributes techniques were applied on Balad 3D seismic volume,
which include instantaneous frequency, reflection strength and amplitude
extraction. These types of attributes are important to detect the hydrocarbon
accumulation on seismic sections. Furthermore, the instantaneous phase and
variance attributes were used in the faults interpretation.
4.4.1 Instantaneous frequency attribute

The 3D seismic volume was processed and converted from seismic signal in
time domain to frequency attribute view. Figure (4-20) shows crossline ties
between two wells (Ba_3 and 9). It explains the lateral variations of frequency at
reservoir reflectors. In general, the frequency color becomes green at well locations
as result of the decrease in frequency values and a blue color when it is away from
well locations.
The rocks density reduces due to presence of fluids, thus, the seismic velocity
is decreased. Consequently, the green color reflects rocks of low velocity; this
indicates hydrocarbon accumulation areas. The blue color refers to rocks of high
velocity, which indicate weak probability of hydrocarbon accumulations
(Schlumberger, 2004).
Figure (4-20) crossline tie seismic section shows the variation in instantaneous frequency of
studied reflectors, between wells (Ba-3 and 9).
92
Three maps show the distribution of instantaneous frequency of three reflectors

representing the main reservoirs in study area.
1- Intra Hartha instantaneous frequency map (figure 4-21) shows the following
anomalies:
• In the east shoulder area, there are two anomalies with elongated shape
within Balad field trap area and the horst area. They represent high relative
decrease of frequency values.
• In the west shoulder area, there is anomaly against fault with elongated
shape along the north part. It represents low relative decrease of frequency
values. Another two small anomalies with nose shape in the south and
middle parts of west shoulder. They represent low relative decrease of
frequency values.
• In the major graben area, there is anomaly against fault with elongated shape
and located in the north part. It represents low relative decrease of frequency
values. Another anomaly occurs with elongated shape in the south part. It
represents high relative decrease of frequency values.
2- Sadi instantaneous frequency map (figure 4-22) shows the following anomalies:
• In the east shoulder area, there is an anomaly with elongated shape along the
north part of Balad field trap area. It represents low relative decrease of
frequency values. Another relative decrease of frequency values in the two
sides of the local graben area.
• In the west shoulder area, there are two faulted anomalies with elongated
shape in the north and south part. They represent low relative decrease of
frequency values.
• In the major graben area, there is faulted anomaly with elongated shape
along graben area and separated by strike-slip fault. It represents low relative
decrease in frequency values.
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3- Khasib instantaneous frequency map (figure 4-23) shows the following

anomalies:
• In the east shoulder area, there is low relative decrease of frequency values
along south and east part of Balad field trap area. Another low relative
decrease of frequency values in the horst area and the right side of local
graben.
• In the west shoulder area, there are two anomalies, the first one with nose
shape in the south part. It represents high relative decrease of frequency
values. The second one with a circle shape in the north part. It represents
low relative increase of frequency values.
• In the major graben area, there is faulted anomaly with nose shape, affected
by strike-slip fault in the south part. It represents high relative decrease of
frequency values. Another anomaly with elongated shape in the north part. It
represents low relative decrease in frequency values.
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Figure (4-21) shows intra Hartha frequency map.
95
Figure (4-22) shows Sadi frequency map.
96
Figure (4-23) shows Khasib frequency map.
97
4.4.2 Seismic reflection strength attribute

The 3D seismic volume was processed and converted from seismic signal in
time domain to reflection strength attribute view.
Figure (4-24) shows crossline between two wells (Ba_3 and 9), it explains the
lateral variations of reflection strength at reservoir reflectors. Taner et al, (1979)
refers to reflection strength associated with main geological changes as
unconformity surfaces or gas content in the rocks as result of the variations in the
petrophysical properties of the rocks. In general, there are zones of high reflection
strength, as between Ba_3 and 9 wells of intra Hartha reflector which becomes
green color represents high increase of reflection strength values, it likely indicates
of gas accumulations area, also the color changes to light green and yellow colors
around the two well areas, it likely indicates of oil accumulations. Sadi and Khasib
reflectors become light green and yellow colors at the area between Ba_3and 9
wells represents low increase of reflection strength values, it likely indicates of oil
accumulations area, also the color becomes orange and red around the two well
areas represent decrease of reflection strength values.
Figure (4-24) crossline tie seismic section shows the variation in reflection strength of
studied reflectors between wells (Ba-3 and 9).
98
Three maps were drawn, showing the distribution of reflection strength of three
reflectors represent the main reservoirs in study area.
1- Intra Hartha reflection strength map (figure 4-25) shows the following
anomalies:
• In the east shoulder area, there is anomaly with elongated shape along Balad
field trap area. Another anomaly against fault with elongated shape in the
horst area. They represent high relative increase of reflection strength
values.
shape in the north part of west shoulder. It represents high relative increase
of reflection strength values. Another two small anomalies with nose shape
to the west in the south and middle part of west shoulder. They represent
high relative increase of reflection strength values.
in the north part. It represents high relative increase of reflection strength
values. Another anomaly against fault with a circle shape in the south part. It
represents low relative increase of reflection strength values.
2- Sadi reflection strength map(figure 4-26) shows the following anomalies:

