Conservation biology

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to navigationJump to search
"Biological conservation" redirects here. For the scientific journal, see Biological Conservation
(journal).
"Conservation Biology" redirects here. For the scientific journal, see Conservation Biology
(journal).

Efforts are made to preserve the natural characteristics of Hopetoun Falls, Australia, without affecting
visitors' access.

Conservation biology is the management of nature and of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of
protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the
erosion of biotic interactions.[1][2][3] It is an interdisciplinary subject drawing on natural and social
sciences, and the practice of natural resource management.[4][5][6][7]:478
The conservation ethic is based on the findings of conservation biology.

Sustainable development has been defined in many

ways, but the most frequently quoted definition is
from Our Common Future
Sustainable development is development that meets
the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Wind powers 5 MW wind turbines on a wind farm 28 km off the coast of Belgium.

Sustainable development is the organizing principle for meeting human development goals
while at the same time sustaining the ability of natural systems to provide the natural
resources and ecosystem services upon which the economy and society depend. The desired
result is a state of society where living conditions and resource use continue to meet human
needs without undermining the integrity and stability of the natural system. Sustainable
development can be classified as development that meet the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations.
The concept of sustainable development has been—and still is—subject to criticism. What,
exactly, is to be sustained in sustainable development? It has been argued that there is no such
thing as a sustainable use of a non-renewable resource, since any positive rate of exploitation
will eventually lead to the exhaustion of earth's finite stock. This perspective renders
the industrial revolution as a whole unsustainable. It has also been argued that the meaning of
the concept has opportunistically been stretched from "conservation management" to "economic
development", and that the Brundtland Report promoted nothing but a business as usual strategy
for world development, with an ambiguous and insubstantial concept attached as a public
relations slogan.
 Maintaining biodiversity
Endangered species

An endangered species is at risk of becoming extinct. For example, the panda and gorilla are
endangered and may become extinct. A species can become endangered for several reasons,
including:

 the number of available habitats falls below a critical level

 the population of the species falls below a critical level
For example, the South African quagga was a type of zebra that became extinct because of
hunting. The last wild quagga was shot in the late 1870s. However, a lone female quagga
later died in a zoo in Amsterdam in 1883, the last of her species.

A quagga

A species may even be at risk of becoming extinct if there is not enough genetic variation in
the population. This can happen even if the population is still quite large.

Biodiversity

Biodiversity means having as wide a range of different species in an ecosystem as possible. It

is important to conserve the variety of living organisms on Earth. Not only do we have moral
and cultural reasons for conserving endangered species, but conservation:

 maintains the future possibility that plant species might be identified for medicines
 keeps damage to food chains and food webs to a minimum
 protects our future food supply
Conservation measures

Some species in Britain are endangered, including the skylark, red squirrel and grass snake.
They could be helped by conservation measures such as:

 education programmes
 captive breeding programmes
 legal protection and protection of their habitats
 making artificial ecosystems for them to live in
Plant species can also be endangered. Seed banks are a conservation measure for plants.
Seeds are carefully stored so that new plants may be grown in the future.

Abstract
ENTHIS LINK GOES TO A ENGLISH SECTIONESTHIS LINK GOES TO A SPANISH SECTION

Conservation fences are an increasingly common management action, particularly

for species threatened by invasive predators. However, unlike many conservation
actions, fence networks are expanding in an unsystematic manner, generally as a
reaction to local funding opportunities or threats. We conducted a gap analysis of
Australia's large predator‐exclusion fence network by examining translocation of
Australian mammals relative to their extinction risk. To address gaps identified in
species representation, we devised a systematic prioritization method for expanding
the conservation fence network that explicitly incorporated population viability
analysis and minimized expected species’ extinctions. The approach was applied to
New South Wales, Australia, where the state government intends to expand the
existing conservation fence network. Existing protection of species in fenced areas
was highly uneven; 67% of predator‐sensitive species were unrepresented in the
fence network. Our systematic prioritization yielded substantial efficiencies in that it
reduced expected number of species extinctions up to 17 times more effectively than
ad hoc approaches. The outcome illustrates the importance of governance in
coordinating management action when multiple projects have similar objectives and
rely on systematic methods rather than expanding networks opportunistically.

