SPE

Society of Petroleum Engineer'S

SPE 16907

Diagnosis and Removal of Microbial/Fines Plugging in Water

Injection Wells
by F. Cusack, V.L. McKinley, and H.M. Lappin-Scott, Microbios Ltd.; D.R. Brown* and
D.M. Clementz,* Chevron Oil Field Research Co.; and J.W. Costerton, Microbios Ltd.
*SPE Members

Copyright 1987, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the 62nd Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition of the Society of Petroleum Engineers held in
Dallas, TX September 27-30, 1987.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE Program Committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the
author(s). Contents of the paper, as presented, have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the
author(s). The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or members. Papers
presented at SPE meetings are subject to publication review by Editorial Committees of the Society of Petroleum Engineers. Permission to copy is
restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words. Illustrations may not be copied. The abstract should contain conspicuous acknowledgment of
II
where and by whom the paper is presented. Write Publications Manager, SPE, P.O. Box 833836, Richardson, TX 75083-3836. Telex, 730989 SPEDAL.

SUMMARY ments, and treatment with sufficient bleach (3-4

tubing volumes) is regularly used to clean injec-
Because bacteria are naturally present in the tion wells plugged by bacterial growth. We have
water 1 2 used in water injection for secondary oil recently shown 6 that the bleach concentration used
recovery, these organisms adhere to available to remove bacterial biofilms can be reduced to ±1%
surfaces and produce biofilms 3 just as they do in without loss of efficacy. Bacterial biofilms trap
all aquatic ecosystems examined to date 4 • The particulate material 8 and injection wells in
bacterial biofilms in individual water injection systems with large amounts of particulate material
wells develop to an extent dependent on the nutri- in the injection water become plugged with biofilms
ent supply in the injection water. Organic con- impregnated with these particles. Bleach alone is
taminants are converted to bacterial biomass, and not effective in cleaning these microbial/fines
to bacterial exopolysaccharide slimes. Some plugged wells but a combination of bleach and acid
organic compounds (notably lactate and acetate) are (in that order, with a water "spacer") is very
oxidized by anaerobic bacteria that use sulphur effective 5 because bleach removes the biofilm and
compounds as hydrogen acceptors and produce H2 S. allows access of acid to acid-soluble fines. Our
This souring process is dependent on the input of developing general understanding of the nature of
organic nutrients and it is the function of a injection well plugging allows us to custom-design
heterotrophic bacterial population that is concen- a cleaning protocol to remove this damaging mater-
trated very close ( <3 meters) to the well bore. ial and restore original levels of water injec-
The generation of H2 S in the bulk of the water- tivity.
flooded formation is severely limited by the very
low levels of available bacterial nutrients in The Microbial Ecology of Injection Well Plugging
these areas and most H2 S production is limited to
the immediate viscinity of water injection and Injection water quality varies through a wide
production wells. Injection well back flow data 12 range, from clean stream water to produced water
and injection well cleaning data 2 both demonstrate, with muskeg swamp make-up, but all injection water
unequivocally, that heterotrophic bacterial growth contains bacterial cells 12 • Studies of a very
in a waterflood operation is limited to areas very large number of natural and industrial aquatic
close to injection and production well bore holes. ecosystems have established that these bacteria
These areas are readily accessible to biocide adhere to available surfaces so avidly that the
treatment. adherent (sessile) population, in cells/cm 2 , often
exceeds the bulk water population, in cells/cm 3 , by
Bacterial biofilms develop very rapidly on the 3-4 logarithm units. These adherent bacterial
extensive surfaces of artificial and natural rock cells proliferate and generate extracellular
coresl4, and these slime-enclosed adherent bacter- polysaccharides so that an adherent biofilm devel-
ial populations can reduce permeability by direct ops within which the organisms are embedded in a
plugging. Treatment with 5-12% sodium hypochlorite slimey anionic matrix. This biofilm matrix has a
(bleach) is sufficient to remove these bacterial very strony affinity for organic molecules in the
accretions in both field 2 and laboratory 5 experi- bulk water 1 and passage through or past a living
biofilm sharply depletes the organic molecule
References and illustrations at end of paper.