• In the east shoulder area, there is anomaly with elongated shape along north
part of Balad field trap area. It represents high relative increase of reflection
strength values. Another anomaly against fault with a circle shape in the
horst area. It represents low relative increase of reflection strength values,
also faulted anomaly with nose shape in the north east part with a local
graben area. It represents high relative increase of reflection strength values.
shape in the north part of west shoulder. It represents high relative increase
of reflection strength values. Another anomaly with elongated shape along
south and middle parts of west shoulder. It represents high relative decrease
of reflection strength values.
• In the major graben area, there is anomaly with elongated shape in the south
part. It represents high relative increase of reflection strength values.
Another anomaly against fault with small nose shape in the north part. It
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3- Khasib reflection strength map (figure 4-27) shows the following anomalies:
field trap area. It represents low relative increase of reflection strength
values. Another faulted anomaly in the local graben area. It represents high
relative increase of reflection strength values.
• In the west shoulder area, there is anomaly with elongated shape along
whole west shoulder area and separated by strike-slip fault. It represents
high relative increase of reflection strength values.
part. It represents high relative increase of reflection strength values.
Another anomaly against fault with elongated shape in the north part. It
100
Figure (4-25) shows intra Hartha reflection strength map.
101
Figure (4-26) shows Sadi reflection strength map.
102
Figure (4-27) shows Khasib reflection strength map.
103
4.4.3 RMS amplitude attribute

In seismic reflection root mean square (RMS) amplitude attribute is one of the
most important factors which are used to draw a map of distribution of the
hydrocarbon accumulations in reservoir layers. This map shows colors reflect
relatively variation of the reflectors amplitude between traces (Schlumberger,
2004). In addition, it reflects the petrophysical properties of reservoirs rocks such
as porosity, fluids content, geometrical variation of rocks and layers pinch-out.
The RMS amplitude is calculated as the following:
𝑛
1𝐴2
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 =
𝑘
Where:
A is amplitude of reflected signal.
K is the number of live traces.
The seismic wave amplitude increases at interface between two layers of high
contrast in the acoustic impedance and verse via.
Three maps were drawn, show the distribution of amplitude for three reflectors
represent the main reservoirs in study area.
1- Intra Hartha RMS amplitude map (figure 4-28) shows the following anomalies:
field trap area. Another anomaly against fault with elongated shape in the
horst area. They represent high relative increase of RMS amplitude values.
• In the west shoulder area, there are two anomalies with a circle shapes. They
represent high relative decrease of RMS amplitude values.
in the north part; another anomaly against fault with a circle shape in the
south part. They represent high relative increase of RMS amplitude values.
2- Sadi RMS amplitude map (figure 4-29) shows the following anomalies:
• In the east shoulder area, there is anomaly with elongated shape in the north
part of Balad field trap area. It represents high relative increase of RMS
amplitude values. Another anomaly against fault with elongated shape in the
horst area. It represents high relative increase of RMS amplitude values.
104
• In the west shoulder area, there is anomaly with elongated shapes in the
whole part. It represents high relative decrease of RMS amplitude values.
part. It represents high relative increase of RMS amplitude values. Another
anomaly against fault with elongated shape in the north part. It represents
low relative decrease of RMS amplitude values.
3- Khasib reflection strength map (figure 4-30) shows the following anomalies:
field trap area. It represents low relative increase of RMS amplitude values.
Another anomaly in the local graben area. It represents low relative increase
of RMS amplitude values.
• In the west shoulder area, there is anomaly with elongated shape, along
whole west shoulder area and separated by strike-slip fault. It represents
high relative increase of RMS amplitude values.
part. It represents high relative increase of RMS amplitude values. Another
anomaly with nose shape closed by major graben fault in the north part. It
represents low relative increase of RMS amplitude values.
105
Figure (4-28) shows intra Hartha RMS amplitude map.
106
Figure (4-29) shows Sadi RMS amplitude map.
107
Figure (4-30) shows Khasib RMS amplitude map.
108
4.5 Structural geophysical and geological model

