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Fundamentals of Technical Graphics
Fundamentals of Technical Graphics
of Technical
Graphics
Fundamentals
of Technical
Graphics
Volume I
Edward E. Osakue
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Keywords
List of Figures ix
List of Tables xiii
Preface xv
1 Guidelines for Drafting 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Conventions and Standards 2
1.3 Drawing Units 4
1.4 Drawing Media 5
1.5 Sheet Layout 7
1.6 Annotations 10
1.7 Linestyles 14
1.8 Precedence of Linestyles 17
1.9 Applying Linestyles 17
1.10 Chapter Review Questions 18
1.11 Chapter Exercises 19
2 Basic Technical Sketching 21
2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Sketching Tools 22
2.3 Basic Sketching Techniques 29
2.4 Sketching Graphic Elements 32
2.5 Proportional Sketching 36
2.6 Applications of Sketching 38
2.7 Chapter Review Questions 40
2.8 Chapter Exercises 41
3 Computer Design Drafting Systems 43
3.1 Introduction 43
3.2 Brief History of CDD 44
3.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of CDD 45
viii • Contents
1.1 Introduction
Principles one to six are largely built into computer design draft-
ing (CDD) software or packages. This means the CDD operator need
not worry about them, except know what linestyle to use for different
features of objects and assign appropriate line weight or thickness. How-
ever, principles 7 to 10 must be mastered and consistently applied. These
have bearings on accuracy, legibility, neatness, and visual pleasantness
of drawings.
There are national and international organizations that develop
and manage the development of standards. Examples are the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the International Standardiza-
tion Organization (ISO). ANSI is a federation of government, private
companies, professional, technical, trade, labor, and consumer organiza-
tions that serve as a clearinghouse for nationally coordinated voluntary
standards. The standards may deal with dimensions, rating, test meth-
ods, safety and performance specifications for equipment, products and
components, symbols and terminology, and so on. Major c ontributors
Guidelines for Drafting • 3
1.3 Drawing Units
The SI unit of length is the meter. The English or U.S. customary unit of
length is the foot (ft). Table 1.3 shows the length denominations for SI and
English units. English units are still in use in North America, especially in
the United States.
The SI linear unit for drafting is the millimeter. Mechanical draw-
ings are dimensioned in millimeter (mm). Architectural drawings may be
dimensioned in millimeter (mm) and meter (m). Meter and kilometer (km)
are used for civil dimensioning. Only decimals are used in metric dimen-
sioning; fractions are not allowed. For numbers less than 1.0, which must
be expressed as decimals, a zero before the decimal marker is preferred.
For example, 0.234 is preferred to .234. The period symbol is the decimal
marker in this example.
In English units, mechanical drawings are dimensioned in decimal
inches, architectural drawings are commonly dimensioned in feet (‘), and
fractional inches and civil drawings are dimensioned in decimal feet and
inches. Drawings in metric units carry a general note such as “all dimen-
sions are in millimeter, unless otherwise stated” or the label “METRIC.”
1.4 Drawing Media
Drawing media are physical materials that can retain graphic and textual
information for a reasonable time period when placed on their surfaces.
They are used to produce hard or paper copies of models and drawings.
Certain characteristics make these media suitable for drawings and include
smoothness, eraseability, dimensional stability, transparency, durabil-
ity, and cost. Smoothness describes the ease of the media to accept lines
and letters without excessive effort. Eraseability describes the ease of the
media to allow lines and letters to be erased and cleaned-up. Ghosting
is a term used to describe the mark left after lines are erased. The more
visible they are, the poorer the eraseability. Dimensional stability refers
to the ability of the media to retain size in varying weather conditions.
Transparency allows drawings on one side of the media to be visible on
the other side. This used to be an important characteristic in traditional
drafting, but photocopying technology and plotter capabilities today make
this requirement a noncritical factor. Durability refers to the ability of the
media to resist normal usage wear and tear. Wear and tear is ever present
because wrinkles develop with usage that renders drawings difficult to
read or reproduce. Drawing media include bond stationary, vellum, mylar,
grid papers, and tracing papers.
