in descriptive statistics, the interquartile range (IQR), also called the midspread or middle 50%, or

technically H-spread, is a measure of statistical dispersion, being equal to the difference between
75th and 25th percentiles, or between upper and lower quartiles,[1][2] IQR = Q3 − Q1. In other words,
the IQR is the first quartile subtracted from the third quartile; these quartiles can be clearly seen on
a box plot on the data. It is a trimmed estimator, defined as the 25% trimmed range, and is the most
significant basic robust measure of scale.
Unlike total range, the interquartile range has a breakdown point of 25%,[3] and is thus often
preferred to the total range.

A composite endpoint is an endpoint that is a combination of multiple clinical endpoints. Composite

endpoints can be primary or secondary:
 Primary composite endpoints are the main measurements for a trial; They answer the most important
questions in the trial. For example, if the endpoint of a study is “cure”, then a composite endpoint might be
cure or remission.
 Secondary composite endpoints are the secondary objectives in the trial. For example, a drug designed to
cure/put into remission a disease might also have measures of whether chronic pain and quality of life are
improved.
 In a clinical research trial, a clinical endpoint generally refers to occurrence of
a disease, symptom, sign or laboratory abnormality that constitutes one of the target
outcomes of the trial, but may also refer to any such disease or sign that strongly motivates
the withdrawal of that individual or entity from the trial, then often termed humane (clinical)
endpoint. [clarification needed]
 The primary endpoint of a clinical trial is the endpoint for which subjects
are randomized and for which the trial is powered. Secondary endpoints are endpoints that
are analyzed post hoc, for which the trial may not be powered nor randomized.
In statistics, the logrank test is a hypothesis test to compare the survival distributions of two
samples. It is a nonparametric test and appropriate to use when the data are right skewed
and censored (technically, the censoring must be non-informative). It is widely used in clinical
trials to establish the efficacy of a new treatment in comparison with a control treatment when the
measurement is the time to event (such as the time from initial treatment to a heart attack).

n its simplest form, the hazard ratio can be interpreted as the chance of an event occurring in the
treatment arm divided by the chance of the event occurring in the control arm, or vice versa, of a
study. The resolution of these endpoints are usually depicted using Kaplan–Meier survival curves.
These curves relate the proportion of each group where the endpoint has not been reached. The
endpoint could be any dependent variable associated with the covariate (independent variable), e.g.
death, remission of disease or contraction of disease. The curve represents the odds of an endpoint
having occurred at each point in time (the hazard). The hazard ratio is simply the relationship
between the instantaneous hazards in the two groups and represents, in a single number, the
magnitude of distance between the Kaplan–Meier plots.[5][page needed]
Hazard ratios do not reflect a time unit of the study. The difference between hazard-based and time-
based measures is akin to the difference between the odds of winning a race and the margin of
victory.[1] When a study reports one hazard ratio per time period, it is assumed that difference
between groups was proportional. Hazard ratios become meaningless when this assumption of
proportionality is not met.[5][page needed]
If the proportional hazard assumption holds, a hazard ratio of one means equivalence in the hazard
rate of the two groups, whereas a hazard ratio other than one indicates difference in hazard rates
between groups. The researcher indicates the probability of this sample difference being due to

chance by reporting the probability associated with some test statistic.[6] For instance, the from
the Cox-model or the log-rank test might then be used to assess the significance of any differences
observed in these survival curves.[7]
Conventionally, probabilities lower than 0.05 are considered significant and researchers provide a
95% confidence interval for the hazard ratio, e.g. derived from the standard deviation of the Cox-

model regression coefficient, i.e. .[7][8][page needed] Statistically significant hazard ratios cannot
include unity (one) in their confidence intervals.[5][page needed]
Whereas the Kaplan-Meier method with log-rank test is useful for comparing survival curves in two
or more groups, Cox regression (or proportional hazards regression) allows analyzing the effect of
several risk factors on survival.

Kaplan-Meier estimate is one of the best options to be used to measure the fraction of subjects living for
a certain amount of time after treatment.

There are three assumptions used in this analysis. Firstly, we assume that at any time patients who are
censored have the same survival prospects as those who continue to be followed. Secondly, we assume
that the survival probabilities are the same for subjects recruited early and late in the study. Thirdly, we
assume that the event happens at the time specified.