Geophysical and geological models of Balad field were constructed based on
interpretation of the 3D Balad seismic data for the determination of a structural
framework of the field. These models capture essential structural features within
the upper Cretaceous reservoirs, in order to do initial strategy for the future of a
seismic work of Balad field.
TWT grids of studied reflectors and 3D seismic volume of Balad field were
used as input in visualization program available in Geoframe software to construct
the structural seismic model for Balad field. Figure (4-31) shows structural seismic
model alignment toward major graben area. This allowed for more gridding in the
study area, the large displacement of main faults in time domain and the change in
thickness of studied reflectors.
The depth information that was taken from seismic interpretation was applied
in Petral software to construct the geological model of Balad field. Figure (4-32)
shows the structural geology model of studied formations in the depth domain,
alignment toward major graben, which is formed by influence of Listric growth
normal fault in the northwest - south east trend. The figure shows Strike-slip Fault
in the east – west direction and divided the major graben into two parts, north and
south with a local graben located on the east side of north graben and formed horst
area.
This model explains the distribution of hydrocarbons accumulations in the Balad
field and identifies promising structural traps. Structurally, the geological model
shows that the north part of the study area is higher than the south part. This
indicates that this part is a promising hydrocarbon area. Furthermore, the effect of
strike-slip fault is contributing to increase the area of the dome of the Balad field
trap. Consequently, the probability of existing hydrocarbon is increased towards
the northern part of the dome. In addition, the middle of the study area within the
major graben was forms a good trap around the area of strike-slip fault..
109
Figures (4-31) shows the structural seismic model (3D Balad survey).
110
Figures (4-32) shows the structural geology model (3D Balad survey
111
.... .. .... .
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120
‫ﺍﻟﻣﺳﺗﺧﻠﺹ‬
‫ﺃﻥ ﻫﺫﺍ ﺍﻟﺑﺣﺙ ‪ �.‬ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺗ‪..‬ﻳﺑﺔﻳ ﺑﺄﺳﺗﺧﺩﺍﻡ ﻁﺭﻘﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﺳﺢ ﺍﻟﺯﻟﺯﺍﻟﻲ ﺎﻷﻧﻌﻛﺎﺳﻲ ﺑﺎﻷﺑﻌﺎﺩ ﺎﻟﺛﻷﺛﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻧﻁﻘﺔ‬
‫ﻣﺳﺎﺣ ﻷ‪ 250a‬ﻛﻡ‪ ²‬ﻟﺣﻘﻟ ﺑﻠﺩ ﺍﻟﻧﻔﻁﻲ ﺍﻟﺫﻱﻼ ﻊ ﻓﻲ ﻭﺳﻁ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﺍﻼ ﺿﻣﻥ ﻣﺡﺎﻓﻅﺔ ﺻﻼﺡ ﺍﻟﺩﻳﻥ ) ﻣﻧﻁﻘﺔ ﺑﻟﺩ (‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻡ ﺗﻔﺳﻳﺭ ﻣﻌﻠﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﺎﻟﻣﺳﺢ ﺍﻟﺯ ‪. ..‬ﻲ ﺍﻟﻣﺟﺳﻡ ﻟﻡﻧﻁﻘﺔ ﺑﻠﺩ ﺑﺄﺳﺗﺧﺩﺍﻡ ﻣﺣﻁﺔ ﺍﻟﺗﻔﺎﺳﻳﺭ ﺍﻟﺗﺣﺎﻭﺭﺔﻳ (‪. ( Geoframe‬‬
‫ﻼﻡ ﺗﻌﺭﻳﻑ ﺍﻟﻌﻭﺍﻛﺱ ﻋﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻣﻘﺍﻁﻊ ﺍﻟﺯﻟﺯﺍﻟﺔﻳ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﻣﺛﻝ ﺍﻟﺗﻛﻭﻳﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻣﺧﺗﺭﻗﺔ ﻣﻥ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻋﻣﻝ ﺎﻻﺛﺎﺭ ﺎﻟﺯﻟﺯﺍﻟﺔﻳ‪s‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻣﺻﻧﻌﺓ ﻟﻼﺑﺎﺭ ﺎﻟﻣﺣﻓﻭﺭﺓ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻧﻁﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ) ﺑﻠﺩ_ ‪ (9 ،8 ،4 ،1‬ﺑﺎﺳﺗﺧﺩﺍﻡ ﻣﻌﻠﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﺎﻟﻣﺟﺱ ﺍﻟﺻﻭﺗﻲ‬
‫ﻭﻣﺳﺢ ﺍﻟﺳﺭﻉ ﻓﻲ ﺍ ﻟﺎﺑﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻣﺫﻛﻭﺭﺓﻼ ﻼﻋﻠﻰ ﺿﻭء ﺫﻟﻙ ﺗﻡﺗﻌﺭﻱﻑ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻘﺍﻁ ﺍﻟﻌﻭﺍﻛﺱ ﺍﻟﺯﻼﻼﺔﻳ ﺍﻟﻣﻁﻠﻭﺏ‬
‫ﻼﻼ ﺍﻟﺑﺣﺙ ﻭﻫﻲ ‪:‬‬‫ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺗﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻫ‬
‫ﻼﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻛﻭﻱﻥ ﻼﻼﺛﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫�‬

‫�ﺍﻟﺣﺍﺭﺛﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪.‬ﻥ ﺗﻛﻭﻳﻥ‬ ‫�‬
‫ﺃ ‪ .‬ﺗﻛ ‪.‬ﻳﻥ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﺩﻱ‪o‬‬ ‫�‬
‫ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻛ ‪ . s.‬ﺍﻟﺧﺻ ﺏ‪.‬‬ ‫‪τ‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﺗﻘﻁﺕ ﺍﻟﺻﺩﻭﻉ ﺍﻟﻣﺅﺛﺭﺓ ﻌﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻭﺍﻛﺱ ﺍﻟﻣﻟﺗﻘﻁﺔ ﻭﻓﺳﺭﺕ ﺑﺄﺳﺗﺧﺩﺍﻼ ﺗﻁﺑﻳﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻣﻼﻼﺢ ﺍﻟﺯﻟﺯﺍﻟﺔﻳ ) ﺍﻟﻁﻭﺭ‬
‫ﺍﻵﻧﻲ ﻛﻣﻘﺎﻁﻊ ﺍﻟﺯﻟﺯﺍﻟﺔﻳ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻐﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﺟﺍﻳﻧﺑﻲ ﻛﺷﺭﺍﺋﺢ ﺯﻣﻧﺔﻳ ( ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲﻷﻳﻧﺕ ﺗﺄﺛﻳﺭ ﺻﺩﻉ ﻣﻥ ﻧﻭﻷ ﺎﻷﻋﺗﺎﻳﻵﻱ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻣﻧﺣﻧﻲ ﺍﻟﻣﻷﻧﺎﻣﻲ ﺍﻟﻷﻱ ﻳﺗﺯﺍﻣﻥ ﻧﺷﻭءﻩ ﻣﻊ ﺯﺎﻳﺩﺓ ﺳﻣﻙ ﺍﻟﺭﻭﺍﺳﺏ ﻌﻟﻰ ﺻﺧﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﺻﺭ ﺍﻟﻛﺭﻳﺗﺎﺳﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﻁﺑﻘﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺗﻱ ﺗﻘﻊ ﺃﺳﻔﻠﻪ ﻭﻗﺩ ﻗﻁﻊ ﺑﻭﺍﺳﻁﺔ ﺻﺩﻉ ﺃﻧﺯ ﻟﺎﻗﻱﻷ ﺃﺿﺍﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﻰ ﻭﺟﻭﺩ ﺍﻟﺻﺩﻭﻉ ﺍ ﻷﻷﺔﻳ ﻷﺍﻟﺷﺩﺔﻳ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﻧﻣﺕ‬
‫ﻭﺗﻁﻭﺭﺕ ﻋﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻔﺎﻟﻕ ﺎ ﻟﺃﻋﺗﻱﺎﺩﻱ ﻷﻧﺣﻧﻱ ﺍﻟﻣﺗﻧﺎﻣﻱ‪.‬‬
‫ﺭﺳﻣﺕ ﺍﻟﺧﺭﺍﺋﻁ ﺍﻟﺯﻣﻧﺔﻳ ﻭﺍﻟﺱﺭﻋﺔﻳ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻣﻘﻳﺔ ﻟﻟﻌﻭﺍﻛﺱ ﺍﻟﻣﻟﺗﻘﻁﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺑﻳﻧﺕ ﻋﻧﻬﺎ ﺻﻭﺭﺓ ﺗﺭﻛﻳﺑﺔﻳ ﺟﺩﻳﺩﺓ‬
