Engine Management System (EMS) -

EMS stands for Engine Management System which consists of a wide range of electronic and
electrical components such as sensors, relays, actuators and an Engine Control Unit.
Furthermore, they work together to provide the Engine Management System with vital data
parameters that are essential for governing various engine functions effectively. The Engine
Management system is incorporated in the modern day engine technologies, such
as MPFi & GDi systems in Petrol engines and CRDi system in diesel engines for improved
performance.

Oxygen Sensors

It pays to invest in quality

The existing portfolio of sensors for engine management is optimally complemented by the
inclusion of oxygen sensors, with which the best possible engine power is attained at the
lowest possible fuelconsumption.
The measurements from a lambda sensor are required to ensure that the catalytic converter
converts almost all pollutant exhaust that results when a fuel is combusted. Lambda sensors
determine the amount of residual oxygen in the exhaust and transmit this value to the engine
control, which in turn precisely sets the composition of the mixture using the transmitted
values.

Oxygen sensors are subjected to significant stress,

 High temperatures
 Vibrations
 Changing gases
which means that a certain level of wear and aging cannot be avoided.

Problems which can occur with oxygen sensors:

 Defective sensor heater

 Cables and connectors melting due to contact with the exhaust system
 Sensor kinking
 Soot deposits due to "rich" mixture or high oil consumption
 Mechanical defects on cable or cable seals
The only way to ensure almost complete conversion of the fuel/air mixture into
environmentally compatible exhaust gases is through perfect adjustment of the fuel/air
mixture. Our oxygen sensors ensure optimal engine power while complying with the
stipulated emissions values.
 CrankSensor

This is now the most common method of determining engine speed on a modern engine. It
comprises a disk mounted on or machined into the flywheel/front pulley that turns with the
engine. The disk has a certain number of teeth around its circumference and a fixed closely
mounted induction sensor that pulses when it encounters a tooth. There is generally a pattern
of missing teeth so that the EMS can tell exactly the crank position as well as speed.
Although the EMS knows the engines crank position from this sensor, it does not know the
engines cycle position. In a four-stroke engine the engine cycle involves two complete
revolutions of the engine with the piston at TDC twice during the cycle. One of these times
the cylinder is ready to fire, the other time is at the end of the exhaust stroke, a crank sensor
alone can only indicate that the piston is at TDC, it cannot know which of the two cycles
positions the engine is at.

Crankshaft position sensor

General description
CKP is the sensor, without operation of the fuel injection system is impossible. Defects
in CKP inevitably lead to engine failure and the car will not run. Crankshaft position sensor
(CKP) is an electromagnetic sensor by the help of which the fuel injection system makes
synchronization of the fuel injectors operation and the ignition system. СКР sensor sends
signal for the speed and the position of the crankshaft to the onboard controller. This signal is
a series of repetitive electrical voltage impulses, generated by the sensor when the crankshaft
is rotating. Based on these impulses, the onboard controller controls the fuel injectors and the
ignition system
Appearance: An air gap is placed between the sensor and the cogwheel. This gap should be
about 1mm ± 0.4mm and is achieved by selecting the appropriate washers and The crankshaft
cogwheel is manufactured as a special disk which has usually 58 teeth in each 6 degrees.
There are two missing teeth which are used to generate synchronization pulse and Crankshaft
rotation causes change of the sensor magnetic field and thus creating voltage pulses. Through
the pulse synchronization from the CKP sensor, the onboard controller determines the
position and speed of the crankshaft and calculates the exact moment of operating the fuel
injectors and the exact moment for generating the spark. The beginning of the 20th tooth
(after the missing ones) of the cogwheel matches with the top dead center (TDC)
Cogwheel can be cast, non-metallic or damper (with rubber insulation). During the
exploitation of the car, wear of non-metallic cogwheel was not observed. The only thing that
should be monitored is to prevent penetration of small particles and dirt between the teeth. If
the cogwheel is with damper, its state should be monitored for a damper damage because it
can lead to engine problems. When performing repairs you should be careful not to allow
deformation of the cogwheel because this can lead to an engine collapse. Visual observation
of the cogwheel can be done from the right front wheel side
Used types of sensors
СКР are divided into two types:
 Inductive
 Hall sensor effect
In the inductive ones, the sensitive element has a magnetization core and a copper conductor
winding mounted on an isolated coil.

Hall sensors use the “hall effect” expressing the impact of magnetic field on
semiconductor sensor.
 Typical symptoms of defective CKP and crankshaft cogwheel
In case of failure of CKP or crankshaft cogwheel, the onboard controller records a fault
event and illuminates the "CHECK ENGINE" indicator lamp. Following symptoms can be
assigned to faults of these elements:
 erratic idling
 spontaneous increase and decrease of the engine speed;
 engine stop;
 engine will not start;
 poor engine performance;
 knock during acceleration;
 Engine misfire.
Fig.5 and fig.6 show the crankshaft cogwheel with a damaged damper. This failure makes
proper synchronization of the phases of the injection and ignition impossible, since the inner
part is shifted to the cogwheel and therefore the phases of the injection and ignition are
shifted to one another.
Procedure for checking the condition of CKP
1. Perform an external visual inspection of the CKP and the crankshaft cogwheel.
2. Check the CKP harness for corrosion and damages.
3. Make sure harness pins are tight in their places and there’s good electrical contact.
4. Check that the air gap between the cogwheel and the CKP sensor is within the limits.
5. Disconnect the sensor harness.
6. Measure with ohmmeter the active resistance between the terminals of the CKP.
Check the database what should be the value of measured resistance of the sensor for the
corresponding brand and model of the car. If the reading shows extremely high resistance,
this means that there is an open circuit in the sensor. Zero or close to zero indication means
short circuit in the coil.

NOTE: Regardless of measured resistance is within acceptable limits, it can’t be taken as

evidence that the CKP will be able to produce a correct signal.
Check the shielded CKP cable:
CKP may have shielded cable (not in all cases). Strip the coupling of the harness.
Connect one of the probes of ohmmeter to one of the terminals of the СКР (1 or 2).
Connect the other probe to the terminal that corresponds to the shield. The reading should
incline to infinite resistance.
Move the probe from the shield terminal and connect it to the ground. The reading should
incline to infinity.
Note: In some systems the CKP shield cable is connected to its feedback CKP cable to
ground. In this case the ohmmeter will read short circuit, which will be normal for this
system. Explore electrical circuit of the system you are testing to identify how exactly the
CKP is connected.
Plug in the sensor connector
A crank sensor is an electronic device used in an internal combustion engine, both petrol and
diesel, to monitor the position or rotational speed of the crankshaft. This information is used
by engine management systems to control the fuel injection or the ignition system timing and
other engine parameters. Before electronic crank sensors were available,
the distributor would have to be manually adjusted to a timing mark on petrol engines.
The crank sensor can be used in combination with a similar camshaft position sensor to
monitor the relationship between the pistons and valves in the engine, which is particularly
important in engines with variable valve timing. This method is also used to "synchronise"
a four stroke engine upon starting, allowing the management system to know when to inject
the fuel. It is also commonly used as the primary source for the measurement of engine speed
in revolutions per minute.
Common mounting locations include the main crank pulley, the flywheel, the camshaftor on
the crankshaft itself. This sensor is the 2nd most important sensor in modern-day engines
after the camshaft position sensor. When it fails, there is a probability the engine will not
start, or cut out while running
What will a bad crankshaft position sensor do?
Intermittent stalling. Another symptom commonly associated with a problematiccrankshaft
position sensor is intermittent stalling. If the crankshaft position sensor or its wiring have any
issues, it can cause the crankshaft signal to be cut off while the engine is running,
which can cause the engine to stall
The crankshaft position sensor is a vital electronic device located in the engine of a car. Its
purpose is to register the rate at which the crankshaft spins. The engine control unit (ECU)
then makes use of this information to regulate ignition and fuel injection. The location of the
crankshaft is crucial to how effectively it can gather data. It is situated next to the camshaft
belt or the crankshaft. Steel pegs or pins of different widths are arranged around the
crankshaft at regular intervals. A powerful magnet is also found next to the crankshaft.

Sensing Function
The magnet radiates a steady magnetic field. When the crankshaft spins, the steel pins are
rotated in the magnetic field. This results in fluctuations in the magnetic field. This yields an
alternating current (AC) signal, which the engine management unit (EMU) uses to calculate
the speed of rotation. The EMU is a type of engine computer. The magnetic oscillation is
useful in determining the speed and position of the camshaft.