303
2 DIAGNOSIS AND REMOVAL OF MICROBIAL/FINES PLUGGING IN WATER INJECTION WELLS
content of this water, as is seen in trickling
filters within water treatment plants. The ten-
dency of bacterial biofilms to form on the first
available surfaces is seen in the "skin plugging"
characteristic of sand packs 9 , sandstone 10 , and
model cores 14 exposed to water injection. Seawater
bacteria have a very strong tendency to form these
adherent biofilms on submerged surfaces.
Because of the very large surface area of the
formation rock, the surfaces near the injection
well bore develop a shallow biofilm-rich zone.
This tendency to "skin plug" can be seen in model
core studies 14 and the downhole situation can be
deduced from field data 2 showed that biofouled
injection wells could be restored to full initial
injectivity by treatment with only 3 tubing volumes
of 12% bleach. This suggests that the fouling
biomaterial was very close to the bore hole. More
direct evidence is provided by backflow studies 12
in which the injection wells were sampled after the
reverse flow of various volumes of injection water.
Assuming a symmetrical downhole formation config-
uration (Figure 1), each increasing volume of
backflowed injection water represents a sample of
the formation water at increasing distances from
the bore hole. The biomass in these sequential
samples, which was determined by the methods of
White et a1. 15 showed a sharp decrease with dis-
tance from the bore hole. While bacterial numbers
decreased very radically with distance from the
bore hole, bacterial activity decreased more
slowly, indicating that bacterial cells at some
distance from the injection well are nutrient
limited. Recent work in our laboratory (MacLeod,
Lappin-Scott, Cusack and Costerton, unpublished
data) clearly indicates that passage through a
solid matrix that is rich in biofilm bacteria
removes most of the organic molecules from injec-
tion water. Taken together, these data suggest
that the metabolically active bacteria in the
injection well ecosystem are concentrated in
biofilms on surfaces very near (<1 meter) the bore
hole and that these organisms deplete incominy
organic nutrients so that only starved bacteria
are found deeper in the formation (Figure 1). The
"standing crop" of biofilm bacteria in the biofilms
near the well bore of water injection wells depends
much more on the amount of incoming organic nutri-
ents than it does on the cumulative bacterial
content of the injection water.
The souring of water injection wells is a
function of H2 S production by certain classes of
bacteria that use oxidized sulphur compounds as
hydrogen acceptors in the energetically profitable
oxidation of organic compounds. It is important to
note that the productiol!.. of H2 S_ from oxidized
sulphur species, such as S-and S04-, is endergonic
and cannot yield energy for bacterial growth.
Because the generation of H2 S is a byproduct of the
active metabolism of bacteria that use organic
nutrients (heterotrophic bacteria) this souring
process can take place only where large numbers of
metabolically active organisms are well supplied
with organic nutr~. In waterflood oil recovery
systems these large metabolically active hetero-
trophic populations occur near the injection well
bore and, to a lesser extent, in production wells
(Figure 2). Both of these bacterial populations
are readily accessible to treatment with biocides.
304
SPE 16907
Therefore, we -urge the regular use of backflow
analysis to detect the development of H2 S-producing
bacterial biofilm populations near the bore of
injection wells and treatment with biocides in a
slug-and-hold mode for injection wells and a
squeeze-and-hold mode for producing wells.
Cleaning of Fouled Injection Wells
In rare instances in which injection wells are
plugged by bacterial biofilms without large amounts
of entrained particulate matter, cleaning by the
use of 12% NaOCl gives excellent results 2 • How-
ever, the more common plugging of injection wells
by a combination of bacterial biofilms and trapped
solids poses a more complex problem 5 .
Well P-54, in the East Beverly Hill field, was
drilled in 1969 as a producer, converted to injec-
tion using fresh water in 1972, then produced brine
in 1980. The treatment program for build-up of
scale and bacterial slimes in 1982 is listed in
Table 1. The injection of over 1,000 gallons of
bleach (NaOCl) into the well initially increased
inj ectivity. However, continuous injections of a
further 2,000 gallons of bleach then approximately
5, 000 gallons of clear filtered water decreased
injectivity substantially. The improved injec-
tivity was restored and enhanced by acid treatment.
The success of this treatment sequence can be
confirmed by thP. maintenance of a high injectivity
level in the well to date.
Parallel work to investigate the effects of
acid and bleach treatments on surfaces plugged by
combinations of particulates and bacteria was
undertaken in the laboratory using fused glass
beads then sandstone cores 5 • The injection of
hydrochloric acid (HCl) to cores plugged only with
particulate matter (calcium carbonate; CaC0 3 )
completely cleared the cores and restored full
permeability (Fig. 3A and 3B). Similarly, the
injection of bleach to cores plugged with bacteria
(a Pseudomonas species) also completely cleaned the
cores (Fig. 3C and 3D). When particulate matter
and bacteria were together used to plug the cores
(Fig. 3E), the success of the clean-up operation
was totally dependent upon the treatment sequence.
If bleach was injected first, it dissolved the
organic bacteria and left the particulate inorganic
material (Fig. 3F). The cores were then adequately
cleaned using HCl (Fig. 3G). However, if acid was
injected first, it was not able to penetrate the
bacterial biofilm to completely dissolve the
particulates (Fig. 3H) so that subsequent bleach
treatment dissolved the bacteria and allowed the
remaining particulates to repack and block the
cores (Fig. 3I). The most successful treatment
sequence, as demonstrated by both field trials and
laboratory core experiments, was therefore bleach
followed by acid but not vice versa.
A follow~up laboratory study was undertaken to
develop more cost-effective stimulation jobs 6 •
Lower concentrations of bleach used in the first
stage of chemical treatment would lower the overall
stimulation costs. The cores were plugged with a
slimy Pseudomonas species. Different concentra-
tions of bleach solutions, between 0.1% and 5% v/v
NaOCl, were injected into the cores. Permeability
changes were attributed to the bleach dissolving
,'