Abstract
One of the fundamental principles of International Humanitarian Law, if not the fundamental
principle, is the need to distinguish combatants from civilians and civilian objects in the course of
belligerency. One of the most important civilian objects is the environment in which civilians live.
However the importance of the environment has not been a focus of International Humanitarian
Law until recent years. Rules of International Humanitarian Law now account for environmental
matters generally but are not adequate to deal with particular "vulnerable" environments, such as
the Arctic and the Amazon. Changes in these environments have the potential for world-wide
repercussions and require special attention. This article develops the concept of the special case
of the "vulnerable" environment and the peculiarly problems that are left unaddressed by
International Humanitarian Law. Exploring the current status of the law, this article explores ways
in which present interpretations of Customary International Law and IHL may be used or
changed to accommodate the needs of those environments which are particularly endangered.
Abstract

One of the fundamental principles of International Humanitarian Law, if not the fundamental
principle, is the need to distinguish combatants from civilians and civilian objects in the
course of belligerency. One of the most important civilian objects is the environment in
which civilians live. However the importance of the environment has not been a focus of
International Humanitarian Law until recent years. Rules of International Humanitarian Law
now account for environmental matters generally but are not adequate to deal with particular
"vulnerable" environments, such as the Arctic and the Amazon. Changes in these
environments have the potential for world-wide repercussions and require special attention.
This article develops the concept of the special case of the "vulnerable" environment and the
peculiarly problems that are left unaddressed by International Humanitarian Law. Exploring
the current status of the law, this article explores ways in which present interpretations of
Customary International Law and IHL may be used or changed to accommodate the needs of
those environments which are particularly endangered.

Vast expanses of tropical forests worldwide are being impacted by selective logging. We evaluate the
environmental impacts of such logging and conclude that natural timber-production forests typically
retain most of their biodiversity and associated ecosystem functions, as well as their carbon, climatic,
and soil-hydrological ecosystem services. Unfortunately, the value of production forests is often
overlooked, leaving them vulnerable to further degradation including post-logging clearing, fires, and
hunting. Because logged tropical forests are extensive, functionally diverse, and provide many
ecosystem services, efforts to expand their role in conservation strategies are urgently needed. Key
priorities include improving harvest practices to reduce negative impacts on ecosystem functions and
services, and preventing the rapid conversion and loss of logged forests.

Highlights
•

Logged tropical forests retain most biodiversity and ecosystem functions.

Carbon, climatic, and soil-hydrological services are reduced but not

dramatically so.

Key threats to logged estates are clearance for agriculture, fire, and hunting.

Better logging management and protection of estates are conservation

priorities.
THE IMPORTANCE OF NUTRIENT
CYCLES
 Transformation of matter from one form to another.
Nutrient cycles allows the transformation of matter to different specific forms that enables the
utilisation of that element in different organisms. [For example, although nitrogen is abundant
in the atmosphere, plants can only take up nitrogen in two solid forms, namely ammonium
and nitrate. Without the transformation of nitrogen into these forms, plant growth would be
limited.] Therefore, nutrient cycles enable the provision of elements to organisms in forms
that are usable to them.

 Transfer of elements from one location to another.

Nutrient cycles allows the transfer of elements from one location to another. Some elements
are highly concentrated in an areas that are inaccessible to most living organisms, such as
nitrogen in the atmosphere. Nutrient cycles allow these elements to be transferred to more
accessible locations such as the soil [for the case of nitrogen].

