FOREWORD

Praise and thanksgiving to God Almighty, who gave everything so I could finish the
paper "Philosophy of Science and Research Methodology" this just in time.
Consistent with the intent of learning courses Phylosophy of Science, this paper
focuseson matters related to the philosophy of science and research methodology. It
is hoped the contents of this paper can add references the reader, especially in
learning andunderstanding about the cases are closely related to philosophy.
Completion of this paper can not be separated from the encouragement and
assistancefrom various parties, especially a lecturer Phylosophy of
Science. Therefore, the authorsthank profusely.
Finally, the author realizes that this paper is still far from perfection. Therefore,
the criticismand constructive suggestions from all parties for the progress of this
paper we receivedwith open arms.

Makassar, October 2011

author
 A. Preliminary
Efforts of humans to know about God, the universe, the environment (both
natural and social), and himself (both physical and behavior) is done through the
activities of thinking, either deductively or inductively. It has become human nature
wants to know everything.Therefore, people are always asking for the
answer. Knowing is a pleasure or happiness.Because humans can know (in a deeper
sense of the word: to understand, understand, appreciate), the degree of human beings
higher than animals, even higher than angels.What is learned so far is
the''Western''science, the science that was born and developed in the western world,
whose roots were dug from the ancient Greek philosophy. There is no harm in
continuing this tradition, but if that was it and once only, it has not been consistently
against the Pancasila. Once admitted Pancasila as the State and the nation as a way of
life (Ways of Life), then the quest for knowledge must be "derived" from the
Pancasila which states Belief in God Almighty as its first principle. So from one
specificity compared with western science, it will undoubtedly lead to the truth more
completely than has been achieved by western sciences. Specificity is that the quest
for knowledge is nothing but an attempt to discover and understand the science of
God, which is very broad and deep, that will not inexhaustible written in ink as many
as seven oceans.

Science has existed, has been created by God, and walk with the provisions of
the immortal (sunatullah), which is subject to its creator without the slightest
disobedience.When allowed to borrow Kant's terms, it is said that science is a
priori. God has given to man the ability to find, understand and appreciate science, an
ability that no other He gives to His creation. The Qur'an tells us when it held
"competition" among the angels and Adam, Adam could only mention the names of
various things (explaining the nature of these things), while the angels could
not. Ability to learn is what makes human beings among the foremost and noblest of
God's creation, so that people get a job and position to enforce the "Caliphate on
earth". Efforts quest for knowledge that humans use all his ability, that is her
mind. When Western science only rely on reason or ratio less alone and put the mind
and taste, while the eastern sciences emphasize the cultivation or taste and little or no
use of the ratio, the Pancasila wish to use ratios and flavors are balanced on the
"place" and " measure " that right.

In this case netralistik doctrine of ethics (Weber) can be applied to the right
place, with the right dose. Ratio and a sense of an ability bestowed by God to man,
both of which have the capabilities and benefits of each to be used in place of each
and should not be confused.

Ability ratio lies in the ability to distinguish and classify or, expressed in
quantitative and qualitative, and express the relationships and reduce relations. All of
that ability under the provisions or standards that are very detailed. Ratios do not
lie. In a pure state in the state clearly "yes" or "no". Ability and taste according
Soetriono SRDm Hanafie Rita (2007:100) lies in creativity, which is the magic,
because it directly relates to God. Creativity is what a beginner in all fields, reason,
science, ethics, and aesthetics. As a beginner, this ability is called intuition. Ethics
(love) and aesthetics (beauty) lies entirely in the sense that there might not lack a
sense of ethics and aesthetics. Taste does not have a benchmark. Taste is a medium of
contact between human beings with the Divine which also makes man a higher
degree than the angels, while the taste is not awake from the temptations of Satan (the
devil can not be tempted ratio) make man fall in dignity.

