First mental operation is SIMPLE APPREHENSION

Simple – implies that the act cannot be resolved into another form.
Apprehension – implies an act of conceiving the object.

SIMPLE APPREHENSION – is a mental act of conceiving something without affirming or denying anything
about it..
PHANTASM – is a sensible image existing in the imagination, which is one of the internal faculties of the
brain.
ABSTRACTION –is a mental process whereby the mind separates the essential features of an object from
non-essential ones.

TYPES OF ABSTRACTION
1. FORMAL ABSTRACTION – withdraws a form or formal quality from a thing is either material or
immaterial.
2. TOTAL ABSTRACTION - withdraws a universal nature or essence from particular or individual.

CONCEPT – is immaterial, abstract and unchangeable.

TWO PROPERTIES OF CONCEPT

1. COMPREHENSION – is the sum of total of notes by which a thing is known.
2. EXTENSION – is the sum total of real things or individuals to which the concept is applies.

AFFIRMATIVE JUDGMENT - if the two ideas conform to each other.

NEGATIVE JUDGMENT – if the two ideas are in disconformity with each other.

CONCEPT – mental representations of realities.

CLASSIFICATION OF CONCEPTS:
1. FIRST CLASSIFICATION
A. FIRST INTENTION – is a concept by which we know a thing independent of our mind.
B. SECOND INTENTION – is a concept which presents the mode or manner how the mind
understands such nature or quality as a logical reality.
2. SECOND CLASSIFICATION
A. CONCRETE – concepts which signify a nature or quality as found residing in an individual or
subject.
B. ABSTRACT – concept which signifies a nature or quality as though it exists on its own right.
3. THIRD CLASSIFICATION
A. ABSOLUTE - concept that manifests itself to the mind as a substance and as independent
reality.
B. CONNOTATIVE – concept that manifest itself to the mind as an accident connected to a
substance.
4. FOURTH CLASSIFICATION
A. POSITIVE – concept that manifest an object to the mind according to what it is or what is
made of.
 B. NEGATIVE - concept that manifest an object to the mind according to what it is not or what
is not made of.
TERM - sensible conventional sign of a concept.

CLASSIFICATION OF A TERM
A. UNIVOCAL - if they exhibit similarity in meaning or signification even if they are used in at least
two occasions.
B. EQUIVOCAL - terms maybe considered equivocal if they exhibit difference in meaning or
signification whenever they are used in at least two occasions.

3 ways of EQUIVOCAL TERM

1. SPELLING ALONE – some terms are similarly in spelling but the manner of reading them
is entirely different
2. SOUND ALONE – terms maybe similar in pronunciation or utterance but their spellings
remain to be different as well as their meanings
3. BOTH SPELLING AND SOUND – some terms have similarity in sound and spelling but still
their meanings remain to be different
ANALOGOUS – terms are analogous if they express partly the same and partly different meanings when
used in at least two occasions.

3 CLASSIFICATIONS OF TERMS ACCORDING TO THE APPLICATION OR EXTENSION

1. UNIVERSAL - is a term applied to each member of a given class
2. PARTICULAR – is a term applied to an indeterminately designed portion of its absolute extension
3. SINGULAR – is a term which applied to any specified object, individual, or group.

The term “DEFINITION” derived from the LATIN word “DEFINIRE” which translated to mean “TO ASSIGN
LIMITS” or “TO ENCLOSE WITHIN LIMITS”.