 Functioning of ecosystems.
Nutrient cycles assists the functioning of ecosystems [which humans are part of]. The
ecosystem which requires the state of equilibrium to function properly, restore to the
equilibrium state through the nutrient cycles.

 Storage of elements.
Nutrient cycles facilitate the storage of elements. Elements that are carried through the
nutrient cycles are stored in their natural reservoirs and are released to organisms in small
amounts that are consumable. [For example, through the nitrogen cycle, plants are able to use
nitrogen in small suitable amounts even though it is abundant in the atmosphere.]

 Link organisms, both living and non-living.

Nutrient cycles link living organisms with living organisms, living organisms with the non-
living organisms and non-living organisms with non-living organisms. This is essential
because all organisms depend on one another and is vital for the survival of living organisms.
These organisms are linked by the flow of nutrients which is engineered by the nutrient
cycles.

 Regulate the flow of substances.

Nutrient cycles regulate the flow of substances. As the nutrient cycles pass through different
spheres [biosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere], the flow of elements is
regulated as each sphere has a particular medium and rate at which the flow of elements is
determined by the viscosity and density of the medium. Therefore, the elements in the
nutrient cycles flow at different rates within the cycle and this regulates the flow of elements
in those cycles.
 Conflicting demands for resources
 The environment should be preserved.
 Resources need to be retained for future generations to enjoy.
 Humans need to continue to make and do the things that allow them to live comfortably.
 LEDCs need to develop through exploiting their resources.
 There should be a better balance between the consumption of those resources between
LEDCs and MEDCs.

Wind Turbines on Ovenden Moor, West Yorkshire

To conserve natural resources for future generations, sustainable management of the natural
environment is necessary. Alternative resources might be developed in order to ease the
strain on finite resources. However, alternative resources can be expensive and take time to
develop. Existing resources could be used more efficiently, to prevent finite resources being
used up so quickly.
Ways to limit the damage caused by humans to the environment include:

Tents at a music festival in Gloucestershire

 Sustainable resource managementcan help ensure that the use of resources does
not cause an imbalance in the environment. Increasingly, sustainable practices are being
encouraged to preserve animal and plant life for the benefit of future generations. An
example of sustainable development is eco-tourism. Tourists are able to enjoy areas of
natural beauty without requiring over-development that might harm the environment.
 Recycling resources reduces waste. Used cans, bottles, paper and cardboard can be
recycled and reduces the need to use extra resources.
 Limiting carbon emissions generated from industrial and domestic use of fuels can
assist in reducing pollution levels and limit environmental problems such as global
warming and acid rain. Some nations, including the UK, signed the Kyoto Protocol to
say they will try to reduce carbon emissions.
 Resource substitution is another sustainable way in which resources can be
managed. Renewable resources can be used instead of finite resources. Electric power
can be produced with a renewable energy resource such as tidal, wind or solar power
instead of fossil fuels.
 Sustainable management of the forest
Brazil needs to exploit the Amazon's resources to develop, so leaving it untouched is not an
option.
Uncontrolled and unchecked exploitation can cause irreversible damage such as loss
of biodiversity, soil erosion, flooding and climate change. So sustainable use of the forest is
essential. Sustainable development will meet the needs of Brazil's population without
compromising the needs of future generations.
Possible strategies include:
 Agro-forestry - growing trees and crops at the same time. This lets farmers take
advantage of shelter from the canopy of trees. It prevents soil erosion, and the crops
benefit from the nutrients from the dead organic matter.
 Selective logging - trees are only felled when they reach a particular height. This allows
young trees a guaranteed life span the forest will regain full maturity after around 30 -
50 years.
 Education - ensuring those involved in exploitation and management of the forest
understand the consequences behind their actions.
 Afforestation - the opposite of deforestation. If trees are cut down, they are replaced to
maintain the canopy.
 Forest reserves - areas protected from exploitation.
 Monitoring - use of satellite technology and photography to check that any activities
taking place are legal and follow guidelines for sustainability.