Humans, armed with knowledge, can choose, to live a life that diridloi wheels
fixed on God and kemuliannya, or to deviate from that path and sink into the
contempt which is lower than the animals though. In this case guidance for humans
are moral (that resides in the flavor). The ratio of science and science produce or
disclose sunatullah find, the more we are familiar with the term "nomologis laws',
everlasting and eternal" neutral "yasng produce ethics or morals, with its laws called
the laws of normative and is" imperative ". In connection with the absence of a rule,
humans are very likely misguided in generating normative laws is
imperative. Because it is guidance for mankind God sent down a revelation given to
the prophets, who then recorded and collected in the scriptures.
Ratio, with the benchmark, its standards are very detailed, able to maintain
themselves for not exposed to temptations of Satan. Flavors that do not adhere to the
instructions of God was maintained, and the greatness of God. In allowing Satan to
tempt humans to humans negligent and deviated from the instructions were so
terjerumuslah men into the valley of evil in his quest to achieve happiness and glory,
both globally and in the hereafter.Therefore, in the quest for knowledge in an effort
every day, first of all must be strong grasp of both science and humanity, and second:
to achieve "truth", not quite with the verification as in western science, but the
verification coupled with validation. The foundation is none other validation word
Allah.
 B. Discussion

1. Philosophy of Science

 Definition Philosophy of Science

 Lewis White Beck's “Philosophy of science discusses and evaluates the

methods of scientific thought and try to find and the importance of scientific
effort as a whole”
 A. Cornelius Benjamin “Branch of philosophical knowledge which is the
systematic study of science, especially his methods, concepts and
presuppositions-presuppositions, and its location within the general
framework of branches of intellectual knowledge”
 Michael V. Berry “A review of the internal logic of scientific theories and the
relations between experiment and theory, which is about the scientific
method”
 May Brodbeck “Analysis of the neutral in an ethical and philosophical,
depiction and explanation of the foundation - the foundation of science”

Philosophy of Science by Beerling (1988:1-4) is the investigation of the

characteristics of scientific knowledge and ways to acquire knowledge. Ilmua
philosophy is closely related to the philosophy of knowledge or epistemology, which
in general terms as well as investigating other forms of human experience, as well as
on logic and methodology.

To establish basic understanding of the philosophy of science then Cony (M.

Zainuddin 2006:21-22) describes the four points of view in philosophy of science: (1)
philosophy of science is the formulation of world view that is consistent with
scientific theories that are important. According to this view, is an elaborate task of
philosophers of science to the wider implications of science, (2) philosophy of
science is the exposition of the presupposition and the pre-disposition of the
scientists, (3) philosophy of science is a discipline in which there is the concept
and theories of science are analyzed and classified; (4) philosophy of science is a
second-level benchmark, philosophy of science demanded answers to the questions as
follows: (a) the characteristics of what distinguishes the scientific investigations of
this type of another investigation, (b) how the conditions that should followed by
scientists in the investigation of nature, (c) how the conditions that must be achieved
for a scientific explanation to be true, (d) how the cognitive status of scientific
principles and laws.

At the time of renaissance and aufklarung science has gained its

independence. Since it is also human to feel free, not bound by religious dogma,
traditions and social systems. At this time fundamentally reform in the attitude of
view about what the nature of science and how the acquisition has occurred. Science
has now elaborated its scope touches the joint life of mankind's most basic, both
individually and socially has a huge impact, at least according to Koento (1988:5)
there are three things. First, the knowledge that one is related to another, making it
difficult to drawn the line between basic science and applied science, between theory
and practice. Second, the blurring of boundary lines which raised the question how
far a scientist involved with ethics and morals. Third in the presence of vast
implications of human life, problems will arise also the meaning of science itself as
something that brings progress or even vice versa.
Philosophy of science (theory of knowledge) in which the logic, language,
mathematics including a part born in the 18th century. In the philosophy of science
investigated what is the source of knowledge, such as experience (senses), sense
(verstand), mind (vernunft) and intuition. Also investigated the meaning of evidence
and the conditions for achieving scientific knowledge, limits of validity in reaching
what is called a fact or truth. From here then emerging theory of empiricism (John
Lock), rationalism (Rene Descartes), Criticism (Immanuel Kant). Positivism
(Auguste Comte), Phenomenology (Husserl), constructivism (Feyeraband) and so
on. Accordingly, each of these streams or also called the school of thought, has his
own method, so that the methodology becomes a very interesting part.

