Modeller User Manual - 6

LUSAS Analysis Types
Chapter 6 Running
An Analysis
LUSAS Analysis Types
LUSAS may be used to numerically model a wide range of engineering problems.
The following sections briefly explain the analysis types, and how LUSAS processes
them.
Standard Stress Analysis

Unless specified otherwise, LUSAS will perform a linear elastic, static analysis.
Multiple load cases can be used but the model geometry and other boundary
conditions cannot be altered without a separate analysis.
q Static analysis is, perhaps, the most common analysis carried out by the
engineer, and assumes that the loads are applied instantaneously, hence any
transient effects are ignored. For linear static analysis it is assumed that the
loaded body instantaneously develops a state of internal stress so as to
equilibrate the total applied loads. In a nonlinear static analysis joint elements
and/or ‘slidelines’ may be used to model contact between any two bodies.
q Linear analysis assumes that the overall structural response is linear,
and implies linearity of both the geometric and material response.
Non Standard Analysis Types

For analysis types other than a standard stress analysis, control parameters are
specified as properties of the load case.
q Nonlinear Analysis where nonlinearity may result from significant

changes in the structural geometry during loading (geometric nonlinearity) or
from materials displaying progressively disproportionate stresses and strains
(material nonlinearity). The latter is modelled using nonlinear constitutive
material models. Also considered nonlinear is boundary condition
nonlinearity arising from lift-off, contact or frictional behaviour.
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Chapter 6 Running An Analysis
Examples of nonlinear analyses are Creep Analysis and Impact Dynamics.

q Transient Dynamic Analysis the solution is progressed in a step-by-
step manner, giving results at each time-step.
q Thermal Analysis steady-state or transient (variable with time) thermal
analysis is available.
q Natural Frequency (Eigenvalue) Analysis Calculated using an
eigenvalue extraction technique.
Eigenvalue Buckling Analysis May be applied to relatively stiff
structures in order to estimate the maximum load that can be supported by the
whole structure prior to structural instability.
Eigenvalue Stiffness Used to perform an eigenvalue analysis of the
stiffness matrix at a selected stage of an analysis. This facility may be used in
conjunction with a nonlinear analysis to predict structural instability or
bifurcation points during a geometrically nonlinear analysis.
q Fourier Analysis An extended form of axisymmetric analysis where
applied loading can be considered to be non-axisymmetric when applied
using a Fourier distribution around the circumference.
Analysis types supported during results processing in LUSAS Modeller are as

follows:
q Modal Response Transfer function calculations can be carried out in

LUSAS Modeller using results from an eigenvalue (natural frequency)
analysis. Frequency domain calculations (harmonic response) and time
domain calculations (impulse or step by step dynamics) can also be carried
out using the same facility.
q Spectral Response The effects of ground motion excitations on a
structure may be obtained by describing the frequency content of a given
history of excitation.
q Fatigue Calculations Miner's rule is used to provide a fatigue post-
processing capability based on the results from a linear stress analysis.
The following analysis types are also possible but the tabulation of the control
section is not fully supported by LUSAS Modeller:
q Harmonic Response Analysis The behaviour of a structure

subjected to vibrating loads can be analysed without the need for a full
dynamic step-by-step analysis. See also Modal Response analysis.
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Preparing the Model for Analysis
q Thermo-Mechanical The thermal and the structural analyses are

performed simultaneously or one after the other with transfer of data between
them either during the analysis or via an additional data transfer file.
Preparing the Model for Analysis

The aspects of controlling an analysis, or preparation of the LUSAS datafile for
analysis:
1. Set the analysis control properties. By default, LUSAS will perform a linear static
stress analysis. Any other type of analysis requires the analysis control to be
specified. Analysis controls are properties of load cases, and load cases are
displayed in the load case tab, of the Treeview .
2. [Optional] Specify a title, or description of an analysis, may be entered in the
first page of the Model properties, File menu. Titles cannot contain double
inverted commas. The title is tabulated to the LUSAS data file and written during
analysis to the results database.
3. [Optional] Specify the units. LUSAS Solver is independent of units, hence all
quantities must be specified in a consistent set of units (irrespective of whether
units strings are set using this command). Units strings can be selected to name
the units used from the Geometry tab (Units). This string is used by LUSAS to
label column headings more clearly in output written to the LUSAS output file.
Note. FEA recommend using SI units for all analyses, but especially dynamic
analyses or those using the mass of a structure to calculate self-weight loading.
Note that the use of metre, kilogram and second units for length, mass and time
respectively is inherent in the definition of a Newton.
4. [Optional] Select the Frontal Optimiser The frontal optimisation is off by
default. Optimisation is set from the Solution tab of the model properties.
5. [Optional] Select the Solver The direct frontal solver is the default solver. The
solver is set from the Solution tab of the model properties.
6. [Optional] If required set the Solution Options from the Solution tab of the model
properties. These are options relating to nonlinear analysis.
7. Create the LUSAS datafile. Either click on the Solve button , or use the File,
LUSAS Datafile menu command.
Frontal Optimisation and LUSAS Solvers

The frontal optimiser and LUSAS solver are both set from the Model properties,
File menu.
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Selecting the Frontal Optimiser

The frontwidth of the problem may be reduced by optimising the order in which the
elements are presented to the frontal solver. The type of optimiser to be used is
selected from an options form. Optimising methods supported are:
q Off turns off frontwidth optimisation.

q Standard uses the standard LUSAS optimiser.
q Akhras-Dhatt uses the Akhras-Dhatt optimiser. A number of iterations
must be specified for this optimiser. The iterations are used to find the best
starting point in the structure for the optimisation. The higher the number of
iterations, the better the chance of locating the optimum starting point, but
the longer the optimisation process takes.
q Cuthill-McKee optimises the solution using an algorithm based on the
Cuthill-McKee optimiser. This algorithm bases its optimisation on a specified
parameter. Options are: maximum bandwidth, RMS wavefront, bandwidth
and profile. This optimiser was originally written by E.H. Cuthill and J.M.
McKee, and was improved by G.C. Everstine.
q Sloan uses the Sloan optimiser (default). This optimiser was written by
S.W. Sloan, and is used with permission.
LUSAS Modeller will always tabulate the LUSAS data file with a frontwidth
optimiser data section. If no optimiser is specified then the Sloan optimiser is used
by default.
Selecting the Solver

Support for specification of various LUSAS solver types is available within LUSAS
Modeller. The current solver options supported are as follows:
q Frontal (Direct) Technique this is a direct solution technique based

on Gaussian elimination. Stiffness and load arrays are read into memory
during solution and assembled into the structure stiffness and load matrix..
Frontal solution must be used for nonlinear analyses. If no solver selection is
made the frontal solver will be used.
q Conjugate Gradient (Iterative) Technique this is an iterative
technique for solving linear analyses. Iterative solution techniques are not
dependent on the frontwidth of the problem so frontal optimisation is not
required for this algorithm. Two pre-conditioning techniques are available
within LUSAS to attempt to improve the convergence rate of the iterative
technique.
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Frontal Optimisation and LUSAS Solvers
• Diagonal this pre-conditioning technique should be used for squat

problems where the matrix is very well conditioned, for example in solid
3D meshes. Convergence can be poor for problems not matching this
description.
• Cholesky this pre-conditioning technique is the most robust and will
often converge better than the diagonal technique. It allows solutions to be
obtained for different types of structures including shell structures.
Solution using this technique is often slower than the diagonal technique.
The conjugate gradient iterative solvers can be configured using the following
parameters:
q Iterative Solver Tolerance a measure of convergence from one

solution to the next based on residual forces in the structure expressed as a
percentage of the applied load. The default value is 1.0e-6.
q Maximum Number of Solver Iterations allows the maximum
number of conjugate gradient iterations to be set. The default value is the total
number of equations in the structure.
Notes
q For linear problems with multiple load cases, or eigenvalue analyses where
multiple modes are extracted, the iterative technique is inefficient as a
separate iterative process is required for each load case (or mode). The frontal
solution method carries out only one elimination process and its efficiency is
far superior for this type of analysis.
q Problems involving constraint equations cannot be solved using iterative
techniques.
q Conjugate gradient techniques are inappropriate for reduction of matrices and
therefore cannot be used for Guyan reduction or superelement analyses.
It is difficult to recommend a particular solver since which is the most efficient is
highly dependent on the problem being solved. However, in general terms, the
frontal solver will use less memory, and the conjugate gradient solver less CPU time
and disk space. In addition, the frontal solver is less susceptible to problems caused
by ill-conditioned solutions.
Compute Matrix Condition Number care should be exercised when

selecting the pre-conditioning technique to be used for an iterative solution as
convergence may not occur. If convergence problems exist, the condition number of
the global matrix may be computed at each iteration using this option. Note that this
computation involves calculation of maximum and minimum eigenvalues of the
iteration matrix and can be computationally expensive.
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About Nonlinear Analysis

What is Nonlinear Analysis?
Linear Finite Element Analysis assumes that all materials are linear elastic in
behaviour and that deformations are small enough to not significantly affect the
overall behaviour of the structure. Obviously, this description applies to very few
situations in the real world, but with a few restrictions and assumptions linear
analysis will suffice for the majority of engineering applications.
What do we look for, therefore, in our problem to indicate that a nonlinear finite
element analysis is required?
q Gross changes in geometry
q Permanent deformations
q Structural cracks
q Buckling
q Stresses greater than the yield stress
q Contact between component parts
Three types of nonlinear analysis may be modelled using LUSAS:
q Geometric Nonlinearity e.g. large deflection or rotation, large strain, non-

conservative loading.
q Boundary Nonlinearity e.g. lift-off supports, general contact, compressional
load transfer, dynamic impact.
q Material Nonlinearity e.g. plasticity, fracture/cracking, damage, creep,
volumetric crushing, rubber material.
The LUSAS analysis types within which nonlinear geometric and material effects
may be incorporated are shown in the table below.
Analysis Type Geometric Nonlinearity Material Nonlinearity
Static
Dynamic
Creep
Natural Frequency
Eigenvalue Buckling
Spectral Response
Harmonic Response
Fourier Analysis
Field or Thermal
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Analysis Type Geometric Nonlinearity Material Nonlinearity

Thermo-mechanical
Geometrically Nonlinear Analysis

Geometric nonlinearities arise V
from significant changes in the

H
structural configuration
during loading. Common h
v
examples of geometric
nonlinearity are plate structures
which develop membrane
behaviour, or the geometric
bifurcation of truss or shell
structures. The changing
application of loads or boundary
conditions are also
geometrically nonlinear effects.
The figure below shows two
simple structural examples which serve as good illustrations of geometrically
nonlinear behaviour.
For the simply supported beam (above left), the linear solution would predict the
familiar simply supported bending moment and zero axial force. In reality as the
beam deforms its length increases and an axial component of force is introduced.
For the loaded strut (above right), the linear solution would fail to consider the
progressive eccentricity of the vertical load on the bending moment diagram. In
both these cases depending on how large the deflections were, serious errors could be
introduced if the effects of nonlinear geometry were neglected.
In LUSAS geometric nonlinearity is accounted for using four basic formulations:
q Total Lagrangian
q Updated Lagrangian
q Eulerian
q Co-rotational
All four formulations are valid for arbitrary large deformations. In general, if
rotational degrees of freedom are present, rotations must be small for Total
Lagrangian. An exception to this rule is the Total Lagrangian formulation for thick
shell elements where large rotations may be applied. Large rotations are allowed for
Updated Lagrangian (provided that they are small within each load increment) or
Eulerian. The co-rotational formulation is unconditionally valid for large rotations
and results are generally independent of load step size.
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All formulations are valid for small strains. For some elements the Updated
Lagrangian formulation is valid for moderately large strains. The Eulerian
formulation is also generally valid for moderate strains. In general, the Total
Lagrangian is a more robust formulation, which is usually able to cope with
substantial load increments. The Updated Lagrangian, and particularly Eulerian,
formulations generally require smaller load increments in order to avoid a divergent
solution.
Standard geometrically nonlinear formulations account for the change in position of
the loading, but not the change in direction relative to the deformed configuration.
Loading is always conservative for the Total Lagrangian geometrically nonlinear
formulations (that is, the load is always applied in the same direction as was initially
prescribed). Using an Updated Lagrangian formulation, the geometry is updated at
the end of each increment and the applied loads may maintain the same relative
orientation as to the original surface (depending on element and load types).
Therefore non-conservative loading can be increment size dependent. True non-
conservative loading may only be achieved by using the Eulerian and co-rotational
formulations.
The choice of particular formulations is both problem and element dependent (the
element formulation determining which strain formulations are available). The
availability of each formulation is given for each element in the LUSAS Element
Library. For further details regarding the geometrically nonlinear formulations refer
to the LUSAS Theory Manual.
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Nonlinear boundary conditions

Deformation dependent boundary condition models V
account for the modifications to the external H
restraints resulting from lift-off, or smooth or
frictional contact during the process within an
analysis.
Consider the simple example shown in the figure
right in which the structure and its supporting
surface can resist being pushed together, but not
being pulled apart. The required contact condition
may be imposed by using to connect between the
structure and the rigid support, and specifying a
incorporating large, and zero local stiffnesses in
compression and tension respectively.
Reaction
Distance(x)
Materially Nonlinear Analysis

Materially nonlinear effects arise from a nonlinear constitutive model (that is,
progressively disproportionate stresses and strains). Common examples of nonlinear
material behaviour are the plastic yielding of metals, the ductile fracture of granular
composites such as concrete, or time-dependent behaviour such as creep.
LUSAS incorporates a variety of nonlinear constitutive models, covering the
behaviour of the more common engineering materials. Details of these material
models and their applicability to each LUSAS element are described in About
Material Properties which should be read in conjunction with the Element Reference
Manaul.
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Nonlinear Solution Procedures