Respiration and decomposition -The process by which heterotrophs (non-photosynthetic or

chemosynthetic organisms) convert the energy in chemical subtances such as sugar into forms neede to
maintain life - to build cells, transport materials through the body, maintain body temperature, move and more.

It is the opposite of photosynthesis which builds organic material and stores solar energy within it. Respiration
disassembles organic matter, releases the energy stored within it and makes it available for life processes.

Respiration occurs in cells, but the process often mediated by bacteria is also the process by which living things
are decomposed. Decomposition dissaembles living things back into their inroganic components and makes
these basic chemical building blocks (nutrients) available for other living things.

Since respiration consumes oxygen and releases carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas), respiration also plays a
role in setting the composition of the Earth's atmosphere and thus regulating the Earth's climate.

Although fossil fuels start as organic material containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, fossil fuels are unusual
stores of organic material that have undergone geologic alteration that removes oxgyen, and leaves carbon and
hydrogen. Thus fossil fuels such as oil and gas are called hydrocarbons. Rather than being totally decomposed
and low in energy concent, fossil fuels are altered and contain high energy content. It is on combustion with
oxygen, in machinery and as fuel, that fossil fuels are finally decomposed and the solar energy contained within it
finally released at the Earth's surface millions of years after a photosynthesizer first captured sunlight in its cells.
Process that endows food (plants and animals) with the energy it contains, and endows fossil fuels, that are the
chemical remains of living things, with energy.
Problems of world food supplies and the causes of
famine

There is not always enough

food available in a country to feed the people living there. A severe food
shortage can lead to famine.

It has been calculated that more than enough food is produced on Earth to
provide every single person with more than enough for their needs. Yet many
people do not got enough food. Each year, many people die because they have
an inadequate diet.

The fundamental problem is that food is distributed unequally on our planet:

while some parts of the world produce more than enough food for the people
that live there, in other part of the world not enough food is produced.

 Although large amounts of food are transported from one area to another,
this is still not sufficient to supply enough food to everybody.
 If food prices rise too high, many people may not be able to afford to buy
it
Famine can occur for many different reasons:

 Climate change and natural disaster such

as drought and flooding that prevent crops from growing.

 Increasing population: population may grow so large that the land on

which they live can no longer provide enough food for them.
 Unequal distribution of food.

Eutrophication (from Greek eutrophos, "well-nourished"),[1] or hypertrophication, is when a

body of water becomes overly enriched with minerals and nutrients that induce excessive growth
of plants and algae.[2] This process may result in oxygen depletion of the water body.[3]One
example is the "bloom" or great increase of phytoplankton in a water body as a response to
increased levels of nutrients. Eutrophication is almost always induced by the discharge of nitrate
or phosphate-containing detergents, fertilizers, or sewage into an aquatic system
Causes of Eutrophication
1. Fertilizers (nitrates and phosphates)

Eutrophication is predominantly caused by human action due to the dependence on

using nitrate and phosphate fertilizers. Agricultural practices and the use of fertilizers
on lawns, golf courses and other fields contribute to phosphate and nitrate nutrient
accumulation.

When these nutrients are washed by surface runoff into lakes, rivers, oceans and other
surface waters when it rains; the hungry plankton, algae and other aquatic plant life
are well fed and their photosynthesis activity is increased. This causes dense growth of
algal blooms and plant life such as the water hyacinths in the aquatic environments.