Philosophy of science according to Roento Wibisono (1988:6) as a

continuation of the development of philosophy of knowledge, is also a branch of
philosophy. Science is the target object is a science, or popularly known as the
science of science. In a further development at the present stage is the philosophy of
science also directs his views on science development strategy, which involves also
ethical and heuristic, even to the dimensions of culture to grasp the meaning and
significance for the life of mankind. Each knowledge has three components that are
the pillars of the body of knowledge of the formulation. These components is the
ontology, epistemology and axiology. Ontology describes what the question,
epistemology and axiology explain the question how to explain the question to
what. Ontology is one of the squares of the most ancient philosophical inquiry. Since
the early western mind has shown the emergence of contemplation ontologisme,
sebagaiamana Thales when he contemplates and find what the real nature of
"existing" (being), which in the end he concluded, that the origin of all things (that
exist) it is water. Ontology according to Jujun (1986:2) is a principle in determining
the extent of such form that the object of study and interpretation of the nature of
reality (metaphysics). Ontology covers what the problem was the nature of science,
what is the nature of truth and reality which is inherent with that knowledge, which is
inseparable from the notion of what and how that is (being) it. Understand idealism or
spiritualism, materialism, pluralism and so on are understood ontologism that will
determine the opinions and even our own beliefs about what and how truth and reality
to be achieved by science.

Monoisme flow, argues that there was only one. For those who argue that
there was all spirit, an ideal, versatile spirit, then the flow monoisme
dikelompokkkan-idealism. Plato is a philosopher who can be grouped figures in this
genre, as he stated that the idea of nature is the true reality. The flow of dualism,
combining idealism and materialism by saying that this universe consists of two
natures as the source, namely the nature of the material and spiritual nature. Descartes
can be classified in this genre. The flow of pluralism, human beings are composed not
only of physical and spiritual, but also composed of fire, earth and air which is a
substantial element of any form. Flow agnotisime deny the ability to know the nature
of human material and spiritual nature. They also rejected an absolute reality that is
transcendent.

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that investigates the origins,

methods and validity of knowledge. According to Harold Titus et.l., (1984:187-188)
there are three main issues in the field of epistemology, among others: (1) whether the
source of that knowledge? Where did this knowledge is that right? And how do I
know?, (2) What is the nature of knowledge? Is there really a world outside our
minds? And if so, what can we know?, (3) whether knowledge is true (valid)? How
can we distinguish between right and wrong?. In general epistemological questions
concerning the two kinds, namely philosophical epistemology is closely related to
psychology and semantic questions concerning the relationship between knowledge
with the object of knowledge. Epistemology includes the procedures and means to
achieve knowledge. Differences about the options will result in a difference ontologik
means to be used are: sense, experience, reason, intuition or other
means. Demonstrated how the strengths and weaknesses of an approach and limit the
validity of an obtained through a scientific approach.
 Basically the scientific method is a way of obtaining knowledge and preparing
the body of knowledge based on the first, which is a logical framework with
arguments that are consistent with previous knowledge that has been successfully
compiled and second, which is a deduction imenjabarkan hypothesis of this
conceptual framework, and all three verified the hypothesis to test the truth of a
factual statement. In the scientific method known as the acronym-hypotetico Logico-
verificative or deducto-hypotetico-verificative.

Framework of logical thinking is the argument that is rational in developing

explanations of natural phenomena. Verify the empirical means to objectively
evaluate the hypothesis of a statement of factual reality. This means that science is
open to other truths, other than those contained in the hypothesis. Open factual
verification as well as the criticism against the underlying application framework
hypothesis. Scientific Befikir different religious beliefs are based on trust and
confidence, but in a scientific way of thinking based on the basis of scientific
procedure.