Bond stationary or plain paper is good for all types of technical draw-
ing. They are made from wood pulp of higher quality than newsprint. How-
ever, they have low durability. There are different grades of plain paper in
the market. The better ones are whiter and smoother. Plain papers should be
preferably used for sketches, exploratory design drawings, and check prints.
Vellum is the most popular drafting paper. It is specially designed to
accept pencil marks and ink. It has good smoothness and transparency, but
susceptible to humidity and other weather conditions. This makes it not to
be very stable dimensionally. Some brands have better eraseability.
Mylar is a plastic type (polyester) drafting material that has excellent
dimensional stability, eraseability, durability, and transparency. It takes
ink easily, but it is expensive and requires special polyester lead for draw-
ing on it. It is, thus, used for very high-quality jobs or when cost is not
a factor. Mylar may have single or double working (mat) surfaces. The
single mat surface is more common.
6 • Fundamentals of Technical Graphics
Paper or sheet sizes have been standardized by ANSI and ISO. Standard
drafting papers are available in sheet or roll form. Table 1.4 summarizes
the standard paper or sheet sizes for English (ANSI) and metric (ISO)
applications with metric as preferred units. The sizes are the overall
dimensions of the sheets without allowance for margins. Roll sheets come
in different widths and lengths with the width usually equal to one of the
standard sheet dimensions as shown in Table 1.4. Metric roll sizes vary
from 297 to 420 mm in width. Large metric sheet sizes are cut from metric
rolls. Roll sizes in English unit vary in width from 18” to 48”, and the
usual length of a roll is 100’ long. In English unit, large sheet sizes F, G,
H, J, and K are cut from rolls. In most situations, the paper size is specified
by the company or stated in a given problem.
1.4.2 Sheet Orientation
Standard drawing sheet may be oriented with the long-side horizontal and
the short-side vertical as shown in Figure 1.1a. This type of orientation
is known as landscape and is generally preferred for sheet sizes B, C, D,
and E in English unit or sheet sizes A3, A2, A1, and A0 in metric unit.
Guidelines for Drafting • 7
1.5 Sheet Layout
1.5.1 Zoning
Revision
block area
Views, dimensions, and notes area
1.5.2 Title Block
Bill of materials
Item # Name Oty
1 Shaft 1
2 Gear 1
3 Flange 1
4 Sleeve 1
5 Retainer 1
6 Wood ruff key
7 Pulley 1
8 P & W key 1
9 Bearing 2
10 Hex. slotted nut 1
11 Hex. jain nut 1
12 Cotter pin 1
13 Seal 1
14 Hex. cap screw 4
Figure 1.3. A simple bill of materials.
1.5.4 Revision Block
1.6 Annotations
The textual information and symbols added to models and drawing views
for complete documentation of design are commonly called annotations.
When annotation is done manually, it is called lettering, which used to be a
tedious and time-consuming task. But, things are quite different now with
computers; they have greatly increased the speed and quality of lettering.
Text information consists of groups of characters that express meaning,
which could be words, phrases, and or sentences. In technical graphics, the
aim is to communicate clearly and legibly so as to avoid misinterpretation
of intent and purpose. The factors that can greatly affect legibility are:
1. Font
2. Character size (text height)
3. Character spacing
4. Word spacing
5. Line spacing (leading)
1.6.1 Lettering Conventions
A B C D E F G H I JK L M N
O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z
(a)
a b c d e f g h ijkl m n
o p qrs t u v wx y z 68º
(b) A B CDEFGH IJ
0123567 89 a b c d e fg h ij
(c) 0 1 23 4 56 7 8 9
Figure 1.4. Vertical characters. Figure 1.5. Inclined characters.
and proportion, and ho is the symbol for text or character height in the
figure. Characters in annotations may be inclined from the horizontal at
an angle defined by 5/2 (rise over run), approximately 68 degrees ANSI as
shown in Figure 1.5.
