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International Trade Theory
International Trade Theory
International Trade Theory
What is international trade?
– Exchange of raw materials and manufactured goods
(and services) across national borders
International Trade Theory
• Before there was theory . . . there was trade! One of
the earliest of humankind’s activities.
• Trade is the “buying and selling” of goods and
services across national borders. Why? Because, it is
making both parties to any transaction better off.
• Trade theories, in general, attempt to explain who
trades how much of what with whom, and why . . .
and at what price. But NO ONE THEORY explains all
trade!
International Trade Theory
Classical trade theories:
– explain national economy conditions‐‐country
advantages‐‐that enable such exchange to happen
New trade theories:
– explain links among natural country advantages,
government action, and industry characteristics that
enable such exchange to happen
Classical Trade Theories
Mercantilism (pre‐16th century)
– Takes an us‐versus‐them view of trade
– Other country’s gain is our country’s loss
Free Trade theories
– Absolute Advantage (Adam Smith, 1776)
– Comparative Advantage (David Ricardo, 1817)
– Specialization of production and free flow of goods
benefit all trading partners’ economies
Free Trade refined
– Factor‐proportions (Heckscher‐Ohlin, 1919‐33)
– International product life cycle (Ray Vernon, 1966)
The New Trade Theory
As output expands with specialization, an
industry’s ability to realize economies of scale
increases and unit costs decrease
Because of scale economies, world demand
supports only a few firms in such industries (e.g.,
commercial aircraft, automobiles)
Countries that had an early entrant to such an
industry have an advantage:
– Fist‐mover advantage
– Barrier to entry
New Trade Theory
Global Strategic Rivalry
– Firms gain competitive advantage trough:
intellectual property, R&D, economies of
scale and scope, experience
National Competitive Advantage
(Porter, 1990)
Mercantilism
• From the mid‐16th Century till 19th Century
• A nation’s wealth depends on its accumulated
treasure, basically Gold & Silver
• Gold and silver are the currency of trade.
• Export more to “strangers” than we import to
amass treasure, expand kingdom
• Trade is “win or lose”; a “zero‐sum game”.
• The interest of the State is dominant
Mercantilism
Government intervenes to achieve a surplus in
exports
– Theory says you should have a trade surplus.
• Maximize exports through subsidies.
• Minimize imports through tariffs and quotas.
– King, exporters, domestic producers: happy
– Subjects: unhappy because domestic goods stay
expensive and of limited variety
• Fit quite well with an age of exploration, colonialism,
imperialism, and capitalism. (East India Companies)
David Hume ‐ 1752
• Increased exports leads to inflation and higher
prices.
• Increased imports lead to lower prices.
• Result: Country A sells less because of high
prices and Country B sells more because of lower
prices.
• In the long run, no one can keep a trade surplus.
Free Trade Theory
• Free Trade occurs when a government does not
attempt to influence, through quotas or duties, what
its citizens can buy from another country or what
they can produce and sell to another country.
• The Benefits of Trade allow a country to specialize in
the manufacture and export of products that can be
produced most efficiently in that country.
• The Pattern of International Trade displays patterns
that are easy to understand (Saudi Arabia/oil or
Mexico/labor intensive goods). Others are not so easy
to understand (Japan and cars).
Theory of Absolute Advantage
Adam Smith: Wealth of Nations (1776).
Capability of one country to produce more of a product
with the same amount of input than another country.
A country
Should specialize in production of and export products for which it
has absolute advantage; import other products
Has absolute advantage when it is more productive than another
country in producing a particular product
Trade between countries is, therefore, beneficial.
Assumes there is an absolute advantage balance among
nations.
No longer “zero sum”; everybody wins!
Ghana/cocoa.
Comparative Advantage
David Ricardo: Principles of Political Economy, 1817
– Extends free trade argument
– Efficiency of resource utilization leads to more productivity.
– Should import even if country is more efficient in the product’s
production than country from which it is buying.
• Look to see how much more efficient. If only comparatively
efficient, than import.
Country should specialize in the production of those goods
in which it is relatively more productive... even if it has
absolute advantage in all goods it produces
Makes better use of resources
Absolute Advantage is a special case of Comparative
Advantage
Factor Endowments Trade Theory
• Developed by Eli Heckscher (1919)
• Expanded by Bertil Ohlin (1933)
• Factor Endowments Trade Theory originally
considered two factors of Production- Labor
& Capital
• Other factors were added later
Factor Endowments Trade Theory
• Factors of production: labor, capital, land, human
resources, technology
• A country has a comparative advantage in producing
products that intensively use factors of production
(resources) it has in abundance
• Export goods that intensively use factor endowments
which are locally abundant.
– Corollary: import goods made from locally scarce
factors.
• Patterns of trade are determined by differences in
factor endowments ‐ not productivity.
Factor Proportions Trade Theory
A country that is relatively labor
abundant (capital abundant) should
specialize in the production and export of
that product which is relatively labor
intensive (capital intensive).
15
Leontief paradox
– Could Factor Proportions Theory be used to explain the types
of goods the United States imported and exported?
– US has relatively more abundant capital yet imports goods
more capital intensive than those it exports
– The labor cost is high, but exports more labor intensive
goods
– Explanation:
• US has special advantage on producing new products
made with innovative technologies
• These may be less capital intensive, but more labor
intensive till they reach mass‐production state
Product Life‐Cycle Theory
(Raymond Vernon, 1966)
• As products mature, both location of sales and
optimal production changes.
• Affects the direction and flow of imports and
exports.
• Globalization and integration of the economy makes
this theory less valid.
Product Cycle Theory: Vernon’s Premises
• Technical innovations leading to new and
profitable products require large quantities of
capital and skilled labor
• The product and the methods for manufacture
go through three stages of maturation
• New Product – Maturing Product‐
Standardized Product
18
International Product Trade Cycle Model
High Income Countries production
Q
u 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
a Medium Income Countries Exports
n
ti
t Imports
y 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Low Income Countries
Exports
Imports
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Time
New Product Maturing Product Standardized Product
20
Classic Theory Conclusion
Free Trade expands the world “pie” for goods/services
Theory Limitations:
Simple world (two countries, two products)
no transportation costs
no price differences in resources
resources immobile across countries
constant returns to scale
each country has a fixed stock of resources and no efficiency
gains in resource use from trade
full employment