For nonlinear analysis, Load Equilibrium
since it is no longer Iterations
possible to directly
obtain a stress
distribution which
equilibrates a given set of KT
external loads, a solution Load
procedure is usually Increment
adopted in which the
total required load is
applied in a number of
increments.
Within each increment a
linear prediction of the
nonlinear response is Displacement
made, and subsequent
iterative corrections are performed in order to restore equilibrium by the elimination
of the residual or ‘out of balance’ forces.
The iterative corrections are referred to some form of convergence criteria which
indicates to what extent an equilibrate state has been achieved. Such a solution
procedure is therefore commonly referred to as an incremental-iterative (or
predictor-corrector) method shown in the figure above. In LUSAS, the nonlinear
solution is based on the Newton-Raphson procedure. The details of the solution
procedure are controlled using the Nonlinear Control properties assigned to load
case.
For the analysis of nonlinear problems, the solution procedure adopted may be of
significance to the results obtained. In order to reduce this dependence, wherever
possible, nonlinear control properties incorporate a series of generally applicable
default settings, and automatically activatedfacilities.
Iterative Procedures
In LUSAS the incremental-iterative solution is based on Newton-Raphson iterations.
In the Newton-Raphson procedure an initial prediction of the incremental solution is
based on the tangent stiffness from which incremental displacements, and their
iterative corrections may be derived.
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Standard Newton-Raphson procedure

In the standard Newton-Raphson procedure each iterative calculation is always based
upon the current tangent stiffness. For finite element analysis, this involves the
formation (and factorisation) of the tangent stiffness matrix at the start of each
iteration.
Although the standard Newton-Raphson method generally converges rapidly, the
continual manipulation of the stiffness matrix is often expensive. The need for a
robust yet inexpensive procedure therefore leads to the development of the family of
modified Newton-Raphson methods.
Iterative acceleration (line searches)

A slow convergence rate may be significantly improved by employing an iterative
acceleration technique. In cases of severe and often localised nonlinearity,
encountered typically in materially nonlinear or contact problems, some form of
acceleration may be a prerequisite to convergence.
In LUSAS, iterative acceleration may be performed by applying line searches. In

essence, the line search procedure involves extra optimisation iterations in which the
potential energy associated with the residual forces at each iterative step are
minimised. Line search application is controlled via parameters on the Iteration
section of the Nonlinear Control properties.
The selection of line search parameters is problem dependent and largely a matter of
experience. However, a maximum of 3 to 5 line search iterations with a tolerance of
0.3 to 0.8 is usually sufficient (the closer the tolerance is to unity, the more slack the
minimum energy requirement).
Incremental Procedures
For the Newton-Raphson solution procedures it is assumed that a displacement
solution may be found for a given load increment and that, within each load
increment, the load level remains constant. Such methods are therefore often referred
to as constant load level incrementation procedures.
However, where limit points in the structural response are encountered (for example
in the geometrically nonlinear case of snap-through failure) constant load level
methods will, at best, fail to identify the load shedding portion of the curve and, at
worst, fail to converge at all past the limit point. The solution of limit point problems
therefore leads to the development of alternative methods, including displacement
incrementation and constrained solution methods.
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Constrained solution methods (arc-length)

Constrained methods differ from constant level methods in that the load level is not
required to be constant within an increment. In fact the load and displacement levels
are constrained to follow some pre-defined path.
In LUSAS two forms of arc-length method have been implemented:
q Crisfield’s modified arc-length procedure in which the solution is
constrained to lie on a spherical surface defined in displacement space. For
the one degree of freedom case this becomes a circular arc.
q Rheinboldt’s arc-length algorithm which constrains the largest displacement
increment (as defined by the predictor) to remain constant for that particular
increment.
The use of the arc-length method has the following advantages over constant load
level methods:
q Improved convergence characteristics
q Ability to detect and negotiate limit points
In LUSAS, control of arc-length solution procedures is via the Incrementation
section of the Nonlinear Control properties. If required, the solution may be started
under constant load control, and automatically switched to arc-length control based
on a specified value of the current stiffness parameter (defined as the scaled inner
product of displacements and loads). The required stiffness parameter for automatic
conversion to arc-length control is input in the Incrementation section of Nonlinear
Control properties.
Where limit points are encountered LUSAS will automatically determine the sign of
the next load increment by the sign of the determinant of the stiffness matrix. This
is a reliable method in most cases, however, it will often fail in the vicinity of
bifurcation points when negative eigenvalues may cause premature unloading. In
such cases the load reversal criteria may be optionally changed to be dependent on
the sign of the current stiffness parameter. This method is better at coping with
bifurcation points, but will always fail when a snap-back situation is encountered.
Note. In certain circumstances, notably in the presence of strain-softening, the

arc-length method may converge on alternative, unstable equilibrium paths.
Bracketing critical points and branch switching

Bracketing can be used to locate a limit or bifurcation point during a geometrically
nonlinear analysis. The nonlinear analysis is executed and one of three methods is
used to isolate the first critical point
q Bi-section
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q Interpolation
q Riks semi-direct approach
Two further options for the bracketing procedure exist depending on whether the
material response is elastic (reversible) or plastic/path dependent (irreversible). Only
the first critical point can be processed and a subsequent eigenvalue analysis must be
invoked to determine whether the critical point encountered is a limit or bifurcation
point. A limit point may be defined as the point at which load starts to decrease as
displacements increase (e.g. the snap through of a shallow arch). In this instance the
structure may not have failed completely and could subsequently still be capable of
carrying more load. A bifurcation point indicates that the solution of the nonlinear
differential equations has encountered an alternative unstable solution path or paths
which may be followed instead of the stable equilibrium path. The branch switching
procedure must then be undertaken if an unstable equilibrium path is to be followed.
The branch switching procedure should only be carried out within a restart analysis
after bracketing has been successfully completed. Two options exist for guiding the
solution onto a secondary path
q eigenmode injection
q artificial force and Rheinboldt’s arc-length
Incremental Loading
Incrementation for nonlinear problems may be specified in four ways:
q Manual Incrementation where the loading data in each load

increment is specified separately.
q Automatic Incrementation where a specified load case is factored
using fixed or variable increments.
q Mixed Incrementation Mixed manual and automatic incrementation.
q Load Curves where the variation of one or more sets of loading data is
specified as a load factor vs. load increment or time step load curve.
The choice and level of incrementation will depend on the problem to be solved.
Automatic load incrementation

Two methods of automatic incrementation are available:
q Uniform Incrementation By default, uniform incrementation will be

applied. That is, for each increment the current load factor will be multiplied
by the specified load components to generate the applied load.
q Variable Incrementation Alternatively, variable incrementation may
be requested. In this case the current load factor will be automatically varied
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according to the iterative performance of the solution. The variation is a

function of the required number of iterations and a specified desired iterative
performance. Thus, where the number of iterations taken is less than the
desired value the incremented load factor will subsequently be increased, and
conversely, if the number of iterations is greater than the desired value, it will
be decreased. Variable incrementation may be used in conjunction with either
constant load level or arc-length solution methods and is an effective way of
automatically adapting the performance of the solution procedure to the
degree of nonlinearity encountered. The overall effect is therefore to increase
and decrease the numerical effort in the areas of most and least nonlinearity
respectively.
Mixing manual and automatic incrementation

If required, manual and automatic incrementation procedures may be mixed freely.
When mixing manual and automatic incrementation the following rules apply:
q Load cases may be respecified as often as required.
q If the automatic procedure is specified, it will continue until one of the
termination criteria is satisfied.
q In switching from manual to automatic control, any loading input under the
manual control is remembered and held constant, while the automatic
procedure is operating.
q In switching from automatic back to manual control, any loading
accumulated under automatic control is forgotten and must be input as a
manual load case if required.
q If prescribed displacements are being used, then in any switching from one
type of control to another, the effect of prescribed displacements will be
remembered and will not need to be input again.
Automatic increment reduction

Where an increment has failed to converge within the specified maximum number of
iterations it will be automatically reduced and re-applied. This will be repeated
according to values specified in the step reduction section (Advanced dialog) until
the maximum number of reductions has been tried. In a final attempt to achieve a
solution the load increment is then increased to try and step over a difficult point in
the analysis. If after this the solution has still failed to converge the solution
terminated.
Solution termination
When using manual incrementation, the solution will automatically terminate
following execution of one increment. With automatic incrementation, the solution
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progresses one Nonlinear Control chapter at a time. The finish of each Nonlinear
Control chapter is controlled by its Termination parameters.
Termination may be specified in 3 ways:
q Limiting the maximum applied load factor.
q Limiting the maximum number of applied increments.
q Limiting the maximum value of a named freedom.
Where more than one criteria is specified, termination will occur on the first criteria
to be satisfied.
Failure to converge within the specified maximum number of iterations will either
result in a diagnostic message and termination of the solution or, if automatic
incrementation is being used, a reduction of the applied load increment. If required,
the solution may be continued from an unconverged increment (Option 16, 17),
although the consequences of such an action should be appreciated.
In addition, the solution will be terminated if, at the beginning of an increment,
more than two negative pivots are encountered during the frontal elimination phase.
Use of load curves

are used to simplify the input of load data in situations where the variation of load is
known with respect to a certain parameter. An example of this could be the dynamic
response of a pipe to an increase of pressure over a given period. The data input
would consist of the definition of the load and its variation with time.
Nonlinear Solution Convergence Criteria

The convergence criteria specifies to what extent the numerical iterative procedure
has reached the true equilibrate state. The specification of convergence therefore
involves two considerations:
q Type of convergence criterion
q Convergence tolerance
The types of convergence criteria incorporated in LUSAS are as follows:
q Absolute residual norm

q Root mean square residual norm
q Displacement norm
q Residual force norm
q External work norm
q Incremental displacement norm
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The convergence tolerance for each criteria is specified in the Solution parameters
and advanced solution parameters section of the Nonlinear Control properties. The
selection of a convergence criteria, and the associated tolerance is problem
dependent. However, the following points should be considered:
Clearly, the convergence criteria must not be too slack so as to yield an inaccurate
solution, nor too tight so as to waste computer time performing unnecessary
iterations. In general, sensitive geometrically nonlinear problems require a tight
convergence criteria, whereas, with predominantly materially nonlinear problems,
larger local residuals may be tolerated.
Where more than one criteria has been specified, convergence will be assumed only
on the satisfaction of all specified tolerances.
The following considerations apply to individual convergence parameters:
q Absolute Residual Norm is of limited use owing to its dependence upon the
units being used. It is a strict criteria and for some problems, especially those
involving plasticity, it may be very difficult to reduce locally large residuals.
However, in sensitive geometrically nonlinear problems near bifurcation
points, it can sometimes be necessary to ensure that large residuals are
completely eliminated.
q Root Mean Square Residual Norm is the square root of the average of the
squares of the residual forces and is generally more applicable than the above,
but is still dependent upon the units being used.
q Displacement Norm is the sum of the squares of all the iterative
displacements as a percentage of the sum of the squares of the total
displacements and is a useful measure of how much the structure has moved
during an iteration. Being a scaled norm it is not affected by units but
convergence is not guaranteed. Typical values of slack and tight norms are
(5.0 - 1.0) and (0.1 - 0.001) respectively.
q Residual Force Norm is the sum of the squares of all the residual forces as a
percentage of the sum of the squares of all the external forces. This is the
most versatile of the five criteria. Typical slack and tight values are (10.0 -
5.0) and (0.1 - 0.00001) respectively.
q External Work Norm is the work done by all the residuals acting through
the iterative displacements, as a percentage of the work done by the loads on
iteration zero of the increment. Since all freedoms are considered it is very
versatile (the default displacement and force norms consider only the
translational freedoms). However, it should be noted that a minimum detected
potential energy need not necessarily coincide with the equilibrate state.
Typical values of slack and tight norms are (0.1 - 0.001) and (10-6 - 10-9)
respectively.
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Eigenvalue Analysis
q Incremental Displacement Norm is the sum of the squares of all the

iterative displacements as a percentage of the sum of the squares of the total
displacements for the increment. This norm is an incremental form of the
total displacement norm previously described and the same comments
regarding usage apply.
Nonlinear Output Control

Nonlinear analyses may generate a vast amount of output. In addition to the normal
nodal and element output controls, the frequency of nonlinear solution output may be
restricted via the Output section in the Nonlinear Control properties.
The restart output facility enables failed or terminated analyses to be restarted from
the last saved restart output dump. This is particularly useful where the termination
of the analysis was due to a failure of the solution process rather than that of the
structure. In this way, the solution may be restarted from the last converged
increment with a different or modified solution strategy. For example, a failed
increment may be restarted under either constant load or arc-length control.
The Nonlinear Logfile

During the course of a nonlinear analysis, various information is output to the screen
or logfile, so that you may assess the performance of the solution.
Eigenvalue Analysis
What is an Eigenvalue Analysis?
An Eigenvalue extraction analysis is the extraction of the natural modes of
vibration of a structure, or a natural frequency analysis. It can also be used to solve
the following problems:
q Buckling load analysis A linear analysis which may be applied to relatively

‘stiff’ structures to estimate the maximum load that can be supported prior to
structural instability or collapse.
q Stiffness analysis Used to perform an eigenvalue analysis of the stiffness
matrix at a selected stage of an analysis. This facility may be used in
conjunction with a to predict structural instability or bifurcation points
during a geometrically nonlinear analysis.
q By including Modal Damping, the overall damping factors for each eigen
mode can also be output as a table in the output file. These values may then
be used in a dynamic or spectral (harmonic/IMD) analysis if desired.
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Solving an Eigenvalue Problem