SPE 16907 CUSACK, F., V. McKINLEY, H. LAPPIN-SCOTT, D.R. BROWN, D.M. CLEMENTZ & J.W. COSTERTON 3

11
the bacterial biofilms. From the data we concluded 7. Fletcher, M. and Floodgate, G.D.: An elec-
that the bleach dissolved bacteria even at concen- tron microscopic demonstration of an acid
trations below 1%. This suggested that the cost polysaccharide involved in the adhesion of a
effectiveness of injectivity programs could be marine bacterium to solid surfaces 11 , J. Gen.
improved by greatly reducing bleach concentrations. Microbiol. (1973) 74: 325-334.

CONCLUSIONS 8. Geesey, G.G., Mutch, R., Costerton J.W. and

1. Bacteria in injection water adhere to surfaces
near the well bore and produce a "skin plug" of
biofilm whose depth depends on the organic nutrient
content of the water in question.
2. The production of H2 S is a natural byproduct
of the metabolism of these organic compounds by
certain physiological classes of these biofilm
bacteria and is confined to areas where large
numbers of heterotrophic bacteria process large
amounts of organic nutrients.
3. The extensive biofilms of the plugged near
well bore formation can be readily killed by
biocides or killed and removed by treatment with
12% bleach. Lower bleach concentrations (<1%) have
been successful in the laboratory but are not yet
field tested.
Green, R.B.: 11 Sessile bacteria: an important
component of the microbial population in small
mountain streams 11 , Limnol. Oceanogr. (1978)
23: 1214-1223.
11
9. Gupta, R.P. and Swartzendruker, D.: Flow-
associated reduction in the hydraulic conduc-
tivity of quartz sand 11 , Soil Sci. Soc. A.
Proc. (1962) 26: 6-10.
10. Hart, R.T., Fekete, T. and Flock, D.L.: 11 The
plugging effect of bacteria in a sandstone
system11 , Can. Min. Metall. Bull. (1960) 53:
495-501.
11. Lock, M.A., Wallace, R.R., Costerton, J.W.,
Ventullo, R.M. and Charlton, S.E.: "River
epilithon: toward a structural-functional
model", Oikos (1984) 42: 10-22.