TYPES OF DEFINITION
1. NOMINAL DEFINITION – merely points out what the term stand for, without explaining what it is
itself.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF NOMINAL DEFINITION
1. DEFINITION BY ETYMOLOGY – attained by tracing the origin of the word.
2. DEFINITION BY DESCRIPTION – attained by describing the term to be defined
3. DEFINITION BY SYNONYM – attained by giving a word equivalent to the same term to be
defined.
4. DEFINITION BY DEFINITION BY EXAMPLE – done by citing anything that will represent the
term to be defined

2. REAL DEFINITION – not only declares what a thing is signified but explains what is its nature.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF REAL DEFINITION
1. PROXIMATE GENUS –refers here to the group or kind for which a term is included
2. SPECIFIC DIFFERENCE – refers to the feature that distinguishes one thing from another.
RULES OF DEFINITION-
1. A DEFINITION MUST BE CLEAR - The purpose of a definition is to explain a thing or a
Concept
2. A DEFINITION MUST BE BRIEF BUT PRECISE - It should include only those features which explain
a thing as it is
3. A DEFINITION MUST BE POSITIVE - A definition should tell us what it is and not what is
it not
4. A DEFINITION MUST BE ADEQUATE - The definition states exactly the nature of the thing
defined so that, in effect, they are convertible or co-extensive
5. A DEFINITION MUST NOT CONTAIN THE TERM THAT IS TO BE DEFINED - We cannot define a term
by itself

JUDGMENT AND PROPOSITION

 The second mental act is known as JUDGMENT.
JUDGMENT - It is defined as a mental act whereby an act of pronouncement regarding the agreement or
disagreement between two concepts is made.
PROPOSITION - The expression of the mental act judgment is the proposition

A PROPOSITION IS COMPOSED OF THE SUBJECT, THE COPULA, AND THE PREDICATE.

 SUBJECT-stands for the thing under consideration. It is understood to be a term which is to
be affirmed or denied
 PREDICATE - is a term which is to be affirmed or denied of the subject
 COPULA - is a device that pronounces the agreement or disagreement between the subject
and the predicate terms.

KINDS OF PROPOSITION: (CATEGORICAL AND HYPOTHETICAL)

1. CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION - is a statement which affirms or denies something absolutely,
immediately, directly or without any condition.
2. HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION - a hypothetical proposition is a statement which affirms or
denies something with condition.

QUANTITY OF A CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION:

1. UNIVERSAL – if the subject can be applied to each member of a certain class.
2. PARTICULAR – if the subject term can be applied to only a certain part of a given class.
3. SINGULAR – if the subject term can be applied to a specific individual or group
QUALITY OF A CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION
1. AFFIRMATIVE - is a proposition in which the copula unites the predicate to the subject. Through
the unity of the predicate and the subject an act of affirmation is created and thus the
proposition becomes affirmative.
2. NEGATIVE - is a proposition in which the copula separates the predicate to the subject. Through
the separation of the predicate and the subject terms an act of denial or negation is created.
VENN DIAGRAM –
HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION - is a statement which affirms or denies something with condition
KINDS OF HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION
1. CONDITIONAL - is a Hypothetical proposition which contains antecedent and a consequent.
2. DISJUNCTIVE - is a Hypothetical proposition which presents two or more alternatives but one of
these alternatives will prove to be true and the other/s will be false.
3. CONJUNCTIVE -is a hypothetical proposition which denies the simultaneous possibility of two
alternatives.

INFERENCE – the process whereby the mind draws new idea from one proposition to another is a fitting
of the term inference
IMMEDIATE INFERENCE – is a synonymous with the word “direct” or “without any do”.
MEDIATE INFERENCE- the word “MEDIATE” entails the use of two propositions
TYPES OF MEDIATE INFERENCE
1. INDUCTIVE
2. DEDUCTIVE
ANTECEDENT – regarded as the structure of logical inference to which something is to be taken or
inferred from.
LATIN word “ANTECEDO” which means “SOMETHING THAT GOES BEFORE”.
CONSEQUENT- regarded as the structure of logical inference to which something is to be taken or
inferred from the antecedent
LATIN word “CONSEQUOR” means “SOMETHING THAT FOLLOWS AFTER”

6 PRINCIPLES OF INFERENCE
1. Principle of identity and the principle of contradiction
2. Principle of identifying the third and the principle of separating the third
3. Principle of DICTUM OMNI and the principle of DICTUM DENULO