Solving an Eigenvalue problem requires setting the Eigenvalue control properties for
a particular loadcase. To do this select a loadcase, click the right mouse button, then
choose Properties from the shortcut menu.
In LUSAS, the following methods for eigenvalue extraction are available, (described
below):
q Subspace Iteration (Jacobi and QL solvers) The objective of the subspace
iteration methods is to solve for a specified number of eigenvalues and
corresponding eigenvectors.
q Guyan Reduction analysis may also be performed using the subspace
iteration method.
q Inverse Iteration with Shifts The inverse iteration method allows the
computation of the eigenvalues and corresponding eigenvectors within a
specified eigenvalue range of interest. Having calculated all the required
eigenpairs, the solution is completed by calculating error estimates on the
precision with which the eigenvalues and eigenvectors have been evaluated.
q Lanczos Based on the Inverse iteration method but significantly faster to
solve. As well as calculating an eigenvalue range, as with the inverse iteration
method, it is also able to calculate the minimum and maximum eigenvalues.
For further details regarding the operation of the eigenvalue extraction facility refer
to the LUSAS Theory Manual.
Subspace Iteration
The first step in the subspace iteration procedure is to establish the number of
starting iteration vectors. This should be greater than the number of required
eigenvalues to increase the rate of convergence. It is important to remember that the
number of starting iteration vectors cannot exceed the number of degrees of freedom
of the system. Experience suggests that the number of starting vectors should be
determined from the expression:
nivc = min (( 2*nroot ), ( nroot+8 ), ( nvbz ))
where
q nivc is the number of starting iteration vectors,
q nroot is the required number of eigenvalues and
q nvbz the number of degrees of freedom in the structure.
Occasionally insufficient eigensolutions are computed in the initial eigenvalue
analysis. The number of eigensolutions can be increased by using a RESTART and
re-specifying the Eigenvalue Control. This second eigenvalue analysis utilises the
230
Eigenvalue Analysis
previous results in order to compute the extra eigensolutions thus saving on

computational effort.
Convergence of subspace iteration

As the procedure iterates it is necessary to refer the numerical solution to a criterion
with which to measure its convergence. It is assumed that the eigensolution has
converged on iteration k when:
for all eigenvalues λi.
Starting Vectors for Subspace Iteration

The first step of the subspace iteration method is the computation of the starting
iteration vectors. Two methods of constructing these starting vectors are available in
LUSAS. One method is based on the observation that the vectors should be
constructed to excite the degrees of freedom associated with a large mass and a small
stiffness. Alternatively, the starting iteration vectors can be obtained by using the
solution from a Guyan reduction analysis. This method allows you greater freedom
in selecting the starting iteration vectors. The starting vectors are defined by
specifying master freedoms within the (as for a Guyan reduction analysis). Then the
eigenvalue control properties are used to control the eigenvalue extraction as usual
but a Guyan reduction analysis is carried out automatically prior to the subspace
iteration algorithm which uses the approximate eigensolution from the Guyan
reduction as the first estimate of the exact solution.
By making the correct assumptions and approximations it can be shown that a
Guyan reduction analysis produces the same results as the first iteration of the
subspace method with the starting iteration vectors as constructed by the first
method; details of this can be found in the LUSAS Theory Manual.
Using Eigenvalue Shifts

An important procedure that may be used in eigenvalue extraction is shifting. If rigid
body modes are present in the system, the stiffness matrix will be singular, hence
causing numerical problems in the subspace iteration and the Guyan reduction
algorithms. To overcome this a shift may be applied to form a modified stiffness
matrix, of which the associated eigenvalues will all be positive. To obtain the actual
eigenvalues the shift is automatically subtracted from the calculated eigenvalues. The
eigenvectors for both systems are the same.
231
The frequency shift in LUSAS enables the eigenvalues of unrestrained structures to

be computed by removing the zero diagonal terms from the stiffness matrix. The
convergence rate of the iterative eigenvalue solution procedure will increase with a
smaller shift provided the shift is large enough to avoid numerical problems.
Guyan Reduced Eigenvalue Extraction

Good finite element approximations to low frequency natural vibrations may often be
obtained by considering only those freedoms whose contribution is of most
significance to the oscillatory structural behaviour. This characteristic may be
utilised, in the condensation of the full discrete model, to a reduced system, in which
the remaining equations adequately encompass the required vibration modes. Such a
procedure is often termed Guyan reduction, and may be used to significantly reduce
the overall problem size.
In a Guyan reduced eigenvalue extraction, the stiffness contribution of those
freedoms whose inertia effect is considered insignificant (designated the slave
freedoms), are condensed from the system. The reduced equation system is therefore
dependent on those freedoms remaining (designated the master freedoms). The
resulting eigenvectors of the reduced problem are linear approximations to the true
eigenvectors.
Guyan reduced eigenvalue extraction is specified from the advanced dialog of the
eigenvalue control properties.
Selecting the master freedoms
The effective selection of the master freedoms is central to the accuracy of the
simulated structural response. In the selection of the master freedoms, the following
points should be considered:
q The master freedoms must accurately represent all the significant modes of
vibration.
q Master freedoms should exhibit high mass to stiffness ratios. Hence rotational
freedoms are usually inappropriate masters.
q Master freedoms should, where appropriate, be as evenly spaced throughout
the structure as is appropriate.
q The ratio of master to slave freedoms should generally be within the range
1:10 to 1:2.
q Poor selection of the master freedoms will have a detrimental effect on the
accuracy of the solution especially at higher frequencies.
Master freedoms may be specified in one of three ways:
q Manually Using the attribute dataset .
232
Eigenvalue Analysis
q Automatically Alternatively, a specified number of master freedoms may be

automatically generated by setting the Eigenvalue properties, (Advanced
button). The generated master freedoms will be automatically selected such
that the highest stiffness to mass ratios of the associated structural freedoms
are utilitised.
q Mixed manual and automatic Where manual and automatic master
selection is combined the specified number of automatic masters will be
automatically selected from the available free equations.
Sturm Sequence Check

When extracting eigenvalues, it is important to verify that the computed eigenvalues
constitute a continuous set, and that intermediate eigenvalues are not missed. To do
this the Sturm sequence check is invoked; this may be switched off by setting the
appropriate parameter on the eigenvalue control properties.
Inverse Iteration with Shifts

Eigenvalue extraction by inverse iteration is may be utilitised when calculating an
eigenvalue range or frequency range.
This method uses a series of shift points from which to extract the eigen-solutions
using the inverse iteration method. The convergence to each eigen-solution is
governed by the closeness of the eigenvalue to the shift point and the method is thus
efficient for locating the eigen-solutions within narrow bands.
Convergence of inverse iteration

As the procedure iterates it is necessary to refer the numerical solution to a criterion
with which to measure its convergence. For inverse iteration it is important that the
eigenvectors as well as the eigenvalues are computed to some degree of accuracy.
The convergence criteria for the inverse iteration scheme is therefore based upon the
mass orthogonality tolerance:
i≠j
for all eigenvectors Fi and global mass matrix M.
The inverse iteration procedure should always converge quickly since the shift point
is automatically updated to improve convergence if this is not the case. The
maximum number of iterations is therefore set, by default, at 30 since this should
never be required by the algorithm. It is provided merely as a safety measure and the
default value may be changed in the CONVERGENCE data section.
233
Lanczos
The Lanczos eigenvalue analysis facility is based on the inverse iteration procedure
but is applied to only one starting vector. It is significantly faster to converge and can
use significantly less physical memory and hard disk than subspace methods. For
these reasons it is ideal for large numbers of requested eigenvalues and for large
problems.
Centripetal Stiffening Effects

In rotating machinery, load correction terms that arise from the effects of rotation
may significantly influence the natural frequencies of vibration. Within LUSAS the
load correction terms due to centripetal acceleration can be considered.
Note. The load correction terms, due to Coriolis and angular acceleration, are
ignored because they result in non-symmetric damping and stiffness matrices
respectively.
Eigenvalue Buckling Analysis

A linear buckling analysis is a useful technique that can be applied to relatively
stiff structures to estimate the maximum load that can be supported prior to
structural instability or collapse. The assumptions used in linear buckling analysis
are that the linear stiffness matrix does not change prior to buckling and that the
stress stiffness matrix is simply a multiple of its initial value. Accordingly, the
technique can only be used to predict the load level at which a structure becomes
unstable, if the pre-buckling displacements and their effects are negligible. As this
procedure involves assembly of the stress stiffness matrix, only elements with a
geometric nonlinear capability can be used in a linear buckling analysis.
The main objective of an eigenvalue buckling analysis is to obtain the critical
buckling load, by solving the associated eigenvalue problem.
Occasionally the initial stress stiffness matrix may not be positive causing the
subspace iteration (or Guyan reduction) eigensolution methods to fail. To overcome
this problem the original buckling problem may optionally be recast to a form where
all eigenvalues are positive.
Notes
q The relationship between the eigenvalue, λ, and the angular frequency, ω, is:
234
q An eigenvalue analysis of the stiffness matrix has no physical meaning except

that a zero magnitude implies a critical point of some description.
q An eigenvalue analysis in LUSAS will include the gyroscopic effects in the
stiffness matrix (for certain elements; see LUSAS Element Library) if you use
the CBF load to simulate the angular velocities of the shafts (note that this
requires a nonlinear analysis). Such a natural frequency analysis would give
the frequencies of the lateral modes of vibration. The physical effect
modelled by the centripetal stiffening facility for eigenvalue analyses is the
stiffening that a rotating body will see as a result of radial expansion and the
corresponding increase in hoop stresses. These stresses effectively stiffen the
structure and can significantly increase the eigenvalues. See the LUSAS
Theory Manual for further information.
q There are two levels of iteration in the subspace method. NITEM controls the
outer one, the inner loop is fixed at 12 (NSMAX). In our experience, this
should never need modifying to obtain a solution.
q We recommend that joint elements representing lumped masses are placed
between ACTIVE nodes of the structure so that a ZERO stiffness be input and
the mass applied to the appropriate node. Non-coincident nodes will lead to
additional forces in the solution which are not in equilibrium (usually small
and swamped, but could be significant sometimes). We do not recommend
having joints hanging off the side of the structure and having large associated
stiffnesses.
q Ensure that MASS normalisation is chosen for the previous eigenvalue
analysis if it is to be followed by a SPECTRAL or HARMONIC analysis.
q It is possible to use constraint equations in both an eigenvalue and a harmonic
response analysis in LUSAS. However, the Sturm sequence check may prove
unreliable.
q Non-zero rigid body eigenvalues may be experienced when using the QSI4
element. This is due to the method used to obtain the lumped mass matrix for
this element (a consistent mass matrix not being available). The QSL8 and
QTS4 give correct eigenvalues for both lumped and consistent mass matrices,
forming the mass matrix using a shape function array. QSI4, however, forms
the rotation terms explicitly without the use of these functions. Small
inaccuracies in the lumping of the mass to the rotational degrees of freedom
may thus be possible for certain mesh definitions. If these eigenvalues are
significant, the analysis should be continued using another shell element type,
such as QSL8 or QTS4.
q The magnitude of the eigenvalue shift required for an unsupported structure is
usually taken as the expected fundamental eigenvalue.
q Calculation of the actual damping applied may be performed via the
MODAL_DAMPING CONTROL command. This will give the overall
damping factors applied to each mode requested as a table in the output file.
235
Although a linear static analysis will ensure that equilibrium is fully achieved and
may also predict stress levels within an acceptable range, the current structural
design may still be unsuitable for the intended use. The additional consideration is
related to the type of equilibrium achieved.
Below the critical buckling load of a structure "stable" equilibrium will usually be
achieved, whilst above this load "unstable" equilibrium may result from geometric
and/or material effects.
This note concentrates on the methods available in LUSAS to determine the
buckling behaviour of a structure as a result of geometric effects (commonly denoted
as "Euler strut buckling").
There are two methods in LUSAS to obtained information regarding buckling loads
and their respective deformation modes,
q Linear Eigenvalue Buckling Analysis
q Full Geometrically Nonlinear Analysis
The following comments describe the principal characteristics of these methods to
assist in the selection of the most appropriate for the structure to be modelled.
Linear Buckling Using Eigenvalue Extraction

Linear buckling analysis is a technique that can be applied to relatively "stiff"
structures to estimate the maximum load that can be supported prior to structural
instability or collapse. Determining the overall characteristics of a structure is a
matter of engineering judgement but, in general, stiff means stocky (e.g. an engine
block). In contrast, an example of a flexible structure would be one manufactured
using a significant amount of slender, rubber-type materials. The assumption of a
stiff structure, however, is not unreasonable for many applications.
The fundamental assumptions of such an analysis are as follows
q The linear stiffness matrix does not change prior to buckling
q The stress stiffness matrix is simply a multiple of its initial value
The requirement for a stress stiffness matrix demands a nonlinear software path in
LUSAS. This technique, therefore, is only available for elements that have a
nonlinear capability. See the subsequent section on the element types available for
use with this procedure for further details.
236
An inference from these

assumptions is that the pre-
buckling displacements
have negligible influence on
the structural response. In
other words, large
deformation effects are not
included in either the linear
stiffness or the stress
stiffness matrices.
To explain this last
comment, consider the
following strut, loaded (a) (b) (c)
axially in compression as
shown (a). If the member is Eccentricity
slender then, instead of
failing by direct
compression, it may bend
and deflect laterally (b). At this point the member is considered to have buckled.
The linear eigenvalue buckling analysis procedure would yield accurate solutions in
this case because the horizontal pre-buckling deformation is negligible (zero).
If, however, the strut is also subject to a prior horizontal load (c), the buckling load
will be increasingly inaccurate as this load increases. This is because the linear
eigenvalue buckling procedure firstly computes the stress state according to a linear
elastic procedure. As a result the effects of large deformations are ignored. For the
case above, this means the omission of the additional axial forces which would be
induced into the strut as the horizontal force increases.
In general, the eigenvalue buckling analysis will, therefore, increasingly
overestimate the buckling load as the pre-buckling displacements increase.
This analysis type will provide both local and global buckling modes. However,
engineering judgement is necessary to determine which buckling mode is the most
critical in order to select the appropriate buckling load factor. It is, of course possible
to visually examine the resultant modes in LUSAS Modeller.
Note that it is not at present possible to perform a geometrically nonlinear analysis
immediately prior to a linear eigenvalue buckling analysis.
Buckling Using Full Geometrical Nonlinearity