Broadly speaking there are two main streams in epistemology, namely

rationalism and empiricism, which in turn then emerged a few other isms, such as:
critical rationalism (criticism), fenomenalisme, intuitisme and positivism.
Axiology is the science that investigates the nature of value in general terms of
philosophical perspective. Axiology includes the values, the parameters for what is
called a truth we are exploring various areas, such as social areas, the physical area of
material and symbolic areas, each of which shows its aspects individually. More than
that, axiology also indicate what rules should we consider in applying science in
applied science into practice.

Questions about axiology according Kattsoff (1987:331) can be answered in

three ways.First, the value berhakikat entirely subjective. Seen from this perspective,
the values of these reactions is given by the men as perpetrators and its existence
depends on their experience. Second, the values are real in terms of ontologisme but
not contained in space and time. Those values are the essence of logical and known
through reason. The establishment is called a logical objectivism. Third, the values of
the objective elements that make up reality, this so-called metaphysical objectivism.

In this axiological approach, Jujun (1986:60) mentions, that basically the

science should be used and exploited for human benefit. In this case it thinks science
can be utilized as a means or a tool in improving living standards by taking into
account human nature and human dignity and the preservation or the balance of
nature. For the benefit of man is the scientific knowledge gained and organized
communally and universally used. Communal meaning, that science is knowledge
that belongs together, everyone is entitled to make use of science according to his
needs in accordance with communism. Universal means that science has no parochial
connotations such as race, ideology or religion. There is no science of the West and
the East there is no science.

 Function Philosophy of Science

 As a means of seeking truth from all the phenomena that exist.

 Maintain, support and fight or stand neutral against other philosophical views.
 Provides understanding of the way of life, outlook on life and world view.
 Provides teachings about morals and ethics are useful in life
 Being a source of inspiration and guidance for life in various aspects of life
itself, such as economics, politics, law and so on.

Excerpted from Agraha Suhandi (1989)

 Substance Philosophy of Science

1. Fact or reality

Fact or reality has a diverse understanding, depending on the underlying

philosophical standpoint.
 positivistic view that something is real when there is a correspondence
between the sensual sensual one with another.
 Fenomenologik have two-way understanding the development of this
fact. First, it leads to the correspondence theory is a correspondence between
the idea of the phenomenon.Second, leading to the coherence of morality, the
fit between the phenomenon with the value system.
 Rationalistic thought of a as a real, if there is coherence between the empirical
with the rational scheme, and
 Realism-metaphysical opinion that something is real when there is coherence
between the empiri objectively.
 Pragmatism has an existing view that it is functioning.
 2. Truth

Indeed, there are various theories about the formulation of the truth. But
traditionally, we know the three theories of truth is coherence, correspondence and
pragmatics (Jujun S. Suriasumantri, 1982). Meanwhile, Michel William 5 introduces
the theory of truth in science, namely: the truth of coherence, correspondence truth,
truth performative, pragmatic truth and the truth of the proposition. In fact, Noeng
Muhadjir add one more theory of truth that is paradigmatic. (Ismaun; 2001)

a. Coherence Truth

Truth is the conformity or coherence of harmony between something else with

something that has a higher hierarchy than anything these elements, either scheme,
system, or any value. This coherence can be on the order of rational sensuous
transcendental want any on the plains.

b. Correspondence Truth

Thinking correctly korespondensial is proven to think about something that is

relevant to something else. Koresponsdensi relevant events proved the existence of
aligned or opposite directions between the expected facts with facts, the facts with the
belief that it is believed, that are specific

c. Performative Truth

When the human mind to unite everything in the view of any actual and unite behind
them, whether theoretical, practical, and the philosophic, man explores the truth of
the actual display. Something is true if it can diaktualkan in action.

d. Pragmatics Truth

The truth is concrete, the individual and specific and has a practical utility.