Irregular Pin Arrangement

Sometimes a pin may be absent at two consecutive intervals on the crankshaft. Double pins
may also occur on the crankshaft. This arrangement varies according to the model of vehicle.
The spot with absent pins is referred to as the Top Dead Center (TDC). This results in a signal
change at the TDC. The TDC is the primary reference point for various engine timing
measurements. Camshaft and ignition timing is determined from here. The TDC also
regulates timing of clearance from the pistons to the valves.

When the crankshaft spins, missing or double pins cause fluctuations in the signal at these
points. The information is returned to the EMU with regard to the TDC position. The voltage
of the peak-to-peak speed signal changes according to engine speed. Faster rotations give rise
to increased voltage. When the engine is idle, voltage may be as low as 10 volts, but exceed
100 volts when on high speed.

Analog-Digital Conversions
As a computer, the EMU operates on digital mode. However, the crank sensor is analogue,
which creates incompatibility. The EMU must use an Analogue-Digital Converter to convert
the AC pulse into a digital signal.
A Faulty Crankshaft Position Sensor
To enable high engine performance the crank sensor must always be in top shape. A defective
sensor will send incorrect data to the EMU. This causes the engine not to perform
satisfactorily. It may even cause your vehicle to stall. In the absence of a properly performing
crank sensor, the EMU may rely on memory to enable proper ignition and fueling

However, this is only a temporary backup phase. This is because the crank sensor transmits
live data, which is more useful than the static data stored in the EMU. Your vehicle will still
work, although performance will be unsatisfactory. It becomes necessary to use electronic
measuring equipment to determine the condition of the crankshaft sensor.

A worn out or defective sensor must be replaced to regain proper engine performance. If this
is the case, you will need to consult a mechanic.

THROTTLEPOSITIONSENSOR

The most common engine load sensor especially on after market systems. A TPS is a small
potentiometer (or ‘throttle pot’) which is connected directly to the throttle shaft and turns
with it. It returns a value to the EMS depending on the throttle position. TPS sensors are
normally used on performance engines where airflow sensors might become confused
because of pulses in the inlet tract, because they do not measure airflow but simply give a
throttle position, airflow is assumed to be constant for any given engine speed and throttle
position. If the engine is further modified the airflow characteristics may change and the
engine may need re-mapping. EMS systems that use direct airflow measurement can often
cope with changes more effectively and can alter the fuelling to suit without a re-mapping
session.

FUEL METERING SENSOR:

In the fuel measuring system, two flow meters were used. The flow meter used
for measuring input fuel flow to the injector pump was a turbine type and 6900 pulses were
sent for each one liter of the fuel passing through the meter. • Besides, a sensor of the turbine
type model was used to measure the fuel returning from the injectors and the injector pump to
the tank. • So, in addition to the sensor installed where the fuel enters the injector pump,
another flow meter was located in the fuel line returning fuel to the tank • Total engine fuel
consumption over a given distance of operation was calculated as the difference between the
readings of the two sensors, and the result was saved in memory. • Also, the amount of fuel
consumed per second was measured by the measurement system to obtain instantaneous
consumption. The related data were displayed by the monitoring unit and saved. Therefore,
an electronic board was used to receive and save the digital pulses sent by the flow meter
sensors.

A flow meter

A flow meter is a device used to measure the flow rate or quantity of a gas or liquid moving
through a pipe.
vehicle speed sensor :

A wheel speed sensor or vehicle speed sensor (VSS) is a type of tachometer. It is a

sender device used for reading the speed of a vehicle's wheel rotation. It usually
consists of a toothed ring and pickup.

Definition of a Vehicle Speed Sensor (VSS) A vehicle speed sensor generates a magnetic
pulse in the form of a wave proportional to the speed of the vehicle (i.e., imagine
a vehicle moving at high speed, the VSS will generate a high-frequency signal directly
proportional to this.
Introduction:

One of the most recent developments in vehicle speed sensors was recently introduced
by Vissee, a company dedicated to the design and engineering of visual speed and depth
sensors. Vissee have designed a neuromorphic 'third-eye' sensor that allows for consumer
devices to directly measure speed. This application-specific sensor is designed to measure
speed without data on position or acceleration of a vehicle. The speed sensor is built with a
60 hertz camera and a microprocessor programmed to run a special algorithm that helps
selective processing of incoming data. The lens in the camera provides a visual field of 180
degrees, imaging more than the standard 40 to 50 degrees field of view normally seen in a
standard lens. The microprocessing chip measures the variation in a signal over time and light
intensity to calculate the absolute speed.

The new 'third-eye' sensor is expected to be installed into traffic and micro-aerial vehicles by
the end of 2012. However, to better understand such novel technology for speed sensors, let
us have a look at how a basic vehicle speed sensor works.

Definition of a Vehicle Speed Sensor (VSS)

A vehicle speed sensor generates a magnetic pulse in the form of a wave proportional to the
speed of the vehicle (i.e., imagine a vehicle moving at high speed, the VSS will generate a
high-frequency signal directly proportional to this). The power control module (also known
as the electrical control module) uses the VSS frequency signal to manipulate multiple
electrical subsystems in a vehicle, such as fuel injection, ignition, cruise control operation,
torque, and clutch lock-up.

Basic Functionality of the VSS

The VSS is connected to a speedometer cable and positioned between the axle and the wheel
of a vehicle. One of the most common types of VSS operates from a magnet that is also
connected at the back of the transmission housing behind the speedometer. The top section to
the VSS senses the output of the transmission, whereas the opposite side of the VSS is
connected to a rotating magnet, which generates a voltage that is then transmitted to a
computational device that calculates the speed proportional to the moving vehicle. During
motion of a vehicle, the VSS will generate four pulses in response to one rotation of the
magnet. Figure 1 demonstrates the basic mechanisms to a VSS.

Types of VSS

As demonstrated in figure 1, there are two types of VSS:

 Hall Effect sensor

 Reed switch-type VSS

Hall Effect VSS

This type of sensor is located on the differential gear housing and monitors the output speed
of the transaxle. The sensor is made up of 12 volt sensor power, five volt signal, and signal
ground.

In comparison to typical speed sensors that use a magnet to generate a reference voltage; the
Hall-Effect sensor employs its own reference voltage signal (i.e., a sensor that works as a
passive device to supply voltage and magnetic field data) and is used for anti-lock braking
systems in vehicles by timing the speed of the wheel and the shaft. This sensor is made up of
an internal transistor activated by the moving (reluctor) wheel during movement of the
vehicle. As the reluctor wheel (the 'fingers' on the brake disk) moves against the Hall Effect
sensor, the movement creates a magnetic field that generates a voltage which activates the
transistor on the Hall Effect sensor. This voltage is transmitted through a conductor to the
processing unit of the anti-lock brake system, which counts the voltage peaks and divides this
by the duration to measure the velocity of the moving vehicle. The voltage signal only drops
to zero when the 'fingers' on the brake disk pass and have no contact with the sensor. The
signal amplitude always remains the same for Hall Effect sensors compared to typical
magnetic sensors irresponsive of rotational speed

Reed Switch-Type VSS

This sensor consists of a magnet and reed switch. In comparison to the Hall Effect sensor, a
magnet, powered by a speedometer cable, is required to mechanically turn the reed switch on
and off (approximately four times per one complete rotation of the magnet, which allows for
calculation of pulse numbers per second and, therefore, to measure the vehicle speed). This is
an active sensor that generates a voltage in response to continuous rotation of a magnet that
has close contact with a probe. The voltage generated is directly proportional to the speed at
which the magnet rotates.

Hall Effect Speed Sensor vs. Reed Switch Speed Sensor

Hall Effect Speed Sensor

 This sensor does not have any moving parts to the

mechanism and so stands as a more reliable speed
sensor.
Advantages
 Fast response time.

 High repeatability and a longer lifespan.

 Sensing distance = ≤20 mm.

 An external switch is responsible for the voltage and

current switching range.

 This sensor needs to be sensitive to polarity in order

to function.

 Due to their alignment with a magnetic field, false

triggering of a signal can be provoked.
Disadvantages
 Requires a continuous output current of >10 mA.

 Requires a continuous source of power.

 The Hall Effect sensor cannot switch loads directly

and so requires an external device to allow for this.