A full geometrically nonlinear analysis, if appropriately perturbed, will take account
of any pre-buckling displacements of the structure and, moreover, provide a
complete response of the structure at all stages of the analysis. The specification of a
237
geometrically nonlinear procedure via the LUSAS OPTION command is mandatory

for this type of analysis. Without this functionality active, buckling will be
completely ignored.
The geometrically nonlinear functionality depends on the element type proposed, but
the general available are as follows
q Total Lagrangian (option 87)
q Updated Lagrangian (option 54)
q Eulerian (option 167)
q Co-rotational (option 229)
The buckling load is not given directly in this method; rather a complete
deformation history is obtained. A graph of force-displacement (stress-strain) at any
point or for the structure will enable the buckling load to be determined. See later
section on buckling load output for further information.
If a perturbation load is not specified then, when the buckling load has been
exceeded, a negative pivot will be found in the iterative log output after the
increment has converged (negative pivots that occur during the iterative procedure,
i.e. at unconverged configurations, can be ignored). Note that, if the buckling load
for the next (higher) mode is surpassed, two negative pivots will occur and so on.
The use of the bracketing facility in LUSAS can help isolate the buckling load and
also to determine whether a bifurcation or limit point has been encountered. The
bracketing procedure also obviates the need to know how the structure should be
perturbed in order to initiate buckling in the structure.
Local and global buckling modes are, therefore, accurately predicted with a complete
geometrically nonlinear analysis and an appropriate initial perturbation. The
interaction between the local and the global buckling modes will be accounted for
directly in this manner.
Which Elements Are Permissible?

Two guidelines are important here:
q All the elements used in a linear eigenvalue buckling analysis must have a
nonlinear functionality as a result of the requirement for the nonlinear stress
stiffness matrix.
Note that this does not mean that geometrically nonlinear effects are
accounted for (they are not). As stated above, it is simply a numerical
requirement. The linear eigenvalue buckling procedure assumes geometric
linearity; ignoring the effects of large deformation.
q For a full geometrically nonlinear analysis, geometrically nonlinear capability
is only required by those elements which are deemed to undergo such effects.
238
Linear elements may be used for the remainder. If there is uncertainty, all
elements used should support geometric nonlinearity.
This procedure depends on geometrically nonlinear functionality to determine
buckling effects and cannot be omitted. The LUSAS element library should be
inspected to determine which is available for the proposed element(s).
To establish whether a proposed element supports nonlinearity, the Geometric
Nonlinearity section in the LUSAS element library should be referred to. Geometric
nonlinearity is, as stated above, not used for linear buckling analyses but an
affirmative indication in this section is tantamount to saying that nonlinear
functionality is available. Nonlinear capability may, of course, also be determined
from the availability of nonlinear material models.
If this reference states 'Not Applicable' the element does not support any geometric
nonlinearity. Any other response indicates that nonlinearity is permissible and
defines the options available.
In summary, however; the following elements support geometric nonlinearity and
may be used within one or other of the buckling techniques described
q All BAR elements
q All CONTINUUM elements (except FOURIER and EXPLICIT DYNAMICS)
q All two dimensional MEMBRANE elements
Additionally, the BEAM elements supported are as follows
q 2 Dimensional BM3, BMX3
q 3 Dimensional BS3, BS4, BSL3, BSL4, BTS3, BSX4, BXL4
And the SHELL elements supported are
q 2 Dimensional BXS3
q 3 Dimensional TSL6, QSL8TTS3, QTS4, TTS6, QTS8
Note that PLATE elements do not support geometrically nonlinear applications.
Output From Buckling Analyses

For a linear eigenvalue buckling analysis, the buckling load is obtained from the
LUSAS output file. This buckling load is directly related to the eigenvalues extracted
and will be in the following format
MODE EIGENVALUE LOAD FACTOR ERROR NORM

1 33.0456 33.0456 0.190087E-10
2 64.3432 64.3432 0.179595E-07
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3 130.903 130.903 0.202128E-11

The buckling load for a mode would be the result of multiplying the actual
magnitude of the applied loading (as specified in the LOAD CASE command) with
the load factor (33.0456 in the case of the 1st mode).
Absolute displacement output is not available from any eigenvalue analysis. It is
available, however in a normalised state. For buckling analyses the eigenvectors
(mode shapes) are normalised to unity (mass normalisation is only supported in
dynamic eigenvalue analyses).
The mode shapes are, therefore, accurate representations of the buckling deformation
but do not quantitatively define the displacements of the structure at the buckling
load.
Stresses, on the other hand, are meaningful - representing their distribution at the
buckling load to the accuracy given by the modelling process only.
For a full geometrically nonlinear
analysis the buckling load is not
automatically output but will Pcr
require a force-deflection graph
for the structural response to be
plotted and the buckling load
estimated therefrom. For instance
the final graph may be of the
form shown right.
In which case the estimate of Pcr
could be estimated by inspection.
In this type of analysis both the
Horizontal
displacements and the stresses are
deflection
meaningful (according, once
again, to the accuracy of the numerical approximations). Note that to obtain such a
graph requires results at a number of load levels - it is not sufficient simply to obtain
results at the final load required.
Final Notes
There may be genuine numerical difficulties in a linear eigenvalue buckling analysis
which will be rectified by using the alternative eigenvalue buckling solution. Using
this alternative algorithm will always give positive eigenvalues except when the
buckling load factor is less than unity. Adjust the load level to ensure that all the
load factors are greater than 1 if this occurs. In other words the load applied should
be below the lowest expected buckling mode of the structure.
240
Spectral Response Analysis
Spectral Response Analysis

To study the effects of ground motion excitations on structures it is necessary to
measure the intensity of the motion. One practical measure can be obtained from a
knowledge of the response spectra for a generic ground motion. The spectral
response analysis seeks to estimate the maximum displacement or pseudo velocity or
acceleration of the structure during a "design" earthquake without recourse to direct
integration of the model over the complete duration of an event.
A spectral response analysis is available using the facility.
Starting Procedure
Before specifying the spectral response data the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the
system are computed using an eigenvalue extraction analysis (note that the computed
eigenvectors must have been normalised to the global mass).
Spectral Response Data Input

The number of points on the required spectral curve, and the spectral curve type, are
specified in the .
The spectral curve may be defined in three ways:
q Frequency/displacement
q Frequency/velocity
q Frequency/acceleration
To compute the participation factors it is necessary to specify the unit direction of the
excitation. The direction cosines of the excitation vector may be specified.
Using the spectral displacements and participation factors the maximum response of
the required number of modes can be calculated. Damping may also be specified at
the natural modes of the structure or at known frequencies of vibration. This
damping may also be described in terms of the Rayleigh damping parameters.
Finally, to obtain the maximum values some form of combination is used. Within
LUSAS two methods of combination are available:
q Square root of the sum of the squares (SRSS)
q Complete quadratic combination (CQC)
Harmonic Response Analysis

The harmonic response facility allows the behaviour of a structure subjected to
vibrating loads to be analysed without the need of carrying out a full transient
241
dynamic analysis. Furthermore, for a general system of vibrating loads it is possible

to assess the structural behaviour over a large range of loading (or sampling)
frequencies. Forced response analyses are controlled by the
HARMONIC_RESPONSE CONTROL data chapter.
For a forced response analysis it is assumed that the loads vary harmonically, this
necessitates the use of complex mathematics and consequently the loads need to be
defined in terms of their real and imaginary components. The behaviour of the
structure is thus described in terms of the real and imaginary components of
displacement, strain and stress. In structural terms these may be interpreted as the
amplitude and relative phase of such quantities.
The system damping may be specified as either modal (as a percentage of the critical
damping) or structural (in terms of the hysteretic properties of the structure), and
may vary with frequency. Due to the difficulties involved with the realistic definition
of system damping, either or both these quantities may be specified at the natural
modes of the structure or at known frequencies of vibration.
Performing the harmonic response analysis in the modal domain involves the
formation and solution of a system of generalised modal displacement equations
(i.e. for each natural frequency of vibration). From the generalised modal
displacements the true structural displacements, and hence the strains and stresses,
may be evaluated. This process is repeated for each sampling (or loading) frequency
of interest.
Starting Procedure
Since the harmonic response analysis requires a knowledge of the natural vibration
characteristics of the structure (i.e. the natural frequencies) it is necessary to perform
a previous eigenvalue analysis to obtain the natural eigensolutions which are
considered to be of significance. Note that the computed eigenvectors (or
eigenmodes) must be normalised with respect to the mass. This eigenvalue analysis
may be performed as part of the same analysis or may be recovered from a previously
created restart file.
Harmonic Response Data Input

The number of significant eigenmodes are specified in the CONSTANTS section of
the HARMONIC_RESPONSE CONTROL data chapter. Solutions will be computed
for each of the sampling frequencies at which the loads are considered to vibrate;
these are specified in the FREQUENCIES section. The system damping is defined
within the MODAL DAMPING and the STRUCTURAL DAMPING sections and
may be given at particular modes or at known frequencies; the modal damping may
also be defined in terms of the Rayleigh damping parameters. It is important to note
that default values are used when no damping has been defined; you may also
242
Dynamic (Transient) Analysis
override the system defaults by specifying the overriding damping defaults in the
CONSTANTS section.
The loading definition is made up of two parts: firstly numerous loads may be
defined using the LOAD CASE commands as usual. Then, within the
HARMONIC_RESPONSE CONTROL data chapter these loads are defined as the
real or the imaginary components by using one or more HARMONIC LOADING
commands. It must be noted that all loads are considered to have the same frequency
of vibration as given in the FREQUENCIES section but the relative phases may be
altered by correctly defining their complex components.
Dynamic (Transient) Analysis

Where loading may not reasonably be considered to be instantaneous, or where
inertia or damping forces are to be considered, a transient dynamic analysis
(sometimes referred to as step-by-step) may be carried out. A dynamic analysis is
controlled using the nonlinear and transient load case properties.
Dynamic solution methods generally numerically integrate in the time domain. The
solution is progressed through time in a step-by-step manner by assuming some
variation of the displacements and velocities over small intervals of time. Within
each time step the solution of the resulting simultaneous equations yields the
displacements at the discrete time points representing the end of the current time
step. For known initial conditions, successive application of this procedure furnishes
the dynamic response of the structure.
The following numerical integration schemes are incorporated within LUSAS:
q Central Difference
q Hilber-Hughes-Taylor
Implicit and Explicit Dynamics

Dynamic analysis may be performed using two methods:
q Implicit Dynamics Implicit methods require the inversion of the

stiffness matrix at every time step, and are therefore relatively expensive, but
unconditionally stable.
q Explicit Dynamics In contrast, explicit methods de-couple the
equilibrium equations, hence removing the necessity for stiffness matrix
inversion. Explicit methods are only stable for a range of time steps,
determined by the problem being analysed, and the discretisation adopted.
Explicit methods are automatically invoked by specifying explicit dynamic
243
elements. In this instance the central difference scheme is mandatory and

selected by default, also lumped masses must be used.
Starting procedure
To start a dynamic analysis a knowledge of the initial conditions is required. The
initial conditions for the Hilber-Hughes-Taylor integration scheme are:
where:
• are the velocities at time steps 0,1

• are the accelerations at time steps 0,1
• is the time step
• γ is the Hilber-Hughes-Taylor integration constant gamma
The initial velocity, , and initial acceleration, , can be defined in an implicit
dynamics analysis.
The starting conditions in explicit dynamics must be consistent with the central
difference integration scheme:
where:
• are the velocities at times -∆t/2, ∆t/2