2. Concentrated animal feeding operations

3. Direct sewage discharge and industrial waste into water bodies

4. Aquiculture

5. Natural events

Effects of Eutrophication
1. Threatens the survival of fish and other aquatic life forms

2. Deterioration of water quality and limits access to safe drinking

water

3. Poisoning and impact on human health

4. Endangers fishing

5. Degradation of recreational opportunities

Solutions to Eutrophication
1. Composting

2. Reducing pollution

3. Strengthening laws and regulations against non-point pollution

4. Ultrasonic Irradiation

Biodegradation: Microorganisms at Work

When something is biodegradable, soil, air or moisture decompose it so that it becomes part
of the land. Bacteria, fungi and other decomposers break down dead organisms in a natural
process that keeps dead material from covering the planet. While most biodegradable
substances consist of animal or plant material, humans can create products that decompose,
such as egg cartons and paper bags. If a company produces biodegradable plastic,
decomposers break down the plastic's complex organic molecules into simpler inorganic
compounds. In May of 2014, Stanford University scientists and Mango Materials teamed up
to develop a biodegradable plastic made from waste methane gas.

Effects on Marine Life

Non-biodegradable plastic containers in oceans and estuaries can harm fish, seabirds and
other marine life. Animals that eat plastic can strangle or experience digestion problems.
Microplastics, tiny bits of polypropylene or polyethylene, hide beneath the water and pose a
risk as well. As of September 2014, Virginia Institute of Marine Science researchers were
developing biodegradable microbeads that break down when microbes in seawater consume
them.

Effects on the Land

The planet has a limited amount of land, and people waste it when they dispose of non-
biodegradable materials. Products that do not decompose naturally may reside in landfills and
take up space much longer than biodegradable materials. When people litter, some non-
biodegradable trash may not even make it into landfills. Instead, it may make its way into
forests, parks, fields, and the sea. Styrofoam, also known as foamed polystyrene, is a non-
biodegradable substance that can cause environmental problems when it becomes litter. For
instance, styrene, a neurotoxin at high doses, can leach out of polystyrene materials when
temperatures climb.

Side effects of biodegradable waste

While people, animals and the environment benefit from biodegradation, it may cause a few
problems. Too much biodegradable waste in a water supply can deplete its oxygen. In
addition, some types of biodegradable waste, such as cattle manure, can cause health and
environmental concerns if too much is produced.

CAUSES ACID RAIN

Acid rain describes any form of precipitation with high levels of nitric and
sulfuric acids. It can also occur in the form of snow, fog, and tiny bits of
dry material that settle to Earth.

Rotting vegetation and erupting volcanoes release some chemicals that

can cause acid rain, but most acid rain falls because of human
activities.The biggest culprit is the burning of fossil fuels by coal-burning
power plants, factories, and automobiles.

When humans burn fossil fuels, sulfur dioxide (SO 2) and nitrogen oxides
(NOx) are released into the atmosphere. These chemical gases react with
water, oxygen, and other substances to form mild solutions of sulfuric and
nitric acid. Winds may spread these acidic solutions across the
atmosphere and over hundreds of miles. When acid rain reaches Earth, it
flows across the surface in runoff water, enters water systems, and sinks
into the soil.
Causes of Acid Rain
Both natural and man-made sources are known to play a role in the formation of acid
rain. But, it is mainly caused by combustion of fossil fuels which results in emissions
of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx).

1. Natural Sources

2. Man-made sources

 Human activities leading to chemical gas emissions such as sulfur and nitrogen
are the primary contributors to acid rain. The activities include air pollution
sources emitting sulfur and nitrogen gases like factories, power generations
facilities, and automobiles. In particular, use of coal for electrical power
generation is the biggest contributor to gaseous emissions leading to acid rain.
Effects of Acid Rain
 Effect on Aquatic Environment: Acid rain either falls directly on aquatic
bodies or gets run off the forests, roads and fields to flow into streams,
rivers and lakes. Over a period of time, acids get accumulated in the water
and lower the overall pH of the water body. The aquatic plants and animals
need a particular pH level of about 4.8 to survive. If the pH level falls below
that the conditions become hostile for the survival of aquatic life. Acid rain
tendency of altering pH and aluminum concentrations greatly affects pH
concentration levels in surface water, thereby affecting fish as well as other
aquatic life-forms. At pH levels below 5, most fish eggs cannot hatch.
Lower pHs can also kill adult fish. Acid rain runoff from catchment areas
into rivers and lakes has also reduced biodiversity as rivers and lakes
become more acidic. Species including fish, plant and insect types in some
lakes, rivers and brooks have been reduced and some even completely
eliminated owing to excess acid rain flowing into the waters.