 The Hall Effect sensor can only operate in

temperatures from -55°C to 125°C.

Reed Switch Speed Sensor

Advantages  The Reed Switch is sealed from contamination,

 Reed Switch Speed Sensor

making this sensor applicable in harsh environments.

 Reed switches do not require any external protection

circuit.

 This switch has a long lifespan.

 High sensitivity to a magnetic field.

 No leakage or voltage drop with high repeatability.

 Sensing distance = ≤40 mm.

 Does not need an output requirement or a power

source and can switch loads directly up to 2 A and
1000 V.

 The Reed Switch speed sensor can operate in

temperatures from -55°C to 150°C allowing for much
wider application.

 Generates too much noise when applied.

Disadvantages
 Slow response time with large amounts of hysteresis
due to the contact of this switch with the current.

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Applications

Reed Switch sensors working on the basis of a magnet are most commonly applied for:

 Position sensing
 Pulse counting
  Liquid and gas as flow meters

 Speedometers

 Coil applications

 Temperature sensing (based on their ability to withstand harsh environments).

Hall Effect sensors are commonly used in rotating speed sensors in applications, such as:

 Bicycle wheels
 Gear-teeth

 Speedometers

 Automotive ignition systems.

Mass (air) flow sensor (MAF):

Mass (air) flow sensor (MAF) is a sensor used to determine the mass flow rate of air entering a fuel-
injected internal combustion engine. ... Neither design employs technology that measures air
mass directly. However, with additional sensors and inputs, an engine's ECU can determine the mass
flow rate of intake air

A mass (air) flow sensor (MAF) is a sensor used to determine the mass flow rate of air entering a fuel-
injected internal combustion engine.
The air mass information is necessary for the engine control unit (ECU) to balance and deliver the
correct fuel mass to the engine. Air changes its density with temperature and pressure. In automotive
applications, air density varies with the ambient temperature, altitude and the use of forced induction,
which means that mass flow sensors are more appropriate than volumetric flow sensors for
determining the quantity of intake air in each cylinder.
There are two common types of mass airflow sensors in use on automotive engines. These are the
vane meter and the hot wire. Neither design employs technology that measures air mass directly.
However, with additional sensors and inputs, an engine's ECU can determine the mass flow rate of
intake air.
Both approaches are used almost exclusively on electronic fuel injection (EFI) engines. Both sensor
designs output a 0.0–5.0 volt or a pulse-width modulation (PWM) signal that is proportional to the air
mass flow rate, and both sensors have an intake air temperature (IAT) sensor incorporated into their
housings for most post on-board diagnostics (OBDII) vehicles. Vehicles prior to 1996 could have
MAF without an IAT. An example is 1994 Infiniti Q45.
When a MAF sensor is used in conjunction with an oxygen sensor, the engine's air/fuel ratio can be
controlled very accurately. The MAF sensor provides the open-loop controller predicted air flow
information (the measured air flow) to the ECU, and the oxygen sensor provides closed-loop feedback
in order to make minor corrections to the predicted air mass. Also see manifold absolute pressure
sensor (MAP sensor).

Your vehicle's starter motor has the important job of starting the engine. But something also has to
start the starter. And that something is the solenoid. In most automotive applications today, the
solenoid is attached to the starter, with the two of them getting removed as a unit when necessary.

SOLENOID WORKS

When running properly, and as long as it has a supply of fuel, the internal combustion engine
continues to run by itself in an ongoing process from the inertia of the engine's moving parts. But
starting the engine is a separate process to get that inertia moving in the first place. This is the job of
the starting system, whose main components include the:

 Battery
 Starter motor
 Solenoid
 Starter switch
 Starting an engine: The first action

 The process involves not one, but two separate electric currents – a stronger one and a weaker
one. When activated, usually by turning a key in the ignition switch, the weaker current
passes through the switch and to the solenoid. At that point, the current forces two large
contacts to come together in the solenoid, which allows the stronger electric current to pass
through the solenoid's contacts. These contacts carry a current that requires heavy wiring
 cables directly from the battery. This current is heavy enough that it would be unwise to send
it through a hand-operated switching mechanism. Hence, the need for the weaker current
through the ignition switch.

 The stronger current passes to the starter motor where it initiates two separate actions. The
starter motor is designed so that the electric current activates a lever, forcing a small gear
outward on a spring shaft. When extended, this gear, called a pinion, comes in contact with a
toothed gear on the outer rim of a large flywheel on the end of the engine's drive shaft. This
large gear is called the starter ring gear.

 Starting an engine: The second action

 The second action in a direct current electric motor is the rotation of its central shaft, caused
by the larger current passing through the motor. A motor transforms electric energy into the
mechanical energy of the central shaft's rotation. It does this because the electric current
interacts with the magnetic field in the starter motor and results in the rotor on the shaft
beginning to turn. By the time this turning action reaches the motor's designed top speed, the
pinion at the end of this shaft has already engaged the ring gear on the flywheel. The engine
then starts running on its own and the starter's safety features automatically disengage the
pinion from the ring gear. The spring brings the pinion safely back to its resting position and
the job of the starting mechanism is done.

 When starting, if you hold the ignition key in the "start" position a little too long, you will
encounter a problem. Here, too, is a spring that brings the switch back to the "on" position
from "start" as soon as you release the key. If you fail to do so, you will hear the evidence of
your mistake pretty quickly. The good news is that your mistake is not as bad as it sounds.
The safety mechanism in the starter has already released the pinion from the ring gear. The
bad news is if you do this often or for any extended period, you may drastically shorten the
life of the starter motor.

Operation
An idle starter solenoid can receive a large electric current from the car battery and a small electric
current from the ignition switch. When the ignition switch is turned on, a small electric current is sent
through the starter solenoid. This causes the starter solenoid to close a pair of heavy contacts, thus
relaying a large electric current through the starter motor, which in turn sets the engine in motion. [1]
The starter motor is a series, compound, or permanent magnet type electric motor with a solenoid and
solenoid operated switch mounted on it. When low-current power from the starting battery is applied
to the starter solenoid, usually through a key-operated switch, the solenoid closes high-current
contacts for the starter motor and it starts to run. Once the engine starts, the key-operated switch is
opened and the solenoid opens the contacts to the starter motor.
All modern starters rely on the solenoid to engage the starter drive with the ring gear of the flywheel.
When the solenoid is energized, it operates a plunger or lever which forces the pinion into mesh with
the ring gear. The pinion incorporates a one way clutch so that when the engine starts and runs it will
not attempt to drive the starter motor at excessive RPM.
Some older starter designs, such as the Bendix drive, used the rotational inertia of the pinion to force
it along a helical groove cut into the starter drive-shaft, and thus no mechanical linkage with the
solenoid was required.
EGR Systems & Components:
EGR systems have been commercialized as a NOx reduction method for a wide range of diesel
engines from light-, medium- and heavy-duty diesel engines right up to two-stroke low-speed marine
engines. A number of consideration

ns must be taken into account when designing EGR systems including: deposit accumulation,
contaminants, engine lubricant, system packaging and more. The main components of EGR systems
are EGR valves and EGR coolers.

 Commercial EGR Systems

 Design Considerations

 EGR System Components

 Retrofit EGR Systems

Commercial EGR Systems

Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is a NOx emission control technique applicable to a wide range of
diesel engines from light-, medium- and heavy-duty diesel engines right up to two-stroke low-speed
marine engines. The configuration of an EGR system depends on the required EGR rate and other
demands of the particular application. Most EGR systems include the following main hardware
components:

 One or more EGR control valves

 One or more EGR coolers

 Piping, flanges and gaskets

Other specialized components are possible in certain types of systems, such as venturi mixer devices
or EGR pumps.
Heavy-Duty Engines. The EGR system for the DDC Series 60, Figure 1, is an example of the systems
applied in many heavy-duty engines in North America for MY 2002 and later. The EGR system is a
high pressure loop (HPL) system where a portion of the exhaust is taken from upstream of the
turbocharger. The variable geometry turbocharger, among other tasks, ensures that the pressure
difference between the exhaust and intake manifolds is positive to ensure adequate EGR flow is
available when required. The EGR then flows through an EGR cooler provided with water from the
engine jacket water. From the cooler, the EGR flows through an EGR pipe to the other side of the
engine to a venturi-type flow meter that provides a feedback signal for monitoring the EGR rate. An
EGR control valve located just before the mixer housing is responsible for controlling EGR rate. The
EGR then passes to the intake manifold where it mixes with cooled charge air before being inducted
into the engine. The EGR valve detail of Figure 1 also shows an EGR heater plate that is intended for
use at low ambient temperatures. The heater plate heats the EGR passing through the valve to ensure
that ice does not form in the mixer housing.
Figure 1. Detroit Diesel Corporation US EPA 2007 Series 60 equipped with cooled HPL EGR system