 PRINCIPLE OF IDENTITY – which claims that if any argument is true then it is really true.
 PRINCIPLE OF CONTRADICTION – states that a thing cannot be and not be at the same time or
in the same respect.
 PRINCIPLE OF IDENTIFYING THE THIRD – principle whose basic premise is “two things that are
identical with the same third thing are identical with each other”.
 PRINCIPLE OF SEPARATING THE THIRD – “two things of which the one is identical with the same
third thing and the other is not are not really identical with one another.
 PRINCIPLE OF DICTUM DE OMNI (LAW OF ALL) – applicable to any affirmative syllogism and
formulated as “what is predicated of a logical whole maybe predicated distributively in each of
its inferior.
 PRINCIPLE OF DICTUM DENULO (LAW OF NONE) – basic premise is “what is denied of a logical
whole may also be denied ditributively of each inferior
FOUR KINDS OF LOGICAL OPPOSUTION
1. CONTRADICTORY – kind of logical opposition which exists between two propositions which
are different in both quantity and quality
 2. CONTRARY- logical opposition which exists between two propositions which differ in quality
RULES ABIDING THE CONTRARY OPPOSITION
1. If one is true the other is false
2. If one is false then the other is doubtful
3. SUB – CONTRARY – logical opposition exists between two propositions which are entirely
different in terms of quality
RULES ABIDING THE SUB- CONTRARY OPPOSITION
1. If one is false then the other is true
2. Of one is true the other is doubtful
4. SUB – ALTERNATE- kind of logical opposition which exist between two propositions which
are different in terms of quantity
RULES ABIDING THE SUB- ALTERNATE OPPOSITION
1. If the UNIVERSAL is true then the PARTICULAR is also true
2. If the UNIVERSAL is false then the PARTICULAR is doubtful
3. If the PARTICULAR is true then the UNIVERSAL is doubtful
4. If the PARTICULAR is false then the UNIVERSAL is also false

LOGICAL WAY OF EDUCTION

EDUCTION – way of re-expressing the proposition by interchanging its subject and predicate an in using
or removing its negative to retain its original meaning.
KINDS OF EDUCTION
 CONVERSION - way of re-expressing the proposition by interchanging its subject and predicate
without changing its quality
TWO RULES OF CONVERSION
1. Interchange the subject term and the predicate term
2. Retain the original quality of the proposition
TYPES OF CONVERSION
1. SIMPLE CONVERSION - done by Interchange the subject term and the predicate term
without affecting the quantity of both subject and predicate and the meaning of the
original proposition
2. PARTIA; CONVERSION – takes place when the quantity of the converse is different from
the convertend
 OBVERSION – method of rephrasing the given proposition by changing its quality without
affecting its quantity.
PROCESS OF TRANSLATION
1. Change the quality of the proposition without changing the quantity
2. Change the predicate to its contradictory
 CONTRAPOSITION – method of rephrasing a given proposition by combining the process of
obversion and conversion.
TWO TYPES OF CONTRAPOSITION
 1. PARTIAL CONTRAPOSITION – the subject is the contradictory of the original predicate, the
quality is changed and the predicate is the former subject of the original proposition.
2. COMPLETE CONTRAPOSITION - the subject is the contradictory of the original predicate, the
quality is unchanged and the predicate is the contrary of the former subject of the original
proposition
 INVERSION – logical way of re-expressing the original proposition or invertend into a new
proposition or inverse whereby the subject becomes the contradictory of the original subject
TWO TYPES OF INVERSION
1. SIMPLE INVERSION – normally happens if the quality of the invertend is changed but
retaining the character of the original predicate
2. COMPLETE INVERSION – happens if the quality of the invertend is unchanged yet the
predicate is now the contradictory of the original predicate.
REASONING AND CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
REASONING – defined as a mental operation in which propositions are compared in order to
create a logical conclusion or inference
ARGUMENTATION – defined as a process of laying adown evidences in form of propositions or
judgments.
KINDS OF REASONING
1. DEDUCTION – kind of reasoning whereby the mind proceeds from general to specific
2. INDUCTION - kind of reasoning whereby the mind proceeds from specific to general

