LECTURE NOTES

EMT 2402 CONTROL ENGINEERING I

MECHATRONIC ENGINEERING
Y4 S1
DeKUT

By
Inno Odira

c Copyright by Inno Odira, 2018
Table of Contents

Table of Contents iii

0.1 Linearization of Non-linear systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

iii
 1
0.1 Linearization of Non-linear systems
LINEARIZATION OF NONLINEAR SYSTEMS

Linearization of z = f ( x ) about a point ( x , z ) .

Consider a nonlinear system whose input is x and z z =f (x )

output is z , the relationship between z and x may be
written as

z = f (x) (7-21) z

If the normal operating condition corresponds to a point

( x , z ) , then Equation (7-21) can be expanded into a x
x
Taylor series about this point as follows:

df 1 d2 f 2
z = f (x) = f (x ) + (x − x ) + ( x − x ) +L (7-22)
dx x =x 2! dx 2 x=x

2
where the derivatives df dx , d 2 f dx are evaluated at the operating point, x = x , z = z .
If the variation ( x − x ) is small, we can neglect the higher-order terms in ( x − x ) . Noting
that z = f ( x ) , Equation (7-22) can be written

df
z = f (x ) + (x − x )
dx x =x

Noting that z = f ( x ) , we can write Equation (7-22) as

z − z = m(x − x ) (7-23)

where
df
m=
dx x=x
Equation (7-23) indicates that z − z is z z =f (x )
proportional to x − x . The equation is a linear
mathematical model for the nonlinear system
given by Equation (7-21) near the operating point
z
x − x , z − z . Equation (7-23) represents an
equation of the tangent line to the curve z = f (x) z − z = m(x − x )
at the operating point ( x , z ) with a slope m x
x
Figure 1. Linearization of the function y = f ( x)
about the point (x, z )

Linearization of z = f ( x , y ) about a point ( x , y , z ) .

Next, consider a nonlinear system whose output z is function of two inputs x and y such that

z = f ( x, y ) (7-24)

To obtain a linear mathematical model for this nonlinear system about an operating point
( )
x , y , z , we expand Equation (7-24) into a Taylor series about this point as follows:

 ∂f ∂f 
z = f (x , y ) +  (x − x ) + ( y − y )
 ∂x ∂y 
1  ∂ 2f 2 ∂ 2f ∂ 2f 
+  2
( x − x ) + 2 ( x − x )( y − y ) + 2
( y − y ) 2  +...
2!  ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y 
where the partial derivatives are evaluated at the operating point,
x = x , y = y , and z = z . Near this point, the higher-order terms may be neglected. Noting
that z = f (x , y ) , a linear mathematical model of this nonlinear system near the operating
point x = x , y = y , and z = z is

z − z = m (x − x ) + n ( y − y )
where

∂f
m= |x =x , y = y
∂x
∂f
n= |x =x , y = y
∂y

█ Example 7-3 (Textbook Page 336)

Linearize the nonlinear equation z = xy in the region 5 ≤ x ≤ 7, 10 ≤ y ≤ 12 .

Find the error if the linearized equation is used to calculate the value of z when x=5
and y = 10 .
 █ Solution

Since the region considered is given by

5 ≤ x ≤ 7, 10 ≤ y ≤ 12 , choose x = 6 , y = 11. Then z = x y = 66 . Let us
obtain a linearized equation for the nonlinear equation near a point x = 6 , y = 11,
and z = 66 .
Expanding the nonlinear equation into a Taylor’s series about the point x =x ,
y = y and z = z and neglecting the higher order terms, we have
z − z = m (x − x ) + n ( y − y )
where

∂f ∂
m= = [ xy ]x =x , y = y = y x=x , y = y = y = 11
∂x x =x , y = y ∂x
∂f ∂
m=
∂y
=
∂y
[ xy ]x=x , y =y = x x=x , y =y = x = 6
x =x , y = y

Hence the linearized equation is

z − 66 = 11( x − 6) + 6( y − 11)
or
z = 11x + 6 y − 66
When x = 5 and y = 10 , the value of z given by the linearized equation is

z = 11x + 6 y − 66 = 11× ( 5 ) + 6 (10 ) − 66 = 55 + 60 − 66 = 49

The exact value is z = xy = ( 5 ) × (10 ) = 55 . The error is thus 50 − 49 = 1 . In

50 − 49
terms of percentage, the error is z = × 100 = 2%
49
█ Example 7-4 (Textbook Page 336)
Consider the liquid level-system shown in Figure 7-8. At steady state, the inflow rate is
Qi = Q , the outflow rate is Qo = Q , and the head is H = H . Assume that the flow is
turbulent. Then
Q =K H
o
For this system, we have
dH
C = Qi − Q = Qi − K H
dt o
Where C is the capacitance of the tank. Let us define

dH 1 K H
= Qi − = f ( H , Qi ) (7-25)
dt C C
Assume that the system operates near the steady-state condition ( H , Q ) . That is ,
H = H + h and Q = Q + q i , where h and q i are small quantities (either positive or
negative). At steady-state operation, dH dt = 0 . Hence, f ( H , Q ) = 0.

█ Solution
 5
Linearization of trigonometric functions
Taylor’s series expansion

f 00 (a)(x − a)2 f 000 (a)(x − a)3 f 0000 (a)(x − a)4

f (x) = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a) + + + + ···
2! 3! 4!
θ3 θ5
sin θ = θ1 − + + ···
3! 5!
θ2 θ4
cos θ = 1 − + + ···
2! 4!
Keeping only up to linear terms

sin θ = θ
cos θ = 1

Example

An inverted pendulum mounted on a motor-driven cart is shown in Fig. ?? Consider only a

two- dimensional problem in which the pendulum moves only in the plane of the page. The
control force u is applied to the cart. Assume the center of gravity of the pendulum rod is
at its geometric center. Obtain a mathematical model for the system. Define the angle of
the rod from the vertical line as θ . Define also the (x, y) coordinates of the center of gravity
of the pendulum rod as (xG , yG ).
 6

Figure 1: Inverted Pendulum and FBD

Example Solution

Free Body diagram

Figure 2: Inverted Pendulum

Then

xG = x + l sin θ
yG = l cos θ

The rotational motion of the pendulum rod about its center of gravity

I θ̈ = V l sin θ − Hl cos θ (0.1.1)

Where I is the moment of inertia of the rod about its center of gravity
The horizontal motion of center of gravity of pendulum rod is given by
 7
d2
m (x + l sin θ) = H (0.1.2)
dt2
The vertical motion of center of gravity of the pendulum rod is

d2
m (l cos θ = V − mg) (0.1.3)
dt2
The horizontal motion of cart
d2
M =u−H (0.1.4)
dt2
Linearizing these equations for small values of θ and θ̇

sin θ = 0 cos θ = 1 and θθ̇2 = 0

The (0.1.1) through (0.1.4) can be linearised as

I θ̈ = V lθ − Hl (0.1.5)

m(ẍ − lθ̈) = H (0.1.6)

0 = V − mg (0.1.7)
From (0.1.5) and (0.1.6) we obtain

(M + m)ẍ + mlθ̈ = u (0.1.8)

From (0.1.5), (0.1.6) and (0.1.7) we have

Iθ =mglθ − Hl
=mglθ − l(mẍ + mlθ̈)

Or

(I + ml2 )θ̈ + mlẍ = mglθ (0.1.9)

(0.1.8) and (0.1.9) describes the motion of inverted pendulum. ie.

(M + m)ẍ + mlθ̈ = u
(I + ml2 )θ̈ + mlẍ = mglθ