An important attribute of a font is the text height or font size. Text
height is measured in linear unit of mm (inch). The ANSI recommended
text height is 3 mm (1/8”). The width of characters varies depending on
the specific font. Some characters are narrow like I and others wide like W.
The ratio of a character height to the width is described as width factor or
aspect ratio. Common aspect ratios for characters are 5/6, 1, and 4/3. The
spacing between words should be approximately equal and a minimum of
1/16” (1.5 mm) is recommended. A full character height for word spacing
is preferred. The spacing between lines should be at least half the text
height, but preferably a full text height. Sentences should be separated by
at least one text height; however, if space allows, two text heights should
be used.
Annotation information may be divided into two categories of
technical and administrative information. Administrative information
includes revision notes and title block. Revision notes are used for doc-
ument control and record-keeping of changes in design. The title block
contains vital information about the company and the drawing. Techni-
cal information includes BOM, dimensions, notes, and specifications.
Dimensions are the size values of objects, and tolerances are permissible
variations on object sizes. The sizes and tolerances shown on drawing
views must be the functional or design sizes and tolerances as specified
by the engineer or designer. In Figure 1.6, the diameter size of 20 mm has
a tolerance of 0.05 mm. Annotation symbols are commonly used for geo-
metric tolerancing and dimensioning (GD&T). Notes are explanatory or
required information needed on models and drawings for proper interpre-
tation. There are two types of notes found in drawings: general and local
notes. General notes apply to the whole drawing and may be placed in
12 • Fundamentals of Technical Graphics
50
30
25±0.05
32.5±0.05
65
ø 25.75 M10×1.5
2
M6×1
Callout
Balloon
the title block or at the bottom of a drawing view area. Local notes apply
only to a portion or specific features in a drawing and are placed close to
the feature referenced. A leader line can link a local note to a feature or
portion of a drawing; callouts and balloons are special formats of placing
local notes. Figure 1.7 shows examples of a leader, balloon, and callout.
Balloons are local notes placed inside a shape (circle, diamond, etc.).
Callouts are local notes placed without a shape. Notes should be made
simple and concise. Specifications are technical requirements and are
usually about material type, processing, and finishing. They often appear
as general notes or are put together as separate documents. Leader lines
are thin continuous lines used to direct information to specific features
in a drawing. A leader line has an arrow head, an inclined segment, and
a horizontal segment as a tail. The inclined segment connects the arrow
head with the horizontal segment.
Annotation in CDD is much easier than lettering. CDD letters are
neat, consistent, stylish, and can be created with speed and accuracy.
Guidelines for Drafting • 13
1.7 Linestyles
Visible line
Hidden line
Center line
Dimension line
Extension line
158.31
Dimension line terminator
Short brake
Long brake
Phantom line
Figure 1.9. Linestyles.
dash lines can vary from 3 to 10 mm (1/8”–3/8”), and the gap can vary
from 1.5 to 3 mm (1/16”–1/8”). Thickness of lines and length of dashes
mentioned here are best for an A-size sheet.
Visible (object) lines are thick continuous (solid) lines that repre-
sent visible edges or outlines of object. Straight edges are formed where
two planes intersect. Curved edges arise from curved faces and surfaces.
Visible lines should be crisp and black with thickness of 0.40, 0.50, or
0.60 mm, depending and sheet size, but ANSI-recommended thickness of
visible line is 0.60 mm.
Hidden lines are thin dashed lines representing edges that are within
the object or behind some features, and so are not directly seen from a
view direction. The edges are known to be physically present in an object.
Hidden lines generally have dash length of 3 mm (1/8”) and a gap of
1 mm (1/32”), but can vary with sheet size or drawings. The gap is about
16 • Fundamentals of Technical Graphics
a quarter of the dash length. Hidden lines should start or end at visible or
other hidden lines. No gap is allowed between hidden and visible lines.
Centerlines are thin broken lines of alternating long and short strokes
separated by a gap. A centerline is used to show and locate centers of cir-
cles and arcs and to represent lines of symmetry and paths of motion in
objects. Centerlines should cross visible lines with 3 mm or more beyond
them. The gap and short stroke are of equal length. The short stroke is
about a quarter of the long stroke, which is about 10 mm long.