A number of changes occurred in this EGR system from its introduction in 2002. Older versions of
this engine (US EPA 2002/2004) had the EGR valve located on the inlet side of the EGR cooler. Early
versions used a pneumatically actuated valve that was replaced with a hydraulically actuated valve
and finally, the electrically actuated valve shown in Figure 1. Some versions also used pressure taps
upstream and downstream of the EGR control valve to monitor the pressure differential across the
valve for EGR rate feedback instead of a venturi-type flow meter. By 2008, the venturi flow meter
was removed entirely.
Another example of a cooled EGR system for heavy-duty engines is the Scania Euro IV system
illustrated in Figure 2. Pre-turbine (HPL) exhaust is routed via an EGR control valve and an EGR
cooler to the engine inlet system. Engine jacket water is used as the cooling medium in the EGR
cooler in this example as well. In general, EGR can be cooled with engine coolant, ambient air or a
low temperature liquid.
 Figure 2. EGR system with one-stage cooling for Scania Euro IV engines

(Source: Scania)
Light-Duty Engines. The application of EGR is not limited to heavy-duty engines, but extends to
engines powering light-duty vehicles as well. Figure 3 is a schematic representation of a passenger car
type EGR system from the Audi 3.3 L V8 TDI Euro 3 engine introduced in 1999 [Ritter 1999].

Figure 3. Schematic representation of a high-speed passenger car EGR/intake throttle

system for Euro 3 application

Audi 3.3 L V8 TDI engine

The EGR system is a high pressure loop, cooled EGR configuration. A portion of the exhaust is
channeled through an EGR control valve and proceeds to the EGR cooler. From the cooler, EGR
flows to a throttle valve assembly where it is mixed with filtered, high-pressure, fresh combustion air
that has been cooled by an intercooler to recover some of its density. The mixture of air and EGR is
then inducted into the engine through the intake manifold. While the engine is equipped with a
variable geometry turbocharger (VTG) that can create a higher exhaust manifold than intake pressure
to drive EGR, the intake throttle is used under some conditions when it is not possible to create a
sufficient differential with the VTG. This system is very similar to EGR systems used in other Euro 3
as well as EPA Tier 1 and Tier 2 Bin 10 applications.
In the early 2000s, there was some belief that future engines with higher EGR rates would require
some form of EGR pump to achieve the required engine-out NOx emissions demanded of future
emission standards. A HPL EGR system supplying these high EGR rates would result in an
unacceptable fuel economy penalty. However, instead of a pump, many of these systems ended up
using a hybrid configuration such as that illustrated in Figure 4 for the 2.0 L Volkswagen TDI engine
introduced in North America for MY 2009 EPA Tier 2 Bin 5 applications. The HPL EGR is controlled
by the HP EGR valve and by the turbocharger vane position. The HPL EGR is used at lower engine
speeds and loads. At higher engine loads and speeds, the EGR supply is shifted to the LPL EGR
system. Although not shown, the LPL of the EGR system in Figure 4 includes an EGR filter (Figure
24).

Figure 4. Hybrid EGR system for US EPA Tier 2 Bin 5 diesel application

VW 2.0 L TDI engine. Position of valves 1, 2 & 3 is typical for LP EGR

operation at high engine speeds and loads. At low engine speeds and loads,
valve 3 is fully closed and valves 1 & 2 are both open to enable HP EGR
operation.
Two-Stroke Low Speed Engines. For low-speed two-stroke marine engines burning heavy-fuel oil
(HFO), the EGR system can become quite complex owing to the need to clean the recirculated
exhaust gas of harmful metals and sulfur and the need to maintain the exhaust header pressure below
that of the intake header to ensure cylinder scavenging. Figure 5 illustrates one such system designed
for a retrofit application [MAN 2011].
 Figure 5. EGR system for a low-speed two-stroke marine application

(Source: MAN Diesel & Turbo)

The main components are: scrubber, cooler, water mist catcher, blower, shut-down valve, change-over
valve, water treatment plant (WTP) consisting primarily of the buffer tank, NaOH dosing system and
water cleaning unit. A control system controls the amount of EGR, the scavenge air pressure, the
NaOH dosing, scrubber water circulation and scrubber water discharge.
Scrubbing can be carried out with sea water or fresh water. In sea water scrubbing, intended as the
main operating mode, sea water is passed through the scrubber once and dumped into the sea. For a
20 MW main propulsion engine, a maximum of 900 m 3/h sea water has to be pumped which
represents about a 1% maximum fuel penalty.
In fresh water scrubbing, used in areas where no discharge is allowed, about 99% of the scrubbing
water is recirculated. As fresh water flows through the scrubber it becomes acidic from the sulfur in
the exhaust gas. The NaOH dosing system is used to neutralize this acid. The buffer tank ensures a
constant flow of water to the scrubber. A water cleaning unit (WCU) is used to remove particulate
matter that becomes suspended in the scrubber water. The particulate matter is discharged as a
concentrated sludge into the sludge tank on the vessel. The WCU is designed for cleaning the
scrubber water to such an extent that it can be discharged into the open sea in compliance with IMO
scrubber water discharge criteria.
The maximum flow of fresh water through the scrubber is 200 m 3/h at MCR (maximum continuous
rating). As this is only around one fifth of the flow needed for sea water scrubbing, a reduced fuel
consumption penalty will be result. However, to neutralize the acidic scrubbing water, NaOH is
required. If running on HFO with a 3% sulfur content, a maximum NaOH consumption of
approximately 10-12 kg/MWh would be required. Since fresh water scrubbing is used only during
harbour or coastal sailing, the main engine power will be low and the sailing time will be short,
further reducing the NaOH consumption. A typical arrival to port will be a maximum of two hours
and 2-3 MW engine power, giving a total consumption of around 50 kg NaOH.
What is exhaust emission control?
Emission control system. automotive technology. Emission control system, in
automobiles, means employed to limit the discharge of noxious gases from the internal-
combustion engine and other components. There are three main sources of these gases: the
engine exhaust, the crankcase, and the fuel tank and carburetor.
What is exhaust emissions?
Exhaust emissions are substances that come out of an exhaust system into the
atmosphere. A high-capacity catalytic converter reduces the level of harmfulexhaust
emissions discharged into the atmosphere. ... Auto makers are under pressure to reduce the
toxic levels of vehicle exhaust emissions
UNIT II

Electronic Transmission Control:

Input parameters:
The typical modern TCU uses signals from engine sensors, automatic transmission sensors
and from other electronic controllers to determine when and how to shift. [2] More modern
designs share inputs or obtain information from an input to the ECU, whereas older designs
often have their own dedicated inputs and sensors on the engine components. Modern TCUs
are so complex in their design and make calculations based on so many parameters that there
are an indefinite amount of possible shift behaviours
Vehicle speed sensor (VSS) :
This sensor sends a varying frequency signal to the TCU to determine the current speed of the
vehicle. The TCU uses this information to determine when a gear change should take place
based in the various operating parameters. The TCU also uses a ratio between the TSS and
WSS which is used to determine when to change gears. If either the TSS or WSS fails or
malfunctions/becomes faulty, the ratio will be wrong which in return can cause problems like
false speedometer readings and transmission slipping. To test these parts, check the resistance
to make sure it's within manufacturer specs.
Wheel speed sensor (WSS) :
Modern automatic transmissions also have a wheel speed sensor input to determine the true
speed of the vehicle to determine whether the vehicle is going downhill or uphill and also
adapt gear changes according to road speeds, and also whether to decouple the torque
converter at a standstill to improve fuel consumption and reduce load on running gear.
Throttle position sensor (TPS) :
The TPS sensor along with the vehicle speed sensor are the two main inputs for most TCUs.
Older transmissions use this to determine engine load, with the introduction of drive-by-
wire technology, this is often a shared input between the ECU and TCU. The input is used to
determine the optimum time and characteristics for a gear change according to load on the
engine. The rate of change is used to determine whether a downshift is appropriate for
overtaking, for example, the value of the TPS is also continually monitored during the
journey and shift programmes are changed accordingly (economy, sport mode, etc.). The
TCU can also reference this information with the vehicle speed sensor to determine vehicle
acceleration and compare this with a nominal value; if the actual value is much higher or
lower (such as driving uphill or towing a trailer) the transmission will change its gearshift
patterns to suit the situation.
Turbine speed sensor (TSS) :
Known as an input speed sensor (ISS). This sensor sends a varying frequency signal to the
TCU to determine the current rotational speed of the input shaft or torque converter. The
TCU uses the input shaft speed to determine slippage across the torque converter and
potentially to determine the rate of slippage across the bands and clutches. This information is
vital to regulate the application of the torque converter lock-up clutch smoothly and
effectively.
Transmission fluid Temperature sensor (TFT):
This may also be known as Transmission Oil Temperature. This sensor determines the fluid
temperature inside the transmission. This is often used for diagnostic purposes to check ATF
(Automatic Transmission Fluid) at the correct temperature. The main use of this has been as a
failsafe feature to downshift the transmission if the ATF becomes extremely hot. On more
modern transmissions this input allows the TCU to modify the line pressure
and solenoidpressures according to the changing viscosity of the fluid based on temperature
in order to improve shift comfort, and also to determine regulation of the torque converter
lock-up clutch.
Kick down switch:
One of the most common inputs into a TCU is the kick down switch which is used to
determine if the accelerator pedal has been depressed past full throttle. [3] Traditionally this
was required on older transmissions with a simple logic in order to ensure maximum
acceleration. When activated the transmission downshifts into the lowest permissible gear
based on current road speed to use the full power reserves of the engine. This is still present
in most transmissions though is no longer necessary to use in most circumstances because the
TCU uses the throttle position sensor, the rate of change, and driver characteristics to
determine whether a downshift may be necessary, thus eliminating the traditional need for
this switch.
Brake light switch:
This input is used to determine whether to activate the shift lock solenoid to prevent the
driver selecting a driving range with no foot on the brake. In more modern TCUs this input is
also used to determine whether to downshift the transmission to increase engine braking
effect if the transmission detects that the vehicle is going downhill.
Traction Control System (TCS):
Many TCUs now have an input from the vehicles traction control system. If the TCS detects
unfavourable road conditions, a signal is sent to the TCU. The TCU can modify shift
programmes by upshifting early, eliminating the torque converter lock-up clutch application,
and also eliminating the first gear totally and pulling off
Switches:
These simple on/off electric switches detect the presence or absence of fluid pressure in a
particular hydraulic line. They are used for diagnostic purposes and in some cases for
controlling the application or release of hydraulic control elements.
Cruise control module:
If the vehicle is fitted with cruise control the TCU may also have a connection to cruise
control system. This can modify shift behaviour to take into account the throttle is not being
operated by the driver to eliminate unexpected gearchanges when the cruise control is
engaged. This is also used to inform the cruise control system about the position of the
selector lever so that the cruise control can be deactivated if the lever is shifted out of a
driving range.
Inputs from other controllers:
A wide variety of information is delivered to the TCU via Controller Area
Network communications or similar protocols (such as Chrysler's CCD bus, an early EIA-
485-based vehicle local area network). In older vehicle designs, as well as in aftermarket
TCUs sold into the racing and hobbyist markets, the TCU receives only the signals needed to
control the transmission (engine speed, vehicle speed, throttle position or manifold vacuum,
shift lever position).

Output parameters
The typical modern TCU sends out signals to shift solenoids, pressure control solenoids,
torque converter lockup solenoids and to other electronic controllers.
Shift lock:
Many automatic transmissions lock the selector lever via a shiftlock solenoid to stop a driving
range being selected if the brake pedal is not depressed.
Shift solenoids:
Modern electronic automatic transmissions have electrical solenoids which are activated to
change gears. Simple electronic-control designs (such as Ford's AOD-E, AXOD-E and
E4OD) use the solenoids to modify the shift points in an existing valve body, while more
advanced designs (such as the Chrysler Ultradrive and its follow-ons) use the solenoids to
control the clutches indirectly, by way of a greatly simplified valve body.
Pressure control solenoids:
Modern electronic automatic transmissions are still fundamentally hydraulic. This requires
precise pressure control. Older automatic transmission designs only use a single line pressure
control solenoid which modifies pressure across the entire transmission. Newer automatic
transmission designs often use many pressure control solenoids, and sometimes allow the
shift solenoids themselves to provide precise pressure control during shifts by ramping the
solenoid on and off. The shift pressure affects the shift quality (too high a pressure will result
in rough shifting; too low a pressure will cause the clutches to overheat) and shift speed.
Torque converter clutch solenoid (TCC) :
Most electronic automatic transmissions utilize a TCC solenoid to regulate the torque
converter electronically. Once fully locked, the torque converter no longer applies torque
multiplication and will spin at the same speed as the engine. This provides a major increase in
fuel economy. Modern designs provide partial lockup in lower gears to improve fuel
economy further, but this can increase wear on the clutch components.
Output to ECU:
Many TCUs provide an output to the ECU to retard the ignition timing, or reduce the fuel
quantity, for a few milliseconds to reduce load on the transmission during heavy throttle. This
allows automatic transmissions to shift smoothly even on engines with large amounts of
torque which would otherwise result in a harder shift and possible damage to the gearbox.
Outputs to other controllers:
The TCU provides information about the health of the transmission, such as clutch wear
indicators and shift pressures, and can raise trouble codes and set the malfunction indicator
lamp on the instrument cluster if a serious problem is found. An output to the cruise control
module is also often present to deactivate the cruise control if a neutral gear is selected, just
like on a manual transmission.

What is adaptive steering control?

Adaptive steering changes the ratio between the driver's actions at the steeringwheel – the
number of turns – and how much the front wheels turn. In vehicles without the technology,
this is a fixed steering ratio
What connects the wheels to the steering wheel?
A rod, called a tie rod, connects to each end of the rack. The pinion gear is attached to
the steering shaft. When you turn the steering wheel, the gear spins, moving the rack. The tie
rod at each end of the rack connects to the steering arm on the spindle
What are the two main types of steering systems?
Arrangements will vary, but most linkage systems consist of ball-type joints (tie rod ends,
control arms), intermediate links (Pitman arm – also called “steering arm”, drag link),
threaded adjuster sleeves, and links. There are two basic steering assemblies:
recirculating ball bearings, and rack and pinion.

What is the function of steering?

Functions and Roles. "Turning" is a basic function of the vehicle born by steeringsysytem
which changes the direction of the vehicle by turning tires through steeringwheel operation.
Power steering is a device providing comfortable operation to the driver
though steering wheel operation assistance (lighter feel).
Steering:
Steering is the collection of components, linkages, etc. which allows any vehicle
(car, motorcycle, bicycle) to follow the desired course. An exception is the case of rail
transport by which rail tracks combined together with railroad switches (and also known as
'points' in British English) provide the steering function. The primary purpose of the steering
system is to allow the driver to guide the vehicle.
 ADAPTIVE POWER STEERING:

While nearly all cars today have power steering, and some have variable effort,
currently most vehicles have a fixed steering ratio, meaning that at low speeds more steering
input is required than at higher speeds. Ford’s Adaptive Steering automatically changes the
steering ratio based on road speed and steering wheel input, meaning that at lower speeds less
wrestling with the wheel is necessary, making low speed maneuvering and parking much
more manageable. The system is similar to those found on Audi’s and BMW’s models,
however Ford is the first mainstream manufacturer to offer Adaptive Steering.