• is the acceleration at time 0
Only the initial velocity, V, (actually relating to time -Dt/2) can be defined in an
explicit dynamics analysis. The displacements, d, (relating to time zero) and
accelerations, A, (relating to time -Dt) are assumed to be zero. Because of the nature
of the central difference integration scheme, an initial velocity will generate
accelerations at time zero, A. Accelerations relating to time zero are used to compute
displacements at time Dt and will in fact be written to the output file at time ∆t.
In general, the values output at any time t will be:
• , ,
This means that in the output for any time step, the displacements will relate to the
current response time while the accelerations effectively lag one time step behind the
displacements
244
Impact Dynamics
Impact Dynamics
In addition to using nonlinear joint models to represent contact and impact, a
specialised procedure is available for modelling impact in dynamic analysis. This
procedure uses a technique, and permits the surfaces of 2D, axisymmetric, and 3D
structures to register and react to contact with one another.
Creep Analysis
Where the relationship between stress and strain is time dependent, a creep analysis
will be required. The creep response is usually a function of the material properties,
stress, strain and temperature history. Unlike time independent plasticity where a
limited set of yield criteria may be applied to many materials, the creep response
differs greatly for different materials.
A creep analysis may be carried out using a linear or nonlinear material model
within a nonlinear, dynamic or thermo-mechanically coupled analysis.
Creep material properties are defined from the Attributes menu > Material >
Isotropic/Orthotropic.
Fourier Analysis
Fourier elements offer an efficient method to solve problems in which axisymmetric
structures are subjected to non axisymmetric loading, provided that the
displacements are small and linear theory applies. The circumferential displacements
and variations of load are expressed as the sum of the components of a Fourier
series, whilst the axial and radial variations are described by the standard finite
element formulation. Each term of the Fourier series is analysed individually and the
results are then combined to provide the overall solution.
Fourier elements can be used to model both solid and thin walled structures; in
particular they offer an ideal method to obtain an initial estimate of the eigenvalues
245
of thin walled structures without the expense of performing a full shell analysis on
the complete structure. The choice between a full structural discretisation using solid
or shell elements and the use of the Fourier element depends upon the number of
Fourier terms that are required to accurately describe the load; if only a few terms
are required then the Fourier element should be considered.
A Fourier analysis can be considered as a generalisation of the standard
axisymmetric analysis. The finite element mesh is defined in the XY-plane and may
be axisymmetric about either the X or the Y axis. Loading is applied to the mesh in
the standard manner using the load case properties, with its circumferential variation
defined using the curve definition. Finally the Fourier components to be computed
are input using the Fourier control as part of the load case properties.
axisymmetric about X axis axisymmetric about Y axis
n=0 v, w=0 n=0 u, w=0

n=1 u=0 n=1 v=0
n>1 u, v, w=0 n>1 u, v, w=0
Supports are defined in the usual manner , with the declaration free, restrained or
spring supports. For the n=0 harmonic the spring stiffness per unit radian must
include a factor of 2p for the implicit integration around the surface. For harmonics
other than n=0 the factor should be p. Certain restrictions are applied to the
freedoms of nodes lying on the axis of symmetry. These conditions, in the table
shown, are automatically imposed on the centreline nodes.
Dynamic, Eigenvalue and Harmonic Response Analyses

A Fourier analysis processes each harmonic individually as they possess their own
unique stiffness, mass and damping matrices and load vector. By selecting just one
harmonic a dynamic, eigenvalue or harmonic response analysis can be executed for
that particular harmonic. The complete structural response can be obtained by
superposing the different results from the selected harmonics.
The Fourier control should specify just one harmonic of a series. The automatic
calculation of the load coefficients from a given load input is suspended and you
must input the appropriate load coefficient; if this is not known it may be obtained
from a static analysis. Note that to represent a global load, the applied load will have
components in both the tangential and the radial directions (see the LUSAS Theory
Manual for details of the loading calculations). Only one load case may be processed.
Inertial Loading
The operation of the inertial loading, input using the CBF load type (body force), is
slightly different to the other standard loads. Inertial loads are calculated from
246
Fourier Analysis
element volumes and applied accelerations. The specification of linear accelerations,

angular velocities and angular accelerations is enough to define the forces acting on
the structures since the element volume and density from which the mass is
calculated are element properties. Depending on the input data, loads are applied for
the n=0,1,2 harmonic components. However, the CBF data must still be associated
with a dummy load curve and must be declared in the first load case.
In addition to the input accelerations, angular velocities and angular accelerations
you can input an offset origin about which the rotations are applied. The local
rotation about the finite element axis of symmetry should not be confused with the
global rotation about the global axes. The local rotation implies that the body is
rotating with respect to the finite element axes, while the global rotation is a rigid
body rotation of the complete finite element model. For further details see the LUSAS
Theory Manual.
Centripetal Load Stiffening

Centripetal load stiffening has been applied to the n=0 harmonic, but there is no
nonlinear stress stiffening contribution.
Special Application to Non-Axisymmetric Structures

In some instances,
the structure may 1
not be truly equivalent
axisymmetric but it
may be desirable to
obtain an 0
approximate Θ Θ
Load curve definition
response from an Turbine
axisymmetric
analysis. An example of this is a turbine where the turbine axis is axisymmetric but
the fan blades are not. The use of the standard Fourier material properties is
inappropriate for the fan blades since the hoop stresses introduced by the element
material model provide significant artificial stiffening. To alleviate this problem the
use of the plane stress material model input using the orthotropic materials
properties is permissible provided that the element is given adequate torsional
restraint. The use of this material model can be thought of as smearing the
individual stiffnesses of the fan blades into an equivalent axisymmetric structure.
For Fourier elements using orthotropic properties, CBF forces are applied using the
associated load curve.
247
If the load curve is input as a series of 1s and 0s this is equivalent to selectively

integrating the internal forces for each fan blade. The scheme is illustrated in the
diagram.
Thermal Problems
If temperature dependent material properties are used the temperature field must be
axisymmetric. For non-temperature dependent materials, a general temperature field
can be input in the same manner as the other element loads. Temperature loads
cannot be used in dynamic or harmonic response analyses. Data from an
axisymmetric thermal analysis can be written to a data transfer file using the
COUPLE WRITE command. This data can then be imported into the Fourier
analysis using the COUPLE READ command; other thermal load data should not be
input.
Post-Processing
Fourier results may be expanded using the Graph Wizard.
Thermal Analysis
Where a solution is required to the quasi-
Application Field Variable
harmonic equation a field analysis may
be performed. The quasi-harmonic Thermal conduction Temperature
equation defines the behaviour of a Seepage flow Hydraulic head
variety of field problems. Some of the Incompressible flow Stream function
more common quasi-harmonic Soap film Deflection
applications, and the associated field
Elastic torsion Warping function
variable, are listed in the table shown
right. Elastic torsion Stress function
Electric conduction Electric potential
Two types of field analysis may be Electrostatics Electric potential
performed using LUSAS:
Magnetostatics Magnetic potential
q Steady State field analysis
q Transient field analysis
Facilities for thermo-mechanically coupled analysis are also available.
The solution of this class of problem follows an identical process to that of the
structural problem. The domain is discretised using a series of field elements,
thermal material properties are specified, thermal loads are applied, and the
equations solved for the values of the field variable at each nodal point. Thermal link
elements or the specification of thermal surfaces determine how heat is conducted,
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Thermal Analysis
convected or radiated across gaps and spaces between different domains. Since the
most common application is that of thermal conductivity, subsequent discussion will
be directed towards this type of analysis.
In field analysis, the standard loading facilities can still be applied, but with slightly
different interpretation. For example, temperatures may be directly prescribed as
boundary conditions; the standard face loading corresponds to the application of a
heat flux to the boundary; concentrated loads are equivalent to a localised inflow or
outflow of heat located at the point of application of the concentrated load; body
force potentials correspond to internal heat generation per unit volume; prescribed
displacements allow temperatures to be specified at nodes.
Steady State Thermal Analysis

In a manner similar to static structural analysis, steady state field analysis assumes
that the loaded body instantaneously develops an internal field variable distribution
so as to equilibrate the applied loads. It should be noted that the use of temperature
dependent material properties or loads renders the problem nonlinear.
For nonlinear field analysis the NONLINEAR CONTROL data chapter is used to
define the iterative strategy. Either modified or standard Newton-Raphson iterations
may be used and should be defined using the ITERATIONS data section. The
CONVERGENCE data section is utilised to provide tolerances for defining steady
state, and either a field norm (temperature equivalent to the displacement norm), or
a residual flow norm (equivalent to the residual force norm) may be used.
Transient Thermal Analysis

Where time effects are significant in a field problem a transient field analysis should
be performed. In a similar manner to structural dynamics, transient field analysis
involves the evolution of a new field variable distribution from a set of initial
conditions via a set of transition states evolving through time.
Transient field analyses are controlled using the TRANSIENT CONTROL data
chapter. The initial conditions of the body must firstly be prescribed. This may be
done by performing the appropriate steady state analysis, which may be linear or
nonlinear.
Linear transient analysis
Integration Scheme beta
Crank-Nicholson 1/2
Euler 0
Galerkin 2/3 (default)
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Integration Scheme beta
Backward difference 1
The transient problem is integrated through time using a 2-point integration scheme.
The type of integration scheme is controlled in the CONSTANTS section of the
TRANSIENT CONTROL data chapter (by specifying the parameter beta). Some of
the more common 2-point integration schemes and their associated beta values are
shown in the table right.
Note. In the limit the final solution should be the same as the steady state analysis
subject to the new loading and boundary conditions; the transient analysis merely
models the thermal inertia in moving from the initial to the final conditions. The
body property which is used to describe this inertia is the effective heat capacity.
When choosing an increment of time, the stability of the incrementation scheme
must be examined. When beta is greater than or equal to 0.5 the solution is
unconditionally stable (the Crank-Nicholson, Galerkin and Backward difference
schemes are of this form).
When beta is between the limits 0 and 0.5 the solution is stable provided that:
where β is the input parameter beta and λmax is the maximum eigenvalue of the
system.
The time step used for implicit algorithms is dependent upon the number of modes
that influence the response of the system. Generally, the major part of the response is
governed by the lower modes so that:
where λ is the minimum eigenvalue of the system.

The Galerkin scheme is recommended since it generally provides good accuracy and
is the least susceptible to oscillations.
Nonlinear transient analysis

For nonlinear transient analysis the backwards difference algorithm must be used
(beta = 1.0). The backward difference algorithm is unconditionally stable, and the
time step length considerations are the same as for linear analyses.
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Thermo-Mechanical Coupled Analysis
For analyses including a phase change, there is either an absorption or release of

energy in order to create or break the molecular bonds. This is modelled by varying
the effective heat capacity in the transient analysis. To do this the material property
of enthalpy is introduced.
Enthalpy, H, is defined as:
where C is the effective heat capacity including the effects of the latent heat of
evolution due to phase changes and ϕ is the temperature. In the material data input
both H and C may be specified. For analyses where phase changes are not
represented, the effective heat capacity value C is used in the calculations.
For analyses where phase changes are represented, tabular input should be used to
define the variation of H with temperature, together with an initial value of C.
Providing a variation in temperature exists at a point, the effective specific heat is
then interpolated from the enthalpy values. If no variation exists, for example, in an
area of the problem that has experienced no change in temperature from the initial
temperature, then the initial value of C is used.
For nonlinear analysis the nonlinear control parameters are used to define the
iterative strategy. The convergence section is utilised to provide tolerances for
defining steady state, and either a field norm (temperature equivalent to the
displacement norm), or a residual flow norm (equivalent to the residual force norm)
may be used.

The flow of heat through a body and the corresponding distribution of temperature is
described by the quasi-harmonic equation; the body geometry is assumed to remain
constant. The displacements of the same body, subjected to various forces, is
described by equations of static or dynamic equilibrium; the temperature distribution
is assumed not to vary with displacement. To include the effect of the change in
geometry in the thermal analysis, and the change of temperature in the static
analysis, requires that this information is separately calculated by the appropriate
analysis and then transferred. This process is known as thermo-mechanical
coupling.
Thermo-mechanical coupling may be sub-divided into two classes depending on the
nature of the problem.
q Semi-Coupled analysis
q Fully Coupled analysis
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In a semi coupled analysis, for instance, the structural response is influenced by the
temperature field, but the thermal response is independent of the structural response,
or vice-versa. In such a case, the thermal analysis is performed prior to the structural
analysis, and either a single or series of nodal temperature tables are created. These
are read during the structural analysis at the required load case or time step.
In a fully coupled analysis, the thermal and structural analyses must be performed
simultaneously with a continuous transfer of information between the two analyses.
For instance, in addition to modelling the influence of the thermal field on the
structural response, the effect of the structural response on the thermal field is
represented. Temperatures are transferred from the thermal to the structural analysis,
and the updated geometry is transferred from the structural to the thermal analysis.
The analyses may be coupled on the incremental or iterative levels (iterative
coupling is machine dependent).
For true full coupling of two nonlinear fields, information transfer has to occur on an
iteration level within each increment, so that in addition to preserving equilibrium of
the local thermal and structural fields, equilibrium of the combined system is
maintained. Iterative coupling is essential for strongly coupled systems, e.g. structure
to structure contact. For weaker thermo-mechanical coupling, information transfer at
an increment level should provide an adequate solution.
Heat dissipated due to plastic work

The heat flux produced due to plastic work can be considered in a coupled analysis.
In this type of problem the structural analysis is started first and the heat dissipated
through elasto-plastic deformation is transferred to a thermal analysis. The nodal
temperatures may then be returned to the structural analysis where they can be used
to produce thermal strains and compute temperature dependent properties. The
following points should be considered when using this facility:
1. The heat flux generated due to plastic work is a function of the time increment
over which the work is done. For a meaningful solution to this type of problem a
dynamic structural and/or a transient thermal analysis should be undertaken.
2. In general, it is recommended that reading and writing to the data transfer file is
carried out at the same point in the analysis. This avoids any inconsistency
occurring between the time of generation of plastic work and the time of
diffusion in the thermal analysis.
3. The thermal softening facility is only valid for nonlinear material models which
allow input of a heat fraction. The heat fraction takes a value between 0 and 1
and represents the fraction of plastic work converted into heat.
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Implementation of coupling
To transfer data between the thermal and structural analyses an external data
transfer file, common to both analyses, is set up and data is transferred as specified
in the COUPLE commands. Only one of the two analyses must open the data transfer
file; for a semi coupled analysis, this must be performed by the first analysis to be
run.
As each analysis proceeds, data may be both written to and read from datasets stored
in the external data transfer file. Each dataset is given an unique referencing
number. In addition to this reference dataset number, if the analysis writing the data
is either transient or dynamic, the current solution time of the analysis is appended
to the dataset. When data is read by either a dynamic or transient analysis, the times
of the datasets are checked to match the current solution time of the analysis. If it is
not possible to exactly match the time of the solution with any one of the datasets,
the data is linearly interpolated from the two datasets which bracket the solution
time. If the datasets do not have time labels, they are read sequentially starting from
the dataset number specified with the COUPLE READ command.
The COUPLE WRITE and COUPLE READ commands initialise the writing and
reading of data to and from the data transfer file. Data may be transferred by
specifying either the increment/step number or the solution time. If the specified
time for the data read or write cannot be satisfied exactly, the data is transferred at a
time as close to the specified time as possible.
Once one of the initial transfer conditions, initialised by the COUPLE READ or
COUPLE WRITE commands, has been fulfilled, further corresponding data transfers
may be initiated by using the INCREMENTAL COUPLE READ or
INCREMENTAL COUPLE WRITE commands.
The INCREMENTAL COUPLE READ and INCREMENTAL COUPLE WRITE
commands operate in a similar fashion to the standard LUSAS data output controls
specified by the OUTPUT command. Data may be input/output on every (n)th step or
at intervals of time. For instance, the specification of nfrrd=5 with the
INCREMENTAL COUPLE READ command will cause data to be read on steps 5
10 15 ... etc. Note, these commands only become active once the corresponding
conditions specified on the COUPLE READ and COUPLE WRITE commands have
been satisfied. Further re-specification of these commands will suspend the operation
of the INCREMENTAL COUPLE READ and INCREMENTAL COUPLE WRITE
commands until the new conditions are fulfilled.
The use of time to label the datasets allows the interpolation between datasets. To
extend this facility to incremental steady state analysis, the concept of pseudo time is
introduced. Using the INCREMENTAL COUPLE READ and INCREMENTAL
COUPLE WRITE commands, a particular time may be associated with each steady
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state solution for both writing to and reading from the data transfer file. The pseudo
time label is calculated as:
( increment number-1 ) * dTime
where dTime is the increment in time defined in the INCREMENTAL COUPLE