 Effect on Forests: It makes trees vulnerable to disease, extreme weather,

and insects by destroying their leaves, damaging the bark and arresting their
growth. Forest damage due to acid rain is most evident in Eastern Europe –
especially Germany, Poland and Switzerland.

 Effect on Soil: Acid rain highly impacts on soil chemistry and biology. It
means, soil microbes and biological activity as well as soil chemical
compositions such as soil pH are damaged or reversed due to the effects of
acid rain. The soil needs to maintain an optimum pH level for the continuity
of biological activity. When acid rains seep into the soil, it means higher soil
pH, which damages or reverses soil biological and chemical activities.
Vegetation Cover and Plantations: The damaging effects of acid rain on
soil and high levels of dry depositions have endlessly damaged high altitude
forests and vegetation cover since they are mostly encircled by acidic fogs
and clouds. Besides, the widespread effects of acid rain on ecological
harmony have lead to stunted growth and even death of some forests and
vegetation cover.
  Effect on Architecture and Buildings: Acid rain on buildings, especially
those constructed with limestone, react with the minerals and corrode them
away. This leaves the building weak and susceptible to decay. Modern
buildings, cars, airplanes, steel bridges and pipes are all affected by acid
rain. Irreplaceable damage can be caused to the old heritage buildings.

 Effect on Public Health: When in atmosphere, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen

oxide gases and their particulate matter derivatives like sulfates and nitrates,
degrades visibility and can cause accidents, leading to injuries and deaths.
Human health is not directly affected by acid rain because acid rain water is
too dilute to cause serious health problems. However, the dry depositions
also known as gaseous particulates in the air which in this case are nitrogen
oxides and sulfur dioxide can cause serious health problems when inhaled.
Intensified levels of acid depositions in dry form in the air can cause lung
and heart problems such as bronchitis and asthma.

Solutions to Acid Rain

1. Cleaning up Exhaust Pipes and Smokestacks
2. Restoring Damaged Environments
3. Alternative Energy Sources
4. individual, National/State, and International Actions

Millions of people directly and indirectly contribute to SO2 and NOx emissions.
Mitigation of this challenge requires individuals to be more informed about energy
conservation and ways of reducing emissions such as: turning off lights or electrical
appliances when not using them; use public transport; use energy efficient electrical
appliances; and use of hybrid vehicles or those with low NOx emissions.

Gases that trap heat in the atmosphere are called greenhouse gases. This
section provides information on emissions and removals of the main
greenhouse gases to and from the atmosphere. For more information on the
other climate forcers, such as black carbon, please visit the Climate Change
Indicators: Climate Forcing page.

 Carbon dioxide (CO2): Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere through

burning fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and oil), solid waste, trees and wood
 products, and also as a result of certain chemical reactions (e.g., manufacture
of cement). Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere (or
"sequestered") when it is absorbed by plants as part of the biological carbon
cycle.
 Methane (CH4): Methane is emitted during the production and transport of
coal, natural gas, and oil. Methane emissions also result from livestock and
other agricultural practices and by the decay of organic waste in municipal
solid waste landfills.
 Nitrous oxide (N2O): Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and industrial
activities, as well as during combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste.
 Fluorinated gases: Hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur
hexafluoride, and nitrogen trifluoride are synthetic, powerful greenhouse
gases that are emitted from a variety of industrial processes. Fluorinated
gases are sometimes used as substitutes for stratospheric ozone-depleting
substances (e.g., chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and halons).
These gases are typically emitted in smaller quantities, but because they are
potent greenhouse gases, they are sometimes referred to as High Global
Warming Potential gases ("High GWP gases").