The Adaptive Steering system will need to be uniquely tuned for the vehicle, but Ford has
worked hard to make a system that can be added to any of the vehicles currently in their
lineup, from the Fiesta supermini to the Super Duty heavy duty pickups. It fits inside their
current steering wheels, and can work with either hydraulic or electric power steering
systems. The system uses an electric motor and gears to adjust the steering ratio on the fly. At
lower speeds the steering ratio is made faster, so that fewer turns of the steering wheel are
necessary to turn the front wheels a certain amount. At higher speeds the ratio is usually made
slower, so that more turns of the wheel are necessary to turn the same amount, making for a
more stable highway ride, and allowing the vehicle to react more smoothly and precisely.
STEERING SYSTEM
This is a combination of mechanical linkage which helps to control the direction of motion of the vehicle.
Steering system has 3 main parts: The one end of steering linkage connected to the steering gear box, and
steering box connected to the steering wheel. The other end connected to the link road arm which is already
connected to the front axle of the vehicle
This system which is used in bulldozers and tanks that is usually called as differential steering. That vehicle
required moving at different speeds or even in opposite direction, which is completed by the differential
steering.
STEERING LINKAGE SYSTEM IN FLOW CHART
Steering wheel
↓
Steering column
↓
Steering box
↓
Drop arm
(Pitman arm)
↓
Drag link
(Link rod)
↓
Link rod arm
↓
Ball joint
↓
Steering arm
↓
King pin
↓
Front axle mechanism

Steering gear
It converts the turning motion of the steering wheel into the to and fro motion of the link rod of the steering
linkage. It also provides the necessary leverage so that the driver is able to steer the vehicle without fatigue.
There are two basic types of steering boxes on is rack & pinion gearing and other one is worn gearing. Both of
the box makes turning of steering wheel is much easier. A rack & pinion steering system has a steering wheel, a
main shaft, universal joints and an intermediate shaft. The pinion is meshed with the teeth of the rack, so pinion
rotation moves the rack from side to side. In worn gearing system, it provides a gear reduction and 90 degree
change in the direction. Worn gearing systems have more parts in comparison of rack & pinion system that’s
why it is mostly used in the heavier vehicles.
Steering ratio
It is the ratio of the angle turned by the steering wheel to the corresponding turning angles of the stub axle. The
steering ratios for cars are 12:1 and 35:1 for the heavy vehicle.

TYPES OF STEERING
There are lots of types of steering present in market, but here we discuss about some famous new technology
base steering. Which are widely used in today’s automobile market.
1. CONVENTIONAL STEERING
It is also known as the mechanical steering. In this system it totally works manually. Steering wheel rotates by
the driver and the mechanism which is connected together is work at that time to rotate the vehicle. This type of
steering wheel required lots of mechanical effort, and it is hard to control.

2. POWER STEERING
It is also known as power assisted steering (PAS) or steering assist system. Power has Hydraulic or electric
actuators for controlling the energy of the steering mechanism. Its makes steer much easier for the driver. The
assistance is supplied as soon as the engine is started. When parking or manoeuvring your car, it makes life
perceptible easier. They consists of a pump which produces the hydraulic pressure and a integral type gear box
which clutches the force actuating on to the steering system, regulates the pressure and changes that into
mechanical movement. It has greatly reduces the driver’s fatigue in turning the steering especially at low vehicle
speed and during parking.
Direct Adaptive Steering and Electro-Hydraulic power steering system
They are also a type of power steering. Direct Adaptive Steering transmits the driver rotate the steering wheel,
moving the tires through convert the driver’s steering into electronic signals and independently controlling the
angle of the tires and the steering force. The technology provides a sense of strong propulsion on different types
of road surfaces, and the feeling like you are directly touching the road.
Some other advance systems
1. Variable ratio rack and pinion steering system
It is seen that when driving in straight ahead position, slight movement of the steering wheel
would result in excessive correction of response of the steering gear is very fast.
2. Electric power steering
In it both pinion-driver and concentric rack driven electrical power systems. It has no
problem of leakage of fluid and steering assistance available even when the engine is not
running.
3. Speed sensitive steering
This type of system developed vary the effort required to steer the wheels as a function of
vehicle speed increasing vehicle safety and road feel.
4. Four wheel steering
The steering system under development includes basic mechanical systems, active rear toe
control and fully active electronic control systems.
5. Active four wheel steering
In this type of steering system, all four wheels turn at the same time when the steering wheel
steers by the driver. The rear wheels are steered by the help of computer and actuators.
Steering adjustment
Now a day’s you can adjust your steering wheel as per your comfort like seat.
Tilt and Telescopic steering
This system helps you to adjust the steering wheel before driving as per our comfort level. In
the tilt steering, we can adjust steering wheel upward and downward at required angle.
Telescopic steering is basically the distance between the steering wheel and the dashboard,
can be adjusted like a telescope. It can be move the steering wheel forward and backward.
Which vehicles have adaptive cruise control?
Honda Civic Touring.
Hyundai Elantra Limited.
Chevrolet Malibu Premier.
Toyota Prius.
Chrysler 200C.
Mazda3 s Grand Touring.
Ford Fusion.
Nissan Altima.

What is adaptive cruise control VW?

ACC adaptive cruise control helps to avoid accidents by always keeping your car at
a safe distance from the traffic ahead. ... The safe-distance technology builds on the
familiar cruise control system by adding a radar sensor. It immediately detects traffic
slowing ahead and automatically reduces your speed to match
What is cruise mode?
Cruise control (sometimes known as speed control or autocruise, or tempomat in
some countries) is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle.
The system is a servomechanism that takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a
steady speed as set by the driver.
Autonomous cruise control system:

Schematic of Intelligent Cruise Control. The red car automatically follows the blue car.
Autonomous cruise control:
(ACC; also called adaptive cruise control, radar cruise control, traffic-aware
cruise control or dynamic radar cruise control) is an optional cruise control system
for road vehicles that automatically adjusts the vehicle speed to maintain a safe distance from
vehicles ahead.
Control is based on sensor information from on-board sensors. (No existing system makes
use of satellite or roadside infrastructures nor of cooperative support from other
vehicles.) Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control (CACC) further extends the automation of
navigation by using information gathered from fixed infrastructure such as satellites and
roadside beacons, or mobile infrastructure such as reflectors or transmitters on the back of
other vehicles.
Such systems may use a radar or laser sensor or a stereo camera setup allowing the vehicle to
brake when it detects the car is approaching another vehicle ahead, then accelerate when
traffic allows it to.
ACC technology is widely regarded as a key component of any future generations
of intelligent cars. They impact driver safety and convenience as well as
increasing capacity of roads by maintaining optimal separation between vehicles and
reducing driver errors. Vehicles with autonomous cruise control are considered a Level
1 autonomous car, as defined by SAE International.
Adaptive cruise Control does not provide full autonomy: the system only provides some help
to the driver, but does not drive the car by itself

Autonomous cruise control on VW Golf

Laser-based systems do not detect and track vehicles in adverse weather conditions nor do
they reliably track dirty (and therefore non-reflective) vehicles. Laser-based sensors must be
exposed, the sensor (a fairly large black box) is typically found in the lower grille, offset to
one side.
Radar-based sensors can be hidden behind plastic fascias; however, the fascias may look
different from a vehicle without the feature. For example, Mercedes-Benz packages the radar
behind the upper grille in the center and behind a solid plastic panel that has painted slats to
simulate the look of the rest of the grille.
Single radar systems are the most common. Systems involving multiple sensors use either
two similar hardware sensors like the 2010 Audi A8[4] or the 2010 Volkswagen Touareg, or
one central long range radar coupled with two short radar sensors placed on the corners of the
vehicle like the BMW 5 and 6 series.
A more recent development is the binocular computer vision system, such as that introduced
to the US market in model year 2013 by Subaru. These systems have front-facing video
cameras mounted on either side of the rear view mirror and use digital processing to extract
depth information from the parallax between the two cameras' views.
Assisting systems
Radar-based ACC often feature a precrash system, which warns the driver and/or provides
brake support if there is a high risk of a collision. Also in certain cars it is incorporated with
a lane maintaining system which provides a power steering assist to reduce steering input
burden on corners when the cruise control system is activated.
Multi-sensor systems
Systems with multiple sensors can practice sensor fusion to integrate the data from to
improve safety and/or driving experience. GPS data can inform the system of geographic
features such as a freeway offramp. A camera system could notice driver behavior such as
brake lights and/or a turn signal. This could allow a following car to interpret a turn signal by
an exit as not requiring the following car to slow down, as the leading car will exit. Multi-
sensor systems could also take note of traffic signs/signals and not, e.g., violate a red light
while following a vehicle that crossed before the signal changed.
Predictive systems
Predict systems modify speed based on predictions of other vehicles' behavior. Such systems
can make earlier, more moderate adjustments to the predicted behavior, improving safety and
passenger comfort. One example is to predict the likelihood of a vehicle in a neighbouring
lane moving in front of the controlled vehicle. One system predicts a lane change up to five
seconds before it occurs
How Cruise Control Systems Work
Two companies are developing a more advanced cruise control that can automatically
adjust a car's speed to maintain a safe following distance. This new technology, called
adaptive cruise control, uses forward-looking radar, installed behind the grill of a vehicle, to
detect the speed and distance of the vehicle ahead of it.
Adaptive cruise control is similar to conventional cruise control in that it maintains the
vehicle's pre-set speed. However, unlike conventional cruise control, this new system can
automatically adjust speed in order to maintain a proper distance between vehicles in the
same lane. This is achieved through a radar headway sensor, digital signal processor and
longitudinal controller. If the lead vehicle slows down, or if another object is detected, the
system sends a signal to the engine or braking system to decelerate. Then, when the road is
clear, the system will re-accelerate the vehicle back to the set speed.
The 77-GHz Autocruise radar system made by TRW has a forward-looking range of up to
492 feet (150 meters), and operates at vehicle speeds ranging from 18.6 miles per hour (30
kph) to 111 mph (180 kph). Delphi's 76-GHz system can also detect objects as far away as
492 feet, and operates at speeds as low as 20 mph (32 kph).
RADAR SENSOR:
Block diagram of the radar sensor. The circuit uses a branch-line power divider to
couple the voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) to both the antenna and the mixer. If the target
moves, a Doppler frequency shift f δ is produced in the reflected wave and is detected by the
mixer circuit. The resistance R IF and the capacitor C IF constitute a low-pass filter and
terminate the mixer output port. LO: local oscillator; RF: radio frequency.
Vehicle Safety Technology:

Vehicle Safety Technology (VST) in the automotive industry refers to special technology
(advanced driver-assistance systems) developed to ensure the safety and security of
automobiles and passengers. The term encompasses a broad umbrella of projects and devices
within the automotive world. Notable examples include car-to-computer communication
devices which utilize GPS tracking features, geo-fencing capabilities, remote speed sensing,
theft deterrence, damage mitigation, and vehicle-to-vehicle communication.

The vehicle safety technology has its roots in the 18th century. It started in the automobile
industry as a response to the attempts of the legislators, who were working towards reducing
the number of road accidents. The initial safety features were the safety glass, four-wheel
hydraulic brakes, seat belts, and padded dashboards. A scientific approach to vehicle safety
began in 1934 when General Motors conducted the first crash barrier test. Gradually, the
existing systems were stabilized followed by introduction of disc brakes and anti-lock
braking system. Introduction of hi-tech safety systems began in the year 1995 with Electronic
Stability Control (ESC). The lane departure warning system was introduced in the year 1999
and the radar assisted adaptive cruise control was introduced in 2005. Theses advanced hi-
tech systems are not standard parts in all cars.

Driver alertness detection system:

Driver drowsiness detection:

Driver drowsiness detection is a safety system in the vehicles that helps avoiding accidents
caused by drowsiness of the driver. This safety system monitors the steering pattern, vehicle
position in lane, driver’s eye or face and the physiological measurements like brain activity,
muscle movement and heart rate through sensors. When drowsiness is detected, the driver is
alerted and directed to a safety point on the roadside.

Vehicle-to-vehicle communication:

Vehicular communication systems:

One method for reducing automobile accidents involves allowing vehicles to communicate
with each other. This technology has been researched since 1997, and in its current form was
endorsed by the National Transportation Safety Board. Wireless car-to-car communication
would allow for instant accurate sensing of distance between vehicles and blind spot
monitoring.Researchers at the German Research Center for Artificial Intelligence indicate
that the 34,000 preventable auto deaths in the United States could be dramatically reduced by
these technologies. In June 2013, a large-scale test of this technology was completed in
Washington D.C. under the direction of United States Secretary of Transportation Ray La
Hood

Electronic stability control (ESC):

Electronic stability control:

Electronic Stability Control (ESC) helps to avoid a crash by significantly reducing the risk of
your car going into a skid during a sudden emergency manoeuvre such as avoiding an
obstacle in front of you. ESC identifies this risk early and stabilizes the car by braking
individual wheels.

Warning and emergency braking systems:

Collision avoidance system:

Warning and Emergency Braking Systems detect at an early stage the danger of an accident
with the vehicle in front of you. In the case of a potential collision, they warn you about the
danger, and when there is no reaction to the warning, the technologies activate the brakes
together with systems such as seat belt pretension to avoid or mitigate a crash. Advanced
Brake Warning alerts the driver as to how hard the driver in front of them is pressing down on
the brakes.

Blind spot monitor:

Blind Spot Monitoring helps you avoid a crash with a vehicle in the lane next to you by
continuously screening the blind spots to the side of your vehicle. This system uses ultrasonic
or radar sensors to detect the vehicles approaching at your blind spots and alerts the driver
through vibrations on the steering and a yellow indicator on the mirror.

Lane support systems

Lane departure warning system

Lane Support Systems can assist and warn you when you unintentionally leave the road lane
or when you change lanes without indication. Sometimes a moment of inattention is enough
to make your vehicle stray from its lane. The systems monitor the position of the vehicle in
the road lane and while Lane Departure Warning System warns you if the car unintentionally
wanders from the path, Lane Keeping Support helps you correct the course of your car. Lane
Departure Warning System has been recommended for inclusion in all next-generation cars
by the United States government.

Speed alert:

Traffic sign recognition:

Speed Alert helps you keep the correct speed and avoid speed related traffic crashes and
speeding. Speed Alert informs you about the speed limits and tells you when you are about to
exceed them. This safety system detects the position of the car through GPS and compares
the speed of the car with the speed limits mentioned in database for speed limit. The
advanced version of this system will be the intelligent speed adaptation that can automatically
slow down the vehicle if the speed limit exceeds.

Roll over protection:

Active rollover protection:

Historically, accidents where vehicle flip over have been the most damaging to life and
property. Therefore, new technology has been developed to allow vehicles to prevent rollover.
When certain essential factors are detected, including sudden swerving and undue
acceleration around corners, the vehicle automatically reduces speed to prevent rollover.[6]

importance of vehicle safety technology:

Safety systems in vehicles are important to avoid accidents and safeguard human life. The
concept of personal vehicle resulted in manufacturing of multiple vehicles. However, with the
comfort of a personal vehicle comes the disadvantage of road risks. To avoid risks, it is
recommended that the vehicles are manufacturing with basic safety systems. Recognizing the
importance of safety, laws are enforced by government on manufacturers and users to avoid.
Traction Control System:

Basic Description

A Traction Control System is used to prevent wheel spin from occurring due to
acceleration. This usually happens on a slippery surface, such as snow or a pool of
water, where the wheels are not able to generate enough traction to move the vehicle.
Traction Control systems and Anti-Lock braking systems (ABS) are often paired
together as they help improve the vehicle's stability with by working in tandem. The
major difference between an ABS and a Traction Control system is that while ABS
stops the wheel from spinning while braking, Traction Control stops the wheel from
spinning while the vehicle is accelerating. A Traction Control System is also known as
an Anti-Slip Regulation (ASR).

The Traction Control system (TCS) uses wheel speed sensors to measure the vehicle's
speed with the rate at which the drive wheels are spinning, to detect if there is any slip
occurring between the tire and the road. If a slip is detected between the road and the
wheel, the Traction Control system ensures that only the minimum amount of torque
is supplied to the slipping wheel to generate the required amount of friction for the
vehicle to move.

The primary input of the TCS is the wheel speed sensor. These sensors continuously
monitor the speed of each driven wheel and send the data to the ABS and Traction
Control System ECU. When a slip is detected between the tire and the road, the TCS
regulates brake pressure on the slipping wheel. This process of slowing down the
wheel helps it regain traction. Simultaneously, torque is shifted through the
differential to the opposite wheel that has a better traction when compared to the
slipping wheel.

The brake pressure is applied by routing the pressure from the ABS pump and through
the ABS modulator. The pressure to applied is regulated through a high pressure
accumulator. The TCS includes an extra solenoid valve in the ABS modulator, for
each individual drive wheel's brake circuit. This arrangement allows the system to
apply brake pressure to slow down the spinning wheel in order to regain traction. The
continuous usage of brakes in TCS generates a lot of heat in the brake calipers. To
 prevent overheating of these calipers, TCS automatically discontinues after a certain
length of time.

If both the driven wheels are losing traction, the TCS slows both the slipping
wheels equally to slow them down until they regain traction. Otherwise, the systems
send a signal to the Powertrain Control Module (PCM) to reduce the engine torque to
the wheels until traction is regained.