READ an INCREMENTAL COUPLE WRITE commands. The transfer of data then
follows the same pattern as previously described for the transient and dynamic
analyses.
For coupled analyses running simultaneously, old datasets may be overwritten to
prevent unnecessary use of disk space. Care should be taken to ensure that enough
datasets are preserved to allow any necessary interpolation. At least two datasets
should be preserved as the analysis progresses.
Permissible element matches for coupled analyses

Element meshes for the thermal and structural analysis must be matched exactly
with elements of similar nodal configurations. It is, however, possible to omit
elements from either mesh without causing a runtime error. In this case the data
transfer from the existing element is simply ignored.
Initialisation of structural thermal field

LUSAS structural elements allow you to input both an initial temperature field and a
current temperature field. The structure is not strained if its current temperature field
is the same as the initial temperature field; variations in temperature, defined by the
current temperature field, from this initial temperature field cause thermal straining.
The nodal temperatures transferred from the thermal to the structural analyses are
read directly into the current temperature field and the thermal strains are then
calculated from the difference between the current and initial fields. The initial field
in this case is zero everywhere unless it is directly input using the TEMP or TMPE
load cases. It is possible to initialise the initial temperature field to the current
temperature field which is read from the data transfer file (see Reading from the
Coupled Analysis in the LUSAS Solver Manual). Further data transfers will be read
into the current temperature field only.
Initialisation of reading and writing commands

To maintain consistency between reading and writing on a specific increment both
data reads and writes are performed at the end of the current increment, i.e. if data is
required for use in the 100th step then it must be read in the 99th step. Similarly, if
data is required to initialise the structural temperature or geometry field, it must be
read on step zero.
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Data transfer between joints and links

The physical nature of the joint and link elements is essentially different. Heat flow
can occur between two unconnected bodies via convection and radiation across the
intervening medium. On the other hand, joint elements introduce stiffness against
displacement, implying a physical connection between two bodies. Whilst both may
be true simultaneously, more usually, only one condition will apply. In these
circumstances it is necessary to introduce dummy joints with springs of zero stiffness
or links with zero conductivity to ensure that the appropriate element data is
correctly transferred.
Simultaneous processing
To run a fully coupled analyses, the command PARALLEL must be inserted into the
coupling command of each analysis. The two jobs are then run. The starting order is
unimportant. The inclusion of the command word PARALLEL in the COUPLE or
COUPLE OPEN command prevents an error occurring if data is not found. Instead
the program will wait until the data is updated by the other analysis.
Iterative coupling
Iterative coupling of the analyses is initiated by setting both the niterr and
niterw parameters in the INCREMENTAL COUPLE READ/WRITE commands.
The analyses continue to iterate until both have converged. The number of iterations
between couplings can be adjusted to offset differences in the rate of convergence of
the two analyses, but this may ultimately lead to excess iterations being performed;
usually the values of both parameters should be set to 1.
The analyses are considered to have converged once one analysis receives
information that the second analysis has converged, and in the next iteration
converges itself. This analysis then proceeds to the next increment. The second
analysis, which converged first, now performs a further iteration. If it converges, it
proceeds to the next increment. However, if the new information causes failure in
convergence it will try to continue to iterate. This will cause termination of the
analysis, since the other analysis has proceeded to the next increment. To overcome
this problem, Option 183 may be set to make both analyses perform an additional
iteration. This is computationally expensive, and in most instances will not be
needed.
Iterative coupling takes place at data transfer points. If both analyses involve time,
both the step size and solution time must coincide for a legal iterative solution.
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Automatic variable time stepping

Automatic variable time stepping is primarily used in a fully coupled analysis where
data transfer takes place on the incremental level. The first analysis sets its time step
according to its current progress. It then proceeds until the next data transfer is due,
at which point it writes its data. The second analysis reads the time of the latest
dataset and calculates a time step that is as close as possible to, without exceeding,
the maximum prescribed time step. This ensures that the time of the solution exactly
coincides with the time of the dataset.
The COUPLE READ and COUPLE WRITE commands must be specified for any
data to be transferred. Since the second analysis data transfer points are controlled by
automatically setting nstepr and the nstepw, any of these values input by the
user will be overwritten after the first data read. timerd, timewt, dtfrd and
dtfwt act independently, and can be specified in the usual fashion. Following any
data read, a new time step will be calculated to take the analysis exactly to the next
dataset.
Pre-Analysis Checks
All Analysis Types
1. Check the consistency of your co-ordinate systems between the finite element
model and any engineering drawing that you have worked from.
2. Check key drawing dimensions against co-ordinates of respective points in the
model.
3. Check the mesh for cracks and voids.
4. Check for correct material properties and assignments.
5. Check for consistent units. e.g. comply with one system of units - N, m, kg, sec is
a consistent set of units but N, mm, kg, s is not! Be careful when factoring forces
and densities to comply with a non-standard set of units.
6. Check for correct orientation of beam properties.
7. Check for correct boundary conditions (loads/supports).
8. Check element thickness against original model data (plates/shells).
9. Check reversed normals for plates/shells/2-D.
10. Check element shapes for aspect ratio, skew, warp, taper, curvature and centrality
of mid-side nodes. Warning messages will be present in the output file for all of
the above.
11. Check for duplicate nodes and elements. Warning messages are given in the
output file.
12. From the LUSAS datafile dialog, (when creating the LUSAS datafile, File >
LUSAS datafile), click on the Output button to check that the LUSAS output
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Post-Analysis Checks
control provides sufficient check-out information in the output file (e.g.

reactions).
13. Carry out a ‘pilot’ analysis on a crude model to check load paths and
equilibrium.
14. Compare your finite element results with estimates of stress and deflection from
hand calculations. This may not always be possible to do very accurately, but a
ball-park figure should always be obtainable.
15. Keep an up to date log book, with adequate plots (including hidden line views) to
cover all parts of the model. Set-up an adequate reference system to select
individual regions of the model. Use the named component facility in LUSAS
Modeller which can be found in the Utilities->Component menu.
Dynamic Analysis Types

1. Obtain an estimate of the first natural frequency of the model by hand
calculations if possible.
2. Preliminary linear static run. It is always best to do this first and no time is really
wasted as the data file can easily be converted for the dynamic analysis.
Non-linear Analysis Types

1. Preliminary linear static run. It is always best to do this first and no time is really
wasted as the data file can easily be converted for the non-linear analysis.
2. It is sometimes advisable to add in non-linear elements in stages. For example in
a material and geometrically non-linear run containing slidelines it would
probably be advisable to start with only slidelines, then add the geometric non-
linearity and finally add the non-linear material effects. In this way you can
ensure that each non-linear procedure is stable before progressing to the next.
Large Runs
1. Estimate disk and CPU resource requirements.
2. Keep a log of analysis runs for future reference. Note information such as
element types, numbers of load cases, frontwidth, file sizes, run-times, etc.
Post-Analysis Checks
All Analysis Types
1. Check reactions for equilibrium.
2. Check magnitudes of displacements and stresses. Compare to hand calculation.
3. Check for matrix conditioning messages (Pivot & diagonal decay). Small pivot
and diagonal decay warning messages are invoked when the stiffness matrix is
poorly conditioned. Diagonal decay means that round-off error during the
257
solution has become significant which could lead to inaccurate results. A poorly
conditioned stiffness matrix is the result of a large variation in magnitude of the
diagonal terms. This could be caused by large stiff elements being connected to
small less stiff elements or elements with highly disparate values of stiffness (e.g.
a beam may have a bending stiffness that is orders of magnitude less than it's
axial stiffness).
A negative pivot in a non-linear analysis usually means that a limit or bifurcation
point has been encountered. However, negative pivots sometimes occur during
the iterative solution (which sometimes means that the load step is too big) but
disappear when the solution has converged. If negative pivots occur and the
solution will not converge then first try reducing the load step.
If the solution still does not converge a limit or bifurcation point may have been
encountered in which case the solution procedure may need to be changed.
Running the problem under arc length control gives the best chance of
negotiating a limit or bifurcation point. A load limit point can also be overcome
by using prescribed displacement loading.
4. Check the LUSAS output file for other warning or error messages.
5. Check adequate mesh density.
6. Check correct average groups for nodal average stress calculation.
7. Check the model summary information available in the LUSAS output file. This
gives the total length, area, volume and mass for the structure together with the
centre of gravity, moments of inertia and resultant applied load at the origin.
Dynamic Analysis Types

1. Check first natural frequency against hand calculation.
2. Check for convergence of the eigenvalue extraction algorithm.
Non-linear Analysis Types

1. Check convergence for non-linear/eigenvalue runs.
Before Calling the Help Desk

The engineers on the support desk will be only too happy to answer any queries or to
help with any problems that may be encountered. However, to identify the cause of a
problem will take time, especially if the analysis is large. Users themselves should
always be the best placed to get to the bottom of any problem caused by 'user error'.
To reduce the time taken in overcoming such problems, users can help themselves by
thoroughly validating their models prior to calling the support desk. This 'self help'
approach educates the user in how to isolate problems so that the time spent dealing
with any future difficulties is minimised or avoided. The consultancy section at FEA
have realised that in the long term thorough checking leads to greater efficiency,
productivity and hence profitability.
258
Before Calling the Help Desk
FEA implement a ‘named user’ system whereby all queries at a particular site are
channelled through one person. This leads to the named user reaching 'expert’ or
‘power user’ status so that he/she is able to answer some queries directly without
phoning the support desk. This potentially could save both the user and support desk
a great deal of time leading to a more efficient support service. Before calling the
customer support desk the following checks should be carried out by users to validate
their models. It is good practice to systematically carry out these checks as a matter
of course whether or not there appears to be a problem with the solution obtained.
q If you encounter a problem do not suppress the data input printout with
Options 44 and 45.
q Read the data input printout! Is the output file echoing the input data that you
think you've specified? You may have missed a number in a line of input data
- in particular check your Material Properties data echo.
q Read any warning messages.
q Check to see if the current bugs/limitations list contains details of any known
bugs which could be causing your problem.
q Carry out your own QA check on your model (see below)
q Check the model output summary.
The checklists outlined in previous sections form part of the QA procedure adopted
by FEA for carrying out analyses for external clients. Users should create their own
set of QA checks which will be particular to the type of analyses for which they are
responsible. The basic items covered in the procedure used at FEA have been listed
to give a general guide as to the sort of checks that should be included in the QA of a
finite element analysis.
With an ever increasing user base the support desk at FEA is becoming increasingly
busy. With the aim of producing a more efficient service, some general pointers are
given as to what information the user should have at hand when calling the support
desk. This information will help the support engineers get to the bottom of your
problem much more quickly:
q The exact text of any warning or error message(s).
q Any numbers associated with system errors.
q Full trace back information, i.e. routine names.
q A copy of the data file causing problems.
q A list of the last commands typed in LUSAS Modeller or a copy of the session
log.
q The contents of LUSAS Modeller error log LUSAS.ERR
q Try to be logged onto the machine when calling or be close enough to the
machine to type in commands suggested by the support engineer.
259
q Have ready full details of the LUSAS Modeller/LUSAS Solver version

numbers in use, the LUSAS Solver version number is written to the header
section of the output file and the LUSAS Modeller version number is written
to the screen as LUSAS Modeller is invoked.
q For complex or difficult to describe problems, fax a simple diagrammatic
representation before calling to aid any discussion.
Superelements
The superelement facility allows a large finite element model to be divided into
smaller, more manageable components or substructures. The superelements are then
added together to form the complete structure. Both linear static and natural
frequency analyses may be performed using superelements. An option also exists to
evaluate the natural frequencies of a large structure from the eigen-solutions of the
individual superelements using modal synthesis.
The superelement facility has the following advantages:
q Cost reduction for re-analysis.
q Better scheduling of computer time by executing several medium size
analyses rather than one large analysis.
q Simpler model generation with individual components which are easier to
check. In the case of user modal data no model generation is required - only
input of the boundary nodes and freedoms.
q Efficient coupling of components which may be analysed by several
organisations.
q Reduced peripheral storage and high speed memory requirements for each
analysis.
A superelement may be defined as an assembly of individual elements together with
a list of exterior freedoms that will represent the superelement once it has been
reduced. This facility is provided in LUSAS under the SUPERELEMENT data
chapter.
Restrictions on use of Superelements