4. When the near well bore formation is plugged 12. McKinley, Vicky L., Costerton, J.W. and White
by bacterial biofilm with large amounts of en- D.C.: "Microbial biomass, activity and
trained inorganic particulate material, the biofilm community structure of water and particulates
must be removed with bleach before the particulates retrieved by backflow from a waterflood
can be removed by acid treatment or by other injection well", submitted to: Appl. Environ.
suitable procedures. Microbiol. (1987).

REFERENCES 13. Myers, G.E. and McCready, G.L.: "Bacteria can

penetrate rock", Can. J. Microbiol. (1966) 12:
1. Amy, P.S. and Morita, R. Y.: "Starvation- 477-484.
survival patterns of sixteen freshly isolated
open ocean bacteria", Appl. Environ. Microb- 14. Shaw, J .C., Bramhill, B., Wardlaw, N.C. and
11
ial. (1983) 45: 1109-1115. Costerton, J.W.: Bacterial fouling in a
11
model core system , Appl. Environ. Microbiol.
2. Clementz, D.M., Patterson, D.E., Aseltine, (1985) 49: 693-701.
R.J. and Young, R.E.: "Stimulation of water
injection wells in the Los Angeles basin by 15. White, D.C., Smith, G.A., Gehrox, M.J. and
using sodium hypochlorite and mineral acids", Parker, I. H. : "The groundwater aquifer
J. Pet. Techno!. (September 1982) 34: 2087- microbiota: biomass, community structure and
2096. nutritional status 11 , Dev. Industrial
Microbiol. (1983) 24: 201-211.
3. Costerton, J.W., Irvin, R.T. and Cheng, K.J.:
"The hac terial glycocalyx in nature and
disease", Ann. Rev. Microbiol. (1981) 35: TABLE 1
299-324.
Sequence of clean-up treatments for well P-54
4. Costerton, J.W., Cheng, K.J., Geesey, Gill G., - East Beverly Hill Field.
Ladd, Timothy I., Nickel, J. Curtis, Dasgupta,
11
Mrinal and Marrie, Thomas J. : Bacterial clean out of well-bore and perforations using
biofilms in nature and disease 11 , Ann. Rev. 12% bleach (NaOCl)
Microbiol. (1987) 41: 435-464. filtered injection water
-mud acid
5. Cusack, F., Brown, D.R., Costerton, J.W. and suction washed
Clementz, D.M.: 11 Field and laboratory studies - circulation acid washed
of microbial/fines plugging of water injection
wells: mechanism, diagnosis, and removal 11 ,
Journal of Pet. Sci. and Eng. (1987), Vol. 1
(in press).

6. Cusack, F., Lappin-Scott, H.M. and Costerton,

J.W.: "The effect of varying bleach concen-
trations on bacterial biofilm removal and
model rock cores", submitted to: Journal of
Pet. Sci. and Eng. (1987).

305
 SPE 16 90~

Figure 1 - Microbiological data from the bacldlow

of Chevron well P38 (March, 1986)

•
..
..
BACTERIAL
WELL MICROBIAL METABOLIC
SAMPLE BIOMASS ACTIVITY
VOLUMES ( phospholipid/ml) (CPM/h/ml)
A .02 1600 365
Legend for Figure 2
B 1.21 900 145
Diagrammatic representation of the location of
c 2.31 145 150 metabolically active, organic nutrient dependent,
D 3.16 120 bacteria in a waterflood oil recovery operation,
100
and of the resultant generation of H S by certain
E 5.81 125 250 2
classes of these heterotrophic organisms.
F 7.90 50 110

, .
Figure 3- Schematic diagram of laboratory core treatment

,,,
using acid and bleach to remove microorganisms
or particulate matter.

1 I l
atl~_:·
,, -
"'
~
II
A )',,, c E
,~,
_,
g~.
I ~Y;

~ 5%HCI ~ 5%NaOCI ~I.NaOCI ""'oHCI

,.,\\
~ ,,
't - Acid soluble
particulates

~;~lit~ -Bacterial cell

~~:· in biofilm

SUCCESSFUL CLEANING

306