Dimension lines are continuous thin lines used to indicate the value
of a dimension. A dimension line has three elements: the dimension value,
the terminator, and the stem. The stem is the thin line that ends with the
terminators at both ends. The terminator may be arrows (usually filled),
slashes, or filled circles. The dimension value may be placed on top of the
stem or at a broken portion of the stem.
Extension lines are a pair of continuous thin lines used to establish the
extent of a dimension. The extension line references a point on a feature
with a small gap (1.5 mm minimum) between the point and the beginning
of the extension line. They are used in conjunction with dimension lines
and slightly extend beyond the dimension lines about 3 mm. Extension
and dimension lines are always perpendicular.
Phantom lines are thin dashed lines used to identify alternative posi-
tions of moving paths, adjacent positions of related paths, or repetitive
details. A phantom line consists of a long dash, two short dashes, and gaps
between the dashes. Gaps are about 3 mm long but can vary.
Cutting plane lines are used to indicate the position and direction of
view for cutting planes placed on an object model to create section views.
They are also used to indicate auxiliary view plane and direction. Cutting
plane lines are either thick phantom or hidden lines with arrow heads that
are normal to the main lines. The arrows point in the view directions. The
long dash is about five times the short dash. The short dash and gap are of
equal length. Gaps are about 3 mm long but can vary.
Section (hatch) lines are thin inclined lines used to identify a solid
material cut through by a section plane. They form a pattern on the section
affected. Section assembly drawings often have components of different
materials in the section plane. The deferent materials are distinguished by
using different angles for section lines in the section. Section line angles
normally vary between 15° and 75°.
Break lines can be either thin or thick. Long breaks are thin, while
short breaks are thick. They are used to show that some portion of an
object is left out. A short break line is used for small areas of interest and
allows greater details to be shown. Long break lines are used when space
Guidelines for Drafting • 17
Figure 1.10 shows a drawing view with several linestyles used in its rep-
resentation. The visible, hidden, and centerline styles are perhaps the most
frequently used in drawings. Though CDD has highly simplified linestyle
Center line
A A
Visible line
Hidden line
Extension line
58, 45
Section A-A
Dimension line
Center marks
Exercise 1
(b) Sketch two circles: one big and the other small. Show centerlines
on the big circle and center marks on the small circle.
Exercise 2
Use freehand sketching to reproduce Figure 1.10 and Figure 1.11, indicat-
ing the linestyles.
Index
A drawing units, 54
American Society for Testing graphic entities, 55
Metals (ASTM), 3 menus and icons, 54
American Society of Mechanical Centerlines, 16
Engineers (ASME), 3 Circle, 79–80
Angle, unit of, 4–5 Circumscribed hexagon, 78–79
Annotations, 10–14 Compass, 27
Application software, 46–47 Compound shapes, 81–85
Architectural drawings, 4 Computer-aided drafting (CAD),
Arcs, 68–69 43
Arc with fillet tool, 70 Computer care, 60
ASME. See American Society of Computer design drafting (CDD)
Mechanical Engineers advantages and disadvantages,
ASTM. See American Society for 45
Testing Metals computer-aided drafting vs., 43
creating drawing, 56
B description of, 2
Bill of materials (BOMs), 9 history of, 44–45
BOMs. See Bill of materials productivity, 56–59
Bond stationary, 5 system elements, 45–47
Bounding box concept, 95–96 Computer graphics, 52–53
Break lines, 16–17 Computer network, 51–52
Continuous lines, 14
C Conventions, 2
CAD. See Computer-aided Coordinate systems, 54–55
drafting Cutting plane lines, 16
CDD. See Computer design
drafting D
CD drive and disk, 49 Data organization, 59–60
CDD software features Desktop computer hardware
coordinate systems, 54–55 CD drive and disk, 49
drawing aids, 55 DVD drive and disk, 49
drawing templates, 55 flash drive and disk, 48
118 • Index
T Z
Technical drawings, principles, 2 Zoning, 8