The following general restrictions apply to the use of superelements:
q No nonlinearities (material or geometric) may be present.
q Superelements cannot be generated for Fourier elements.
q Material properties must be constant.
q Superelements are not accounted for in load combinations/enveloping.
260
Superelements
q Superelement generation/recovery is limited to one superelement per analysis

run.
q User modal data must be in the structure global axes.
Using Superelements
Analyses involving superelements may be divided into three basic stages:
q Opening databases and generating superelement data.
q Using superelements or user modal data in an analysis (forming the complete
structure).
q Recovering displacements and stresses within each of the superelements.
The superelements may be generated (SUPERELEMENT ASSIGN/DEFINE) in one
or several analyses and stored in several databases. Once generated, the elements
may be used (SUPERELEMENT USE) in either a static or natural frequency
analysis. At this stage user modal data may be included (SUPERELEMENT
MODAL_DATA) in a natural frequency analysis. The recovery procedure
(SUPERELEMENT RECOVER) permits the displacements, stresses and strains of a
superelement to be recovered. Additional concentrated loads and prescribed
displacements are permitted during the USE pass of an analysis.
Modal Synthesis Using Superelements

Component mode synthesis provides a method of evaluating the natural frequencies
of a large structural system by utilising the eigen solutions of the component parts.
This process involves the component mode reduction of superelement matrices
which are then combined to evaluate the eigen-solution for the complete structure.
Component mode reduction can be performed whilst defining superelement, or as an
updating procedure if the superelement has already been defined. Additional
generalised freedoms (or modal coordinates) are introduced which allow an
enhanced representation of the reduced mass and stiffness for each superelement to
be computed. The number of generalised coordinates to be utilised in the exterior
freedom set for the superelement must be specified together with the modal supports
for the master freedoms. Modal supports may be specified as fixed, free or a
combination of spring stiffness and mass.
Once the component mode reduction has been executed for each superelement the
residual structure can be assembled and the natural frequencies computed. A facility
exists for automatically distributing the mass and stiffness of the residual structure to
each superelement (SUPERELEMENT DISTRIBUTE). This automatic distribution
may be performed before or after natural frequency computations are carried out on
the superelement level. After redistribution the natural frequency of the individual
superelements can be computed more accurately.
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User Modal Data

The reduced mass and stiffness matrices for a component can be computed from the
frequencies and mode shapes defined in SUPERELEMENT MODAL_DATA. These
reduced mass and stiffness matrices can be combined with other element matrices
(obtained from superelements, LUSAS elements or more user modal data) to obtain
natural frequencies of the complete structure.
Superelements
Large finite element models may be divided into smaller, more manageable
components which are then added together to form the complete (or residual)
structure. These components are referred to as ‘superelements’. A superelement may
be defined as an assembly of individual elements together with a list of master
freedoms that will represent the superelement once it has been reduced. The
SUPERELEMENT family of commands provides this facility in LUSAS for linear
static and eigenvalue analyses. An option also exists to evaluate the natural
frequencies of a large structure from the eigen solutions of the individual
superelements using modal synthesis.
In addition a component for which the user modal data (frequencies and
eigenvectors) is available can be utilised to obtain the natural frequencies of a large
structure. This component will be referred to as a user modal superelement. A
detailed explanation of these facilities can be found in the LUSAS Theory Manual.
Analyses involving superelements may be divided into three basic stages:
q Opening databases and generating superelement data.
q Using superelements and/or user modal data in an analysis (i.e. solving the
residual structure). This stage could involve user modal data only if
superelements are not used.
q Recovering displacements and stresses within the superelements.
The superelement data may be generated in one or several analyses and stored in
several databases. Once generated, the superelements may be used in either static or
natural frequency analysis. The recovery procedure permits the displacements,
stresses and strains of a superelement to be recovered. Additional concentrated loads
and prescribed displacements are permitted during the combination pass of an
analysis. In the generation phase, both static and natural frequency analyses of an
individual superelement may be performed to validate the data.
The following restrictions apply to the use of superelements:
1. Only linear analyses may be undertaken.
262
Superelements
q If nonlinear elements are used (e.g. nodal joints, radiation) the initial status is
used.
q Plasticity, creep and damage capabilities are ignored.
q Superelements cannot be generated from Fourier elements.
q User modal data may only be used for natural frequency analyses
2. Material properties must be constant. If temperature dependent properties are
input then the values corresponding to the initial temperature will be used.
3. Superelement generation/recovery is limited to one superelement per analysis
run.
4. When a superelement connects to other non-superelements, the connecting node
locations associated with the non-superelements must have the same relative
locations as originally used in generating the superelement. In addition, the
Cartesian sets for the nodes must coincide.
5. If superelements are used without any standard elements the FREEDOM
TEMPLATE data chapter must be included.
6. If superelements are used that have more freedoms than the standard elements,
and any values are to be prescribed for these freedoms, then the FREEDOM
TEMPLATE data chapter must be included. These values may be defined in
SUPPORT CONDITIONS, CONSTRAINT EQUATIONS, RETAINED
FREEDOMS or LOADCASE data chapters.
7. User modal data eigenvectors must be in the structure global axes.
How to use Superelements

The general approach for using the SUPERELEMENT facility in LUSAS is
explained through a description of input data files required at each stage of a typical
analysis using superelements. The output files provided at each stage are also listed
and their use in subsequent stages of the analysis is defined. The figure on page 267
gives a schematic diagram of a complete superelement analysis together with the
input and output files at each stage.
Creating Superelements
A typical data file for creating superelements would contain SUPERELEMENT
ASSIGN and SUPERELEMENT DEFINE commands. The master freedoms for the
superelement would be specified using the RETAINED FREEDOMS data chapter.
This analysis would then create:
q A superelement database
q An output file
q A restart file (optional)
263
The contents of the files created would depend upon the control parameters specified
under the sub-commands of SUPERELEMENT DEFINE. Only one superelement
can be generated in a single analysis.
Using Superelements in an Analysis

A typical data file for using superelements in an analysis to solve the residual
structure would contain the SUPERELEMENT USE command and may also contain
SUPERELEMENT DEFAULT or DISTRIBUTE commands. These commands
would reference databases created in the superelement creation phase. Additional
elements, boundary conditions or loading may be specified at this stage. This
analysis would then create:
q Superelement result database(s)
q An output file
q A LUSAS Modeller plot file (optional)
Several superelement databases may be used in this stage of the analysis. In addition
user modal superelements may be included to form the residual structure using the
SUPERELEMENT MODAL_DATA command. User modal superelements can also
be used in isolation (see Utilising User Modal Data in an Analysis below). If a
LUSAS Modeller plot file is created it will NOT contain the superelement results.
Recovering Superelement Results

A data file for recovering superelement results using output from the previous
analysis stage would contain the SUPERELEMENT RECOVERY command and
may also contain a SUPERELEMENT DEFAULT command. These commands
would reference output databases created during solution of the residual structure.
This analysis would then create:
q An output file
If the superelement generation restart file is not available recovery may be performed
using the original data file. Only one superelement may be recovered in each
analysis.
Utilising User Modal Data in an Analysis

A typical data file for utilising user modal data in an analysis to solve the residual
structure would contain the SUPERELEMENT MODAL_DATA command. This
command would reference a neutral file containing the component connectivity
264
Superelements
nodes and freedoms, frequencies and references to result files containing the
eigenmodes. Additional user modal data components, elements, superelements or
boundary conditions may be specified at this stage. The analysis would then create:
q An output file
If a LUSAS Modeller plot file is created it will NOT contain the user modal data
results.
A Typical Superelement Analysis

A typical analysis sequence to generate two superelements and use them with a user
modal superelement and a group of LUSAS elements in the residual structure would
be as follows (see figure on page 267):
Generation Phase
Analysis 1 Input Output
define1.dat define1.out
define1.mys (optional)
define1.rst (optional)
define1.sfr (rename to recov1.sfr
or delete)
dbname1.sda

define2.dat define2.out
define2.mys (optional)
define2.rst (optional)
define2.sfr (rename to recov2.sfr
or delete)
dbname2.sda
Solution Phase
use1.dat use1.out
dbname1.sda use1.rst (optional)
dbname2.sda use1.mys (optional)
use1.def dbname1.srs
use1.adp dbname2.srs
265
Recovery Phase
recov1.dat recov1.out
define1.rst recov1.mys (optional)
(optional)
recov1.sfr recov1.rst (optional)
(optional)
dbname1.sda dbname1.srs

recov2.dat recov2.out
define2.rst recov2.mys (optional)
(optional)
recov2.sfr recov2.rst (optional)
(optional)
dbname2.sda
dbname2.srs
The file extensions .sda and .srs relate to superelement data and results databases
respectively. The extension .sfr indicates a file containing the reduced frontal
matrices. If the appropriate .sfr file is accessible during the recovery phase, the
solution is recovered from the back substitution of the equations leading to a more
efficient solution. To take advantage of this facility the .sfr file must have the same
prefix as the data file used in the recovery, i.e. copy define1.sfr to recov1.sfr in above
example. If a superelement restart file (.rst) is not available, recovery may be
performed by redefining the superelement in the datafile (i.e. as in the superelement
creation phase).
Note. The .mys, .rst, .sfr, .sda and .srs files are all binary files. The .dat and the
.out files are ASCII files which can be read and edited directly by the user. The user
modal data files (.def and .adp) are ASCII files.
266
Superelements
dat out dat out
define1 mys define2 mys
def/
dat
rst sfr sda adp sda sfr rst
use1
srs rst out srs
mys
dat
recov1 recov2 dat
mys out rst rst out mys
process (or analysis phase)
ASCII files (extension shown)
binary files (extension shown)
necessary input/output data paths
optional input/output data paths
Main Stages of an Analysis Involving Superelements
267
Component Mode Synthesis Using Superelements

Component mode synthesis provides a method of evaluating the natural frequencies
of a large structural system by utilising the eigen solutions of the component parts.
Additional generalised freedoms (or modal coordinates) are introduced which enable
an enhanced representation of the reduced mass and stiffness to be computed for
each superelement. The superelement matrices are then combined and the eigen-
solution for the complete (or residual) structure is evaluated. More details can be
found in the LUSAS Theory Manual.
The eigenvalues evaluated using this method of analysis will always be an upper
bound on the corresponding exact values of the system. The accuracy of each
eigenvalue and corresponding eigenvector is dependent upon how accurately the
boundary conditions are represented in the eigen-analysis of each of the components.
The component mode reduction can be carried out whilst defining a superelement, or
as an updating procedure if the superelement has already been defined. During this
phase LUSAS calculates the natural frequencies of the superelement. Using this
eigen-solution the reduced stiffness and mass are computed for the superelement, in
terms of the master freedoms and generalised coordinates. For these computations
the required number of generalised coordinates must be defined in the data input.
q Generalised coordinates are extra (fictitious) degrees-of-freedom that are

utilised to enhance the stiffness and mass of the superelement and allow a
more accurate eigen-solution of the residual structure to be computed without
the specification of extra retained (or master) freedoms.
In addition, the modal supports for the master freedoms must also be specified as
‘fixed’, ‘free’ or ‘spring stiffness and mass’.
For many structures the alternatives ‘fixed’ or ‘free’ are not sufficient for accurate
modelling. In order to improve modelling it is possible to:
q Introduce spring stiffnesses and masses on the exterior freedoms to represent
the effects of the remaining structure. This requires you to estimate the
stiffness and mass of the remaining structure.
q Automatically reduce the stiffness and mass of the remaining structure to the
master freedoms. This can be achieved in two ways:
• once the component mode reduction has been carried out for each
superelement the residual structure can be assembled and the natural
frequencies computed. At this stage it is also possible to automatically
distribute the mass and stiffness of the residual structure to each
superelement.
• alternatively the stiffness and mass can be distributed before any natural
frequencies are calculated at the superelement level. Once this
268
Superelements
redistribution has been carried out the natural frequencies of the

individual superelements can be computed more accurately.
Opening Superelement Files

Superelement databases are opened using the SUPERELEMENT ASSIGN
command.
SUPERELEMENT {ASSIGN dbname filename ³ DEFAULT
dbname}
ASSIGN Opens a new superelement database.
DEFAULT Changes the default superelement database.
dbname Internal name of database.
filename External name of file containing database.
Notes
1. If a filename is not provided, the filename will default to dbname.

2. Several superelement databases may be used at any one time. Use of the
DEFAULT option changes the default database for subsequent operations.
3. ASSIGN sets the database defined as the default database.
Superelement Creation
The superelement to be created will contain information on element topology and
usually requires specification of boundary freedoms, loading and reduction options.
The SUPERELEMENT DEFINE command defines the name and title associated
with the superelement.
Superelement Definition
SUPERELEMENT DEFINE defines the superelement name and internal database
that is used to store the superelement information.
SUPERELEMENT DEFINE sname [dbname] [TITLE title]
sname Superelement name.
dbname Internal name of database.
Notes
1. Each superelement in an analysis must have a unique identification name.