When the TCS is activated in a vehicle, it is shown to the driver through the
instrument cluster. In a lot of performance vehicles, there is an option of switching
on/off the Traction Control System. When this system is disabled, a warning light
glows to notify the driver that the TCS is switched off. Switching off the TCS does
not switch of the ABS in the vehicle, even though they are inter-related.

BOSCH invented the Anti-Lock Braking system in 1978 and the Traction Control
System in 1985. Traction Control is used in cars as well as bikes

Sensors:
Wheel Speed Sensor

Actuators:
Hydraulic Modulator, Master Cylinder, Wheel Brake Cylinders, Warning Light

Data Communications:
High Speed CAN Bus.
Active suspension:

Active suspension is a type of automotive suspension that controls the vertical

movement of the wheels relative to the chassis or vehicle body with an onboard system,
rather than in passive suspension where the movement is being determined entirely by the
road surface. Active suspensions can be generally divided into two classes: pure active
suspensions, and adaptive/semi-active suspensions. While adaptive suspensions only vary
shock absorber firmness to match changing road or dynamic conditions, active suspensions
use some type of actuator to raise and lower the chassis independently at each wheel.

These technologies allow car manufacturers to achieve a greater degree of ride

quality and car handling by keeping the tires perpendicular to the road in corners, allowing
better traction (engineering) and control. An onboard computer detects body movement from
sensors throughout the vehicle and, using data calculated by opportune control techniques,
controls the action of the active and semi-active suspensions. The system virtually
eliminates body roll and pitch variation in many driving situations
including cornering, accelerating, and braking.

Principle:
Skyhook theory is that the ideal suspension would let the vehicle maintain a stable
posture as if suspended by an imaginary hook in the sky, unaffected by road conditions.

Since an actual skyhook is impractical, real active suspension systems are based on actuator
operations. The imaginary line (of zero vertical acceleration) is calculated based on the value
provided by an acceleration sensor installed on the body of the vehicle .Since the dynamic
elements are only made up of the linear spring and the linear damper, no complicated
calculations are necessary.
 A vehicle contacts the ground through the spring and damper in a normal spring
damper suspension, To achieve the same level of stability as the Skyhook theory, the vehicle
must contact the ground through the spring, and the imaginary line with the damper,
Theoretically, in a case where the coefficient of the damper reaches an infinite value, the
vehicle will be in a state where it is completely fixed to the imaginary line, thus the vehicle
will not shake.

Active:
Active suspensions, the first to be introduced, use separate actuators which can exert an
independent force on the suspension to improve the riding characteristics. The
drawbacks of this design are high cost, added complication and mass of the
apparatus, and the need for frequent maintenance on some implementations.
Maintenance can require specialised tools, and some problems can be difficult to
diagnose
Hydraulic actuation:
Hydraulically actuated suspensions are controlled with the use of hydraulics. The first
example appeared in 1954, with the Hydropneumatic suspension developed by Paul
Magès at Citroën. The hydraulic pressure is supplied by a high pressure radial piston
hydraulic pump. Sensors continually monitor body movement and vehicle ride level,
constantly supplying the hydraulic height correctors with new data. In a matter of a few
seconds, the suspension generates counter forces to raise or lower the body. [3] During driving
maneuvers, the encased nitrogen compresses instantly, offering six times the compressibility
of the steel springs used by vehicles up to this time.
In practice, the system has always incorporated the desirable self-levelling
suspension and height adjustable suspensionfeatures, with the latter now tied to vehicle speed
for improved aerodynamic performance, as the vehicle lowers itself at high speed.
This system performed remarkably well in straight ahead driving, including over
uneven surfaces, but had little control over roll stiffness.[5]
Millions of production vehicles have been built with variations on this system.
Electronic actuation of hydraulic suspension
Colin Chapman developed the original concept of computer management of hydraulic
suspension in the 1980s to improve cornering in racing cars. Lotus fitted and developed a
prototype system to a 1985 Excel with electro-hydraulic active suspension, but never offered
it for sale to the public, although many demonstration cars were built for other manufacturers.
Sensors continually monitor body movement and vehicle ride level, constantly supplying the
computer with new data. As the computer receives and processes data, it operates the
hydraulic servos, mounted beside each wheel. Almost instantly, the servo-regulated
suspension generates counter forces to body lean, dive, and squat during driving maneuvers.
Williams Grand Prix Engineering prepared an active suspension for F1 cars in 1992, creating
such successful cars that the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile decided to ban the
technology.
Computer Active Technology Suspension (CATS) co-ordinates the best possible balance
between ride quality and handling by analysing road conditions and making up to 3,000
adjustments every second to the suspension settings via electronically controlled dampers.
The 1999 Mercedes-Benz CL-Class (C215) introduced Active Body Control, where high
pressure hydraulic servos are controlled by electronic computing, and this feature is still
available.
Active anti-roll bar:
Active anti-roll bar stiffens under command of the suspension Electronic control unit (ECU)
during hard cornering. First production car was Citroën Xantia Activa in 1994.
Electromagnetic recuperative:
Electromagnetic suspension

In fully active electronically controlled production cars, the application of electric servos and
motors married to electronic computing allows for flat cornering and instant reactions to road
conditions.
The Bose Corporation has a proof of concept model. The founder of Bose, Amar Bose, had
been working on exotic suspensions for many years while he was an MIT professor
Electromagnetic active suspension uses linear electromagnetic motors attached to each wheel.
It provides extremely fast response, and allows regeneration of power consumed, by using the
motors as generators. This nearly surmounts the issues of slow response times and high
power consumption of hydraulic systems. Electronically controlled active suspension system
(ECASS) technology was patented by the University of Texas Center for Electromechanics in
the 1990s[8] and has been developed by L-3 Electronic Systems for use on military vehicles.
[9]
The ECASS-equipped HMMWV exceeded the performance specifications for all
performance evaluations in terms of absorbed power to the vehicle operator, stability and
handling.
Active Wheel:

 Michelin's Active Wheel from 2004 incorporates an in-wheel electrical suspension

motor that controls torque distribution, traction, turning maneuvers, pitch, roll and
suspension damping for that wheel, in addition to an in-wheel electric traction motor.[10]
[11]

 Audi active electromechanical suspension system introduced in 2017. It drives each

wheel individually and adapts to the prevailing road conditions. Each wheel has an
electric motor which is powered by the 48-volt main electrical system. Additional
components include gears, a rotary tube together with internal titanium torsion bar and a
lever which exerts up to 1,100 Nm (811.3 lb-ft) on the suspension via a coupling rod.
Thanks to the front camera, the sedan detects bumps in the road early on and predictively
adjusts the active suspension. Even before the car reaches a bump in the road, the
preview function developed by Audi transmits the right amount of travel to the actuators
and actively controls the suspension. The computer controlled motors can sense
imperfection on the road, and can raise the suspension up from the wheel which would go
over the undulation, thus aiding the ride quality. The system will direct the motors on the
outside to push up or pull down the suspension while cornering. This will result in a
 flatter drive and reduced body-roll around corners which in turn means more confident
handling dynamics.

Adaptive and Semi-Active

Adaptive or semi-active systems can only change the viscous damping coefficient of
the shock absorber, and do not add energy to the suspension system. While adaptative
suspensions have generally a slow time response and a limited number of damping coefficient
values, semi-active suspensions have time response close to a few milliseconds and can
provide a wide range of damping values. Therefore, adaptative suspensions usually only
propose different riding modes (comfort, normal, sport...) corresponding to different damping
coefficients, while semi-active suspensions modify the damping in real time, depending on
the road conditions and the dynamics of the car. Though limited in their intervention (for
example, the control force can never have different direction than the current vector of
velocity of the suspension), semi-active suspensions are less expensive to design and
consume far less energy. In recent times, research in semi-active suspensions has continued to
advance with respect to their capabilities, narrowing the gap between semi-active and fully
active suspension systems.
Solenoid/valve actuated
This type is the most economic and basic type of semi-active suspensions. They consist of a
solenoid valve which alters the flow of the hydraulic medium inside the shock absorber,
therefore changing the damping characteristics of the suspension setup. The solenoids are
wired to the controlling computer, which sends them commands depending on the control
algorithm (usually the so-called "Sky-Hook" technique). This type of system is used
in Cadillac's Computer Command Ride (CCR) suspension system. The first production car
was the Toyota Soarer with semi-active Toyota Electronic Modulated Suspension, from 1983.