e. Proposition Truth

Proposition is a statement that contains a lot of complex concepts, which range from
a subjective to an objective individual. A truth can be obtained if the true
propositions. In Aristotelian logic, a proposition is true is that if in accordance with
the requirements of a formal proposition. Another opinion, from Euclid, that the
proposition was not seen from the right formally, but viewed from the correct
material.
f. structural paradigmatic truth

Indeed structural paradigmatic truth is an outgrowth of correspondence truth. Until

now the regression analysis, factor analysis, and other advanced statistical analysis
are interpreted in correspondence with each other element. And should the overall
structural order relation is interpreted, because it will be able to give explanations or
inferences is more thorough.

3. Confirmation

The function of science is to explain, predict the processes and products that
will come, or give meaning. Meaning it can be viewed as an absolute confirmation or
probabilistically.Displays typically use absolute confirmation of assumptions,
postulates, or axioma the confirmed correct. But it is not wrong if explicit the
assumptions and postulatnya.Meanwhile, to make explanations, predictions, or
purport to pursue a probabilistic certainty can be reached inductively, deductively, or
reflective.

4. Inference Logic

Logic inference influential quarters long time until the end of the twentieth century is
the logic of mathematics, a master positivism. Positivistic showing correspondence
between the truth of the facts. Phenomenology Russell showing the correspondence
between the trusted with the facts. Russell's belief on moral load, but still be specific,
there is no clear moral scheme, no general conclusions of the study so that the
inference or conclusion ideographic case.

2. Research Methodology

 Definition of Method

The word comes from the Greek word method methodos, connection preposition
meta (towards, through, to follow) and the noun hodos (road, way, way). Methodos
word means: research, scientific method, scientific description, namely how to act
according to certain rules of the system. In the meantime, methodology and methods
derived from the word logos, which means the science that talked about the
methods. Viewing of understanding, the method can be formulated a process or
systematic procedure based on scientific principles and techniques used by disciplines
(science) to achieve a goal.

While the methodology is also called the science of methods, the science of
discussing ways, streets or in research or practical guidance discusses the various
methods or theoretical concepts can be said as a way to discuss about the basics of the
philosophy of science research methods. For the sciences such as sociology,
anthropology, politics, communication, economics, law and natural sciences, the
methodology is the basics of the philosophy of science from a practical step method
or research.

The scientific method is a procedure or a systematic steps in getting scientific

knowledge or science. Science is knowledge gained through scientific methods. The
method is a procedure or way of knowing something with systematic steps.
An outline of the steps according to a systematic scientific and SRDm Rita Soetriono
Hanafie (2007:157) as follows:

1. Finding, formulating, and identify problems.

2. Frame of thought (logical construct).

3. Formulate hypotheses (rational answer to the problem).

4. Test this hypothesis empirically.

5. Conducting the discussion.

6. Interesting conclusions.

The first three steps are research methods, while further steps are technical
studies. Thus, the implementation of the research involves two things, namely the
methods and technical research. However, implicit methods and techniques dissolves
in it.

Finding, formulating and identify problems, ie setting the research problem,

what is used as a research problem and what its object. Stated objects of research are
still not specific, the new states in which the scope of the research will move. While
identifying a specific problem or claim made by the research question (research
question), that is the question that has not been able to give an explanation
(explanation) is satisfactory based on the theory of (law or proposition) that exist. For
example according to the theory stated that not everyone will be willing to accept an
innovation, because there are groups repellent innovation (laggard). But in fact
(factual) there are innovations that are not readily accepted that there may be groups
that reject it (laggard). Therefore the research question can be identified in which
situations or under conditions where there is no laggard group. By identifying
situations or conditions that allow or not allow a further means has formulated
research problem.

The simplest way to find a research question (research question) is through

secondary data. His form in the form of several possibilities such as:

a. Seeing a process of embodiment theory

b. See the linkage of the propositions of a theory, then intend to fix it.

c. Concerned about the enforceability of a proposition or model at a particular place

or at a certain time.

d. Seeing the informative value of the existing theories. Then intends to increase it.

e. Anything that can not be explained by existing theories or can not be explained
completely.