‫�‪.‬ﺫﻩ ‪.‬ﺭﺍﺋﻁ ﻭﺟﻭﺩ ﺻﺩﻉ ﺧﺳﻔﻲ ﺭﺋﺳﻳﻲ ( ﻁﻱﺔ ﻣﻘﻌﺭﺔ ﻣﺗﺻﺩﻋﺔ )‪o‬ﻭﻗﺩ‬ ‫‪.‬ﻧﻁﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ‪ .‬ﺣﻳﺙ ﺃﻭﺿﺣﺕ‬
‫‪...‬ﺕ ﺒ‪.‬ﺎ‪ ...‬ﺻﺩﻉ ﺃﻧﺯﻟﺍﻗﻱ ﺍﻟﻰ ﺟﺯﺋﻱﻥ ( ﺷﻣﺎﻟﻱ ﻭﺟﻧﻭﺑﻱ ) ‪ .‬ﺃﻣﺎ ﺣﻘﻠ ﺑﻠﺩ ﻓﻘﺩ ﻅﻬﺭ ﺑﺷﻛﻝ ﻁﻱﺔ ﻁﻭﻟﻱﺔ‬
‫ﻷ ﻷﺩﻋﺔ ﻭﻗﺩ ﻗﺳﻣﺕ ﺑﻭﺍﺳﻁﺔ ﺍﻟﺻﺩﻉ ﺍﻷﻷﻷ ﻟﺍﻗﻲ ﺍﻟﻰ ﻗﺑﺗﻱﺍ ‪،‬ﻥ ﻟﺃﻭﻟﻰ ﺗﻘﻊ ﻓﻱ ﺍﻟﺟﻧﻭ ‪ .‬ﺍﻟﺷ ‪..‬ﻱ ﻭﺍﻟ‪.‬ﻱ ﺗﻣﺛﻝ ﻗﺑﺔ‬
‫ﺣﻘﻝ ﺑﻠﺩ ﺍﻟﺭﺋﺳﻳﺔﻳﻷ ﻭﺍﻟﺛﺎﻧﺔﻳ ﺗﻘﻊ ﻓﻱ ﺎﻟﺷﻣﺎﻟ ﺎ ﻟﺷﻣﺎﻟ ﺍﻟﺷﺭﻗﻱ ﻭﺗﺎﺧﺫ ﺷﻛﻝ ﻫﺿﺑﺔ ﺃﻧﺩﻓﺎﻋﺔﻳ‪ .‬ﺃﻥ ﻫﺫﺍ ﺍﻟﺗﻌﻘﻱﺩ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺗﺭﻛﻱﺑﻲ ﺳﺎﻫﻡ ﻓﻱﺗﺷﻛﻱﻝ ﻣﺻﺎﺋﺩ ﺗﺭﻛﻱﺑﻱﺔ ﻭﺍﻋ ‪ .‬ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻧﺎﺣﺔﻳ ﺍﻟﻬﻱﺩﺭﻭﻛﺭﺑﻭﻧﻱ‪. .‬ﻲ ﻣﻧﻁﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻼﻟ ﻼﺳﺗﻼﻼﺹ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﺔ ﻭﻗﻭﺓ‬ ‫ﺩﻋﻣﺕ ﺍﻋﻣﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺗﻔﺍﺳﺭ ﺍﻟﺗﺭﻛﻳﻳﺑﺔ ﺃﺳﻳﺗﺧﺩﺍﻡ ﺗﻘﻧﺎﻳﺕﻼﻟﻼﻼﻣﻼ ﺍﻟﺯﻟﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻼﻼﺗﻟﻳﻔﺔ ﻣ‬
‫ﺍﻷﻧﻌﻛﺍﺱ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﺭﺩﺩ ﺍﻵﻧﻲ ﻭﺭﺳﻣﺕ ﻟﻬﺍ ﺧﺭﺍﺋﻁ ﺗﻭﺯﻳﻊ ﺍﻟﺧﺻﺍﺋﺹ ﺍﻟﻷﻳﻷﺎﻳﺋﺔﻳ‪.‬‬
‫ﻭﺃﻋﺗﻣﺎﺩﺍ" ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺗﺎﺋ ‪ .‬ﺍﻟﺗﻔﺍﺳﺭ ﺍﻟﺗﺭﻛﻳﻱﺑﻱﺔ ﻟﻠﻣﻛﻌﺏ ﺍﻟﺯﻟ ‪.‬ﻲ ﺗﻡ ﺑ ‪ .�.. .‬ﺍﻟﺟﻭﻓﻳﺯﻳﺎﻳﺋﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﺟﻭﻟﻳﻭﺟﻲ ﻟﻣﻧﻁﻘﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ‪.‬‬
‫دراسـت زلـسالــــيت باألبعـاد الـثالثـت‬
‫للصـىرة التركيبيت التحج سـطحيت في‬
‫حقل بـلد النفطي – وسط العـراق‬
‫رسالـت هقدهت الى كلـيت العـلىم ‪ -‬جاهعـت بغداد‬