SYLLOGISM – is an oral or written discourse showing the agreement or disagreement between

two terms on the basis of their respective relation to a common third term

3 MAJOR TERM
1. MAJOR PREMISE – consists of a predicate term of the conclusion and a middle term and
naturally begins with a universal quantifier.
2. MINOR PREMISE – consist of a subject term of the conclusion and a middle term
3. CONCLUSION – consist both subject term which is found in the minor premise and the
predicate term which is found in the major premise

RULES OF SYLLOGISM
 RULES ON TERMS
1. THERE MUST BE THREE AND ONLY THREE TERMS
2. NO TERM MUST HAVE GREATER EXTENSION IN THE CONCLUSION THAN IT HAS IN
THE PREMISES
3. THE MIDDLE TERM MUST NOT APPEAR IN THE CONCLUSION
4. THE MIDDLE TERM MUST BE UNIVERSAL AT LEAST ONCE
 RULES ON PROPOSITIONS
5. TWO AFFIRMATIVE PREMISES YIELD AN AFFIRMATIVE CONCLUSION
6. TWO NEGATIVE PREMISES YIELD NO CONCLUSION
7. WHEN ON PREMISE IS NEGATIVE, THE CONCLUION MUST BE NEGATIVE, WHEN ON
PREMISE IS PARTICULAR, THE CONCLUSION MUST BE PARTICULAR
8. WHEN BOTH PREMISES ARE PARTICULAR, THERE IS NO CONCLUSION

FIGURES AND MOODS

 FIGURES – refer to the actual arrangement of the middle terms in the syllogism
FOUR (4) FIGURES IN SYLLOGISM
1. FIRST FIGURE ( SUB-PRE)
- In syllogism the middle term is the subject of the major premise and the
predicate of the minor premise
2. SECOND FIGURE (PRE-PRE)
- In syllogism the middle term is the predicate of the major and the minor
premise.
3. THIRD FIGURE (SUB-SUB)
- The middle term is the subject of the major and minor premise
4. FOURTH FIGURE – (PRE-SUB)
- the middle term is the predicate of the major premise and the subject of the
minor premise

MOODS
- refer to the order of the propositions according to their quality and quantity

1. VALID MOODS FOR FIGURE 1: (SUB-PRE)

a. Barbara (AAA) C. Celarent (EAE)
b. Darii (AII) d. Ferio (EIO)
2. VALID MOODS FOR FIGURE 2 (PRE-PRE)
A. Baroco (AOO) C. Cesare (EAE)
B. Canestres (AEE) D. Festino (EIO)
3. VALID MOODS FOR FIGURE 3: (SUB-SUB)
A. Darapti (AAI) D. Ferison (EIO)
B. Datisi (AII) E. Disamis (IAI)
C. Felapton (EAO) G. Bocardo (OAO)
4. VALID MOODS FOR FIGURE 4: (PRE-SUB)
A. Bramantip (AAI) D. Fresison (EIO)
B. Camenes (AEE) e. Dimaris (IAI)
 C. Fesapo (EAO)
HYPOTHETICAL SYLLOGISM – contains a major premise that is hypothetical proposition
CONDITIONAL SYLLOGISM – characterized as having a conditional major premise. Its minor
premise and its conclusions are formulated following the form of categorical proposition
CONJUCTIVE SYLLOGISM – wherein the major premise is a conjunctive proposition, whose
minor premise posits one member of the major premise and whose conclusion sublates the
other member of the major premise
DISJUNCTIVE SYLLOGISM – hypothetical syllogism in which major premise is a disjunctive
proposition consisting of alternatives

SPECIAL TYPES OF SYLLOGISM

1. ENTHYMEME – which one of the premises or the conclusion is omitted

2. POLYSYLLOGISM – consisting of a series of syllogism so arranged that the conclusion of

the one is the premise of the other.

3. SORITES – consisting of a series of syllogism of which the conclusions except for the last
are omitted.