Develop framework that is draining way of thinking according to a logical

framework or according to the logical construct. It is none other than
mendudukperkarakan problem under study (identified) in a relevant theoretical
framework and is able to capture, explain, and show the perspective of the
problem. The effort is intended to answer or clarify questions that diidentifikasi.Cara
peneltian think (reason) towards getting answers to the problems identified is with
deductive reasoning. Way of deductive reasoning is a way of reasoning that departs
from the common (general) to the specific things (specific). Things that generally the
god theory / theorem / law, while things that are special (specific) tida other is the
problem identified.

Formulate a hypothesis. The hypothesis is the conclusion obtained from the

preparation of a framework of thought, a proposition deduction. Formulate
meaningful propositions established in accordance with the possibilities and levels of
truth. The forms of propositions according to the degree of closeness relationship
(linkage) and the values of the information (informative value). If the sentences are
reviewed proposition, either the theory or hypothesis, it turns out the sentences that
contain also a component, that component antiseden, consistent, and depedensi.
 Testing the hypothesis is to compare or adjust the (matching) all contained in
the hypothesis with empirical data. Comparison or adjustment is generally based on
the premise that assumes that an event of this nature may not occur in isolation. In
other words, a cause may lead to some result, or may also be an effect caused by
some cutting-edge research penyebab. Testing the hypothesis in the method of
mathematical / statistical, using the design of hypothesis testing that has been
available. In other words, researchers can just choose the design of the test where
appropriate with the hypothesis. However, if the researcher does not understand the
properties of the data / information (variables) to be measured it will be difficult for
him to choose the design of statistical tests.

Discuss and draw conclusions. In discussing the interpretation has included

work on the things that are found in the study. In the interpretation, our thoughts are
directed at two points of view. First, the framework that had been developed, even
this should be a frame of the discussion of research work. Second, the view is
directed forward, which is linked to the variables from the actual topic. The
discussion is nothing but the match with a deduction in the framework of the
empirical induction (results of hypothesis testing), or also to the induction obtained
by others (research results of others) are relevant. How the results of this match, if it
fits (parallel or analog), or vice versa (conflicting or contradictory).If it turns out
contradictory or incompatible it is necessary to trace where the difference or conflict
that and what the likely cause.

The results of the discussion is no other conclusion. Conclusion The study is

the findings of the interpretation and discussion. The discovery of the interpretation
and discussion should be the answers to research questions as a problem, or as
evidence of acceptance of the hypothesis. The statements in the conclusions
formulated in a clear and concise sentences, composed of both yng words and surely,
in such a way that does not cause a different interpretation (what is meant by the
same researcher to be interpreted by the diamonds). Statements made in accordance
with the identification of problems with the arrangement of tau hypothesis.
 C. Conclusion

Based on some of the descriptions and explanations above we can conclude the
followingthings:

1.Philosophy of science needs to be approached by the historical-

chronological to graspthestructure and systematic prosesialnyaphilosophical to grasp
its essential structure.

2. Nine prosesial structure includes systematic steps are: Pre-

Research Phase (identifiksiproblem, goal-
setting research / science achievement, introspection and skeptif). StageResearch Proc
ess (ontologisme stage base / base assumption). Epistemological stage(methodologies
/ tools and how to achieve knowledge, inference, and practical applicationof
science and science achievement as proving the
final). Final Phase (achieving eternalhappiness)

3. Research methods according to the scientific method as a procedure or steps in a

systematic basis in collecting knowledge to be a science that includes the problem, a
framework of thinking, hypothesis, hypothesis testing, discussion and conclusions.

4. Philosophy of science and research methodology is to fill and expand

the horizons of what is called cognitive science, which will hopefully lead to the
understanding to be disciplined in scientific work, while
enhancing motivation for scientists to carry out the taskseriously.
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