‫وهي جسء هن هتطلباث نيل درجت الواجسـتير‬
‫في علن األرض ‪ /‬أختصـاص الجـيىفـيسياء‬
‫هـن‬
‫ســهيل عـبيد هحســن‬
‫بـكالىريىش علـىم ‪1996‬‬
‫‪2012‬م‬ ‫‪ 1433‬هـ‬

3D Seismic Structural Study of Subsurface in Balad Oil Field

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3D Seismic Structural Study of Subsurface in Balad Oil Field

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3D Seismic Structural Study of Subsurface in

Balad Oil Field – Center of Iraq

A Thesis Submitted to the College of Science

Suhail Ubaid Muhsin

Name: Dr. Nawal Abed Al-Redha

Address: University of Baghdad College of Science

In view of the available recommendation, I forward this thesis for

Name: Dr. Ahmad Shihab Al-Banna

Address: University of Baghdad (Head Geology Department)

‫��ـﺪﻱ ﺍﻟﻌـــﺰـﻳﺟـ ﻲﻓ ﺰـﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﺨـــﻠـﺪ‬

I wish to express my thanks to the thesis supervisor, Professor Doctor of

My thanks go to the chief Geophysist, Mr. Ayad Fadhel Abbas of the

My thanks extend to my Colleagues during work namely, Aws Riydh Abd-AL

(1-1a, b) Location maps of the study area. 3

The geophysical research history of hydrocarbon accumulations returns to the

1.1 Location of the study area

Table (1-1) coordinates of the study area.

point Northern (m) Eastern (m)

Figure (1-1a, b) location maps of the study area.

1.2 Geology of the study area

1.2.2 Subsurface geology

1.3 Regional tectonics and geological history

Historically, the area was influenced by extension deformations and tectonic

1.4 The Middle-Upper Cretaceous Albian cycles

1.4.2 Coniacian - Early Campanian cycle

1.4.3 Campanian - Mastrichtian cycle

1.5 deposition Environments

1.5.2 Sadi Formation

1.5.3 Hartha Formation

*RTKB: is Rotary Table Kelly Bush.

1.6 The hydrocarbon probability

1.7 The Previous studies of Balad area

1.7.2 The magnetic survey

1.7.3 The seismic surveys

2. In (1979-1981), the detailed two dimensional seismic surveys, Baghdad-Fetaha'

3. In1981, the detailed two dimensional seismic surveys, Balad-Dijail were

4. In1986, the detailed two dimensional seismic surveys, Balad-Dijail were

7. In 2008, Exxon-Mobil made some enhancement of quality of 3D seismic

Figure (1-12) intra-Hartha depth ma relative to S.L.p, after (Ohan, 1989).

1.8 Historical review of 3D Seismic Reflection Surveys

1.9 Aim of the study

2.1 Seismic reflection theory

2.2 Geometry of reflection prospecting

t = 𝑡0 ² + x² cos²α /v² … … (2 − 6) Where:

2.3 Acoustic impedance

Consider a P-wave of amplitude A0 that is normally incident on an interface

2.4 Reflection coefficient

2.5 Seismic velocity

2.5.1 Instantaneous velocity (Vinst)

2.5.2 Average velocity (Vave)

2.5.3 Interval velocity (Vint)

2.5.4 Stacking velocity (Vst.)

Τo: represents vertical TWT.

2.5.5 Root-Mean-Square velocity (Vrms)

2.6 Basic Concepts in 2D & 3D Surveys

In 2D survey designs, centers of the subsurface coverage in the form of

In 3D survey, using the computers are necessary to design the preplanning,

2.7 Principles of 3D seismic survey

 CMP Bin (Bin)

3D fold = inline fold × crossline fold … . . (2 − 15)

no .of active receivres ×receivres interval ( RI )

no .of active receivres lines

Figure (2-13) diagram illustrates the Three-zone acquisition model.