Hormonal birth control is only one way that estrogens are polluting our water
supplies. Other sources include plastics (from BPA and other similar chemicals),
various consumer products, agricultural sources via crop fertilizer that contains
estrogens, and livestock, who are given synthetic and natural estrogens to increase
milk production. Other pharmaceuticals also contain endocrine-disruptors and, much
like hormonal contraception, can end up in our water system.

The hormone ethinyl-estradiol (EE2) is an active substance in many birth

control pills which affects aquatic organisms when released as waste into the
water. In her thesis, Lina Nikoleris studies how fish are affected by EE2.
“Even low concentrations of EE2 have an impact on fish – both their behaviour
and their genetics. We have seen a change in the genetic balance in fish, and
that they have a harder time catching food. Previous studies have shown that
the fish also develop problems with procreation. This can lead to the complete
disappearance of an entire fish population, and consequences for entire
ecosystems”, says Lina Nikoleris.
Fish have more oestrogen receptors than humans, which makes them
especially vulnerable to oestrogen in water. The thesis studies three different
fish species: salmon, trout and roach, which are economically important fish
that live in both sea and freshwater. “The impact that human beings have on
the environment is an important issue, so I do not only want to study the
ecological aspect of how fish are affected by hormones, but also look at the
way we use hormonal birth control. Technical solutions are not enough to
purify our water – we must also make sure that prescribers and women
receive all the relevant information when selecting a method of birth control”,
says Lina Nikoleris.

Abstract
Male reproduction is not only constrained by the number of encountered females but also by
physiological limitations, including sperm production and the ability to sustain courtship and
mating. Over a breeding season, sperm stores may drop in tandem with male energetic
reserves or motivation, confounding the constraints imposed by sperm quantity with other
correlated physiological limitations. We used wood frogs (Lithobates sylvaticus) to test
whether explosive capital breeders are functionally limited by sperm depletion. We paired
males with four conspecific females in succession and counted all of the fertilized and
unfertilized eggs that each pair produced. In general, males did not experience a progressive
decrease in fertilization rates with each mating (which is characteristic of sperm depletion).
Instead, a few males experienced complete fertilization failure during their third and/or fourth
mating, perhaps as a result of physical exhaustion, loss of motivation or hormonal changes.
This pattern suggests that, even if male wood frogs do become increasingly sperm depleted
over a breeding season, they are not necessarily limited by sperm. Understanding how and
why fertilization rates change over multiple matings (i.e. incremental decrease vs. all-or-
nothing) will help clarify the role of sperm depletion in limiting reproduction.

Abstract
In recent years, a hierarchy of techniques has become available for detecting
chemicals which may cause endocrine disruption in the aquatic environment. The
molecular structure of a chemical provides a first indication about estrogenic activity,
i.e. their likelihood of interfering with the female hormone receptor. In vitro
competitive binding assays for this receptor and specific cell cultures are also used
to demonstrate an estrogenic response, but this does not adequately indicate
whether the substance will cause adverse reproductive effects in an entire organism.
An elevated level of vitellogenin, a typical female lipoprotein in the plasma of male
fish is an in vivo estrogen-mediated response. However, its direct relationship to
reproductive developmental effects is as yet unclear. The present study aims at
investigating this relationship for assessing endocrine disruption in fish exposed to
an estrogenic substance during relevant life stages. A monosex population of male
carp, Cyprinus carpio, was exposed to 4-tert-pentylphenol (TPP) and to 17β-estradiol
as a positive control during the period of sexual differentiation, starting at 50 days
post hatch. The fish were sampled every 10 days for the histological examination of
the development of the testes, i.e. the formation of the reproductive tract, the
multiplication and subsequent meiosis of the primordial germ cells, and
gametogenesis in the early gonad. At the end of the experiment, blood was extracted
for the quantification of vitellogenin by radioimmunoassays in the plasma.