2. If dbname is not specified then either:
a. The current default database will be used if available, or
269
b. The database will default to sname if a default database is not available.
Constants
The CONSTANTS data section defines the control parameters for the superelement
creation phase. A list of valid names defines the output required.
CONSTANTS [LOAD] [STIF] [MASS] [STAT] [EIGN]
LOAD Save the reduced load vector.
STIF Save the reduced stiffness matrix.
MASS Save the reduced mass matrix.
STAT Perform a static analysis using superelement.
EIGN Perform an eigen-analysis using superelement.
Notes
1. If the CONSTANTS command is not specified LOAD and STIF will be invoked
by default. However, if Option 90 is set then LOAD, STIF and MASS will be the
default control parameters.
2. If the command GENERALISED COORDINATES is specified the following
default operations will be carried out:
• The reduced mass matrix will be saved.
• An eigen-analysis will be performed to compute the eigenvectors required.
• The enhanced reduced stiffness and mass will be computed and saved.
Output
The OUTPUT command defines the information to be presented in the results output
file.
OUTPUT [MAST] [LOAD] [STIF] [MASS] [DRCO] [CORD]
MAST Master freedom description.
LOAD Reduced load vector.
STIF Reduced stiffness matrix.
MASS Reduced mass matrix.
DRCO Nodal direction cosine matrices.
CORD Nodal coordinates.
Notes
1. By default, only a summary of the superelement data will be provided.
Generalised Coordinates
The GENERALISED COORDINATES command defines the number of generalised
coordinates to be utilised in the exterior freedom set for the superelement. These
270
Superelements
additional freedoms allow an enhanced representation of the superelement mass and

stiffness to be computed thereby providing a more accurate solution when the
residual structure is analysed.
GENERALISED COORDINATES m
m Number of generalised coordinates
Notes
1. If the GENERALISED COORDINATES command is specified an eigenvalue

analysis will be performed to compute max(m,nroot) eigenvalues and
corresponding eigenvectors using either Subspace iteration or Guyan reduction.
2. If the eigenvalue solution method is not specified subspace iteration will be used
by default.
Modal Supports
The MODAL SUPPORT command defines the support conditions for the master
freedoms for local superelement eigen-analysis. This information is also used for
computation of the eigen-modes associated with generalised coordinates. Further
additional master freedoms may be specified for a local eigenvalue analysis using
Guyan reduction.
MODAL SUPPORT [STIF] [MASS]
N Nlast Ndiff < typei >i=1,n < stifi >i=1,n < massi >i=1,n
STIF Stiffness flag.
MASS Mass flag.
N Nlast Ndiff The first node, last node and difference between nodes of
the series of nodes with identical modal supports.
typei Modal support code for each freedom at the nodes. Valid types are:
R - Master freedom restrained.
F - Master freedom free.
S - Spring support for master freedom.
G - Denotes interior freedoms as masters for local eigenvalue analysis
(see Notes).
stifi Stiffness for spring support.
massi Mass for spring support.
n Total number of degrees-of-freedom at the node.
Notes
1. By default, master freedoms are restrained (‘R’) in a local eigenvalue analysis.

2. MODAL SUPPORT has no influence in static analyses.
271
3. Retained freedoms of type ‘G’ should only be specified if Guyan reduction is

being used to compute the eigen-solution of the superelement. The freedoms are
not used in subsequent superelement operations.
4. The FREEDOM TEMPLATE data chapter must be used when MODAL
SUPPORTS are specified.
Using Superelements
Superelements are utilised for two reasons:
q to solve the residual structure
q to redistribute the masses and stiffnesses for eigen-analyses.
The SUPERELEMENT USE command is used in both of these cases.
When solving the residual structure additional elements, loading, boundary
conditions and user modal data may also be added directly with the residual
structure. The residual structure is defined as the combination of the lowest level
superelements. When the residual structure is solved, the displacements relating to
all master freedoms are written to the appropriate superelement database(s).
The masses and stiffnesses of the complete (or residual) structure can be
redistributed to the boundaries of each of the superelements using the
SUPERELEMENT DISTRIBUTE COMMAND (see Distribution of Mass and
Stiffness in Modal Synthesis). In order to do this the residual structure must be
formed by utilising the SUPERELEMENT USE command.
SUPERELEMENT USE sname dbname
sname Name of superelement to be solved.
dbname Database where superelement is stored.
Notes
1. Several superelements may be included in the residual structure.

• the current default database will be used if available, or
• the database will default to sname if a default database is not available.
3. If SUPERELEMENT ASSIGN has not been defined the filename which contains
the superelement database, dbname, will be assumed to be the filename.
4. Additional loads and boundary conditions may only be added to the nodes
specified as masters in the creation phase.
5. Additional load conditions permitted are concentrated loads (CL) only. Elements
loads are not permitted at this stage.
272
Superelements
Utilising User Modal Data

The SUPERELEMENT MODAL_DATA command is used to define modal data for
a component of the residual structure. This command is only valid for natural
frequency analyses.
SUPERELEMENT MODAL_DATA uname
OUTPUT ³MASS}
{STIFF³
uname Name of neutral file containing user modal data.
STIF Reduced stiffness matrix to be output.
MASS Reduced mass matrix to be output.
Notes
1. Several user modal superelements may be included in the residual structure.
User Modal Data Neutral File

The user modal data neutral file (with a file extension .def) has two lines for a title
(packet type 25) followed by two lines for a subtitle (packet type 26 usually date, time
and version). This is followed by the user modal data (packet type 27). This file can
be in free format or in fixed format and the format type is specified on the first line
of the neutral file. The results files (with a file extension of .adp) utilised in this
neutral file must also be in this format.
The file format type for the neutral file and associated result files is specified on the
first line of the neutral file as free or fixed. In free format you can input data in any
column with a spacing between descriptors or numbers. fixed format requires the
numbers to be input in certain columns. If this line is omitted or an unrecognised
format type is encountered free format is assumed.
FORMAT Format (A)
FORMAT
FORMAT = File format type (FREE or FIXED)
The header line for each data packet contains the following information:
HEADER Fixed Format (I2,8I8) or FREE format
IT ID IV KC N1 N2 N3 N4 N5
273
IT = packet (or Entity) type

ID = identification number. A “0” value means not applicable
IV = additional ID. A “0” value means not applicable
KC = line count (number of lines of data after the header)
N1 to N5 Supplemental integer values used and defined as needed.
PACKET TYPE 25: TITLE
25 0 0 1
ID = 0 (n/a)
IV = 0 (n/a)
KC =1
USER TITLE Format (A)
TITLE
TITLE = identifying title, may be up to 80 characters
PACKET TYPE 26: SUMMARY DATA
26 0 0 1
ID = 0 (n/a)
IV = 0 (n/a)
KC =1
SUMMARY DATA Format (A)
DATA
DATA = character string containing Date:Time:Version
274
Superelements
PACKET TYPE 27: USER MODAL DATA
27 0 0 KC N1 N2 N3
ID = 0 (n/a)
IV = 0 (n/a)
N1 = maximum number of freedoms to a node
N2 = total number of boundary nodes i.e. connectivity to residual structure
N3 = number of eigenmodes
KC = 1 + N2 + (N3 + 4) / 5 + N3
TEMPLATE Fixed Format (20A4) or FREE format
FRETYP
FRETYP = freedom types at a node (N1 values specified)
For valid freedom types
NODAL FREEDOM Fixed Format (10I8) or free format
NNODE NF1 NF2 NF3 NF4 NF5 NF6 NF7 NF8

NF9
NNODE = boundary node number - this node must exist in the structure and the
results files
NF1 to NF9 nodal freedoms (results column number in results file) - do not
specify more than N1 freedoms
FREQUENCIES Fixed Format (5E16.9) or FREE format
FREQ
FREQ = natural frequencies for each mode
275
RESULTS FILE Format (A)
EIGFLE
EIGFLE = name of results file for this mode number
- this file contains the mass normalised eigenvectors and can be in
free or fixed format as
specified on the first line in the neutral file, this line is repeated for each
mode
User Modal Data Results Files

The user modal data results file (with a file extension .adp) has one line for a title
followed by a line for nodal information. This is followed by two lines for subtitles,
followed by nodal displacements (a line for each node). This file must be in free or
fixed format as specified in the user modal data neutral file.
RESULTS FILE DATA Format (A)
TITLE
TITLE
TITLE = identifying title, may be up to 80 characters
NODAL INFORMATION Fixed Format (2I9,E15.6,2I9) or free format
NNODES MAXNOD DEFMAX NDMAX NWIDTH

NNODES = number of nodes
MAXNOD = highest node number
DEFMAX = maximum absolute displacement
NDMAX = node number where maximum displacement occurs
NWIDTH = number of result columns after NODID for nodal freedom
displacements
SUBTITLE1 Format (A)
SUBTITLE
276
Superelements
SUBTITLE = identifying subtitle, may be up to 80 characters
SUBTITLE2 Format (A)
SUBTITLE
SUBTITLE = identifying subtitle, may be up to 80 characters
DISPLACEMENTS Fixed Format (I8,5E13.7) or free format (for each node)
NODID (DATA(J),J=1,NWIDTH)
NODID = node number
DATA = nodal freedom displacements
Recovery of Superelement Data and Results

The SUPERELEMENT RECOVER command permits superelement results to be
recovered from the database. This process involves reflation of the reduced solution
for a superelement to obtain the solution of the constituent elements. The
superelement database will contain the displacements relating to the exterior
freedoms computed in the solution of the residual structure. In the recovery stage of
the analysis these displacements will be used to compute internal displacements,
stresses and strains for the superelement.
SUPERELEMENT RECOVER sname dbname
CONSTANTS ³EIGN}
{STAT³
STAT Recover information from static analysis (see Notes).
EIGN Recover information from eigen-analysis (see Notes).
Notes

• The current default database will be used if available,
or
• database will default to sname if a default database is not available.
277
3. If the CONSTANTS command is not specified the results from the most recent
analysis will be recovered.
4. A more efficient solution can be obtained if the appropriate file containing the
reduced frontal matrices is utilised in the recovery stage. These files can be
recognised by the extension .sfr and are produced during the superelement
creation phase. To take advantage of this facility, the previously created .sfr file
must be renamed to fname.sfr, where fname is the name of the data file used in
the recovery. Using this approach the re-assembly of the reduced frontal matrices
is avoided and the solution is achieved directly from the back substitution.
However, it should be noted that the .sfr files are generally quite large and may
require a considerable amount of storage.
Distribution of Mass and Stiffness in Modal Synthesis

Generally, the master freedoms of a superelement are assumed to be either fixed or
free. A better approximation is usually obtained by utilising point masses and
stiffnesses to represent the effects of the remaining structure. This is accomplished
by reducing the mass and stiffness of the residual structure to the boundary nodes of
each chosen superelement. To achieve this, the master freedom codes for each
superelement are modified and a Guyan reduction analysis is performed. This
provides the reduced stiffness and mass from which the superelement stiffness and
mass are subtracted to give the boundary mass and stiffness.
The SUPERELEMENT DISTRIBUTE command specifies that an analysis is to be
performed to distribute mass and stiffness from the residual structure to each
superelement in modal synthesis analysis. The residual structure must be formed by
utilising the SUPERELEMENT USE command (see Using Superelements ) for each
superelement that is to be included.
SUPERELEMENT DISTRIBUTE sname dbname
Notes
1. Several superelements may be included in the residual structure (see Using

Superelements).
2. If dbname is not specified the data will be recovered from the default database
set using the SUPERELEMENT ASSIGN/DEFAULT command.
278

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LUSAS Analysis Types

Standard Stress Analysis

Non Standard Analysis Types

q Nonlinear Analysis where nonlinearity may result from significant

Examples of nonlinear analyses are Creep Analysis and Impact Dynamics.

Analysis types supported during results processing in LUSAS Modeller are as

q Modal Response Transfer function calculations can be carried out in

q Harmonic Response Analysis The behaviour of a structure

q Thermo-Mechanical The thermal and the structural analyses are

Preparing the Model for Analysis

Frontal Optimisation and LUSAS Solvers

Selecting the Frontal Optimiser

q Off turns off frontwidth optimisation.

Selecting the Solver

q Frontal (Direct) Technique this is a direct solution technique based

• Diagonal this pre-conditioning technique should be used for squat

q Iterative Solver Tolerance a measure of convergence from one

Compute Matrix Condition Number care should be exercised when

About Nonlinear Analysis

q Geometric Nonlinearity e.g. large deflection or rotation, large strain, non-

Analysis Type Geometric Nonlinearity Material Nonlinearity

Analysis Type Geometric Nonlinearity Material Nonlinearity

Geometrically Nonlinear Analysis

from significant changes in the

Nonlinear boundary conditions

Materially Nonlinear Analysis

Nonlinear Solution Procedures

Standard Newton-Raphson procedure

Iterative acceleration (line searches)

In LUSAS, iterative acceleration may be performed by applying line searches. In

Constrained solution methods (arc-length)

Note. In certain circumstances, notably in the presence of strain-softening, the

Bracketing critical points and branch switching

q Manual Incrementation where the loading data in each load

Automatic load incrementation

q Uniform Incrementation By default, uniform incrementation will be

according to the iterative performance of the solution. The variation is a

Mixing manual and automatic incrementation

Automatic increment reduction

Use of load curves

Nonlinear Solution Convergence Criteria

q Absolute residual norm

q Incremental Displacement Norm is the sum of the squares of all the

Nonlinear Output Control

The Nonlinear Logfile

q Buckling load analysis A linear analysis which may be applied to relatively

Solving an Eigenvalue Problem

previous results in order to compute the extra eigensolutions thus saving on

Convergence of subspace iteration

for all eigenvalues λi.

Starting Vectors for Subspace Iteration

Using Eigenvalue Shifts

The frequency shift in LUSAS enables the eigenvalues of unrestrained structures to

Guyan Reduced Eigenvalue Extraction

q Manually Using the attribute dataset .

q Automatically Alternatively, a specified number of master freedoms may be

Sturm Sequence Check

Inverse Iteration with Shifts

Convergence of inverse iteration

Centripetal Stiffening Effects

Eigenvalue Buckling Analysis

q An eigenvalue analysis of the stiffness matrix has no physical meaning except