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John Arrived Late Last Night. He Had Had A Terrible Journey. I Wrote To Kay and Told Her What Had Happened
John Arrived Late Last Night. He Had Had A Terrible Journey. I Wrote To Kay and Told Her What Had Happened
A pronoun is a word that can be used in place of a noun or a noun phrase, as the word itself tells us:pro-noun. We
use pronouns like she, he, it and they when we already know who or what is referred to. This saves us from
having to repeat the name or the noun whenever we need to refer to it:
Determiners are always followed by a noun. Pronouns such as some or this followed by a noun function as
determiners when they stand on their own, they function as ponouns:
There are 8 classes of pronouns: personal, reflexive, reciprocal, possessive, demonstrative, relative
interrogative and indefinite pronouns.
1- PERSONAL PRONOUNS
Subject: I you he she it we you they
Object: me you him her it us you them
Though these words are called personal pronouns, they do not refer only to people. Eg : Your breakfast is ready.
It is on the table.
Personal pronouns display a person contrast; that is, they have separate 1st, 2nd and 3rd person forms. Person
distinguishes the speaker or writer (1st person: I, we) from the addressee (2nd person: you) and from those
persons or things which are neither (3rd person: he, she, it, they) E.g.:
If pronouns of different persons are coordinated, the first person comes last and the second person usually comes
first. This ordering is important from the viewpoint of style and courtesy. E.g.:
- You, Jack and I Will go to the rugby match.
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Third person coordinates usually have the masculine before the feminine, the pronoun before the noun phrase. Eg
- He and she were both elected.
- She and another student were both elected
In the third person (he, she, it), there is three-way gender contrast: masculine, feminine and nonpersonal, the
choice of pronouns depends on the noun being replaced.
Personal pronouns agree with the nouns they replace in number, showing us whether they are referring to singular
or plural.
If you see Mary, please giver her this present (singular)
If you see Mary and Tom, please give them this wedding present (plural)
Case in personal pronouns involves a distinction making broadly the grammatical roles of subject and object.
Compare:
The choice of subjective or objective forms does not depend solely upon the strict grammatical distinction
between subject and object. Rather, usage shows that we are concerned more with subject territory (the pre-verbal
part of a clause) in contrast to object territory (the post verbal part of a clause)
EXCEPTIONS
Object pronouns are normally used in reference to subject pronouns after be in everyday speech. Eg
Who is it? It’s me/he/ us
Subject pronouns are not normally used by themselves or in short answers with not. Object pronouns are
used instead. Eg
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She is as old as me
You are taller than him.
However, subject pronouns are used if as or than are followed by subject + verb.
She is as old as Iam/ as he is
The pronoun it
a) Any singular noun phase that does not determine reference by he or she, is referred to by it, thus
collectives and noncount concretes. E.g.
The committee met son after it had been appointed. (collective)
He bought some salmon because it was his favourite food. (noncount)
One used as an indefinite pronoun meaning “everyone/anyone” is sometimes used formally in general
statements:
World trade is improving, but one cannot expect miracles.
In everyday speech, the informal “you” is preferred:
Can you open the door?
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One may be used to replace I, but this tends to sound pompous:
One can be linked with one’s, just as you can be linked with your. However, constructions with one, one’s and
oneself are often awkward because of the repetion of one:
One should do one’s best at all times.
In AmE one’s /oneself can be repaced by his /her, himself/herself.
2- REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
The reflexive pronouns are always coreferential with a noun or another pronoun, agreeimg with it in number,
gender and person.
Verónica herself saw the accident
The dog was scratching itself
He and his wife poured themselves a drink.
By contrast, in:
He and his wife poured them a drink
The indirect object them refers to people other than the subject. The co reference must be within the clause, thus
we have a contrast between:
There are some verbs in English that must be always followed by reflexives. For example, absent, avail, pride,
ingratiate
Other verbs are commonly followed by reflexives. Eg amuse, blame, cut, enjoy, hurt, introduce
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Please, introduce yourself.
Of course these verbs can also be followed by ordinary objects:
We enjoyed the party
The important thing to remember is that this kind are never followed by objects pronouns (me, you, him etc)
When the subject and the object refer to the same person
I’ve cul myself.
Accidentally, I’ve cut John’s fingers.
Reflexive pronouns can occur after prepositions which often follow verbs (look after, listen to) or adjectives
(pleased with). E.g.
Look at yourself
Lucy’s looking very pleased with herself.
By+ reflexive means without help or alone. Eg
He lives by himself
3- RECIPOCRAL PRONOUNS
Each other one another
The reciprocal pronouns each other and one another are used to indcate that two people do the same thing, feel
the same way or have the same relationship. For example, if your friend Paul loves his girlfriend Anne and Anne
loves him back, you can say “Paul and Anne love each other” or “Paul and Anne love one another.”
Reciprocal pronouns are not used as the subject of a clause but as the object of a verb.
We help each other a lot.
4- POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
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Determiner function: my your our his her its their
Pronominal function: mine yours ours his hers its theirs
Compare:
Possessives show possession, i.e., that someone or sometinhg belongs to somebody. They answer the question
Whose?
5- DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
The demonstratives can function as determiners and as pronouns. This/these suggest relative proximity to the
speaker, that/ those relative remoteness. E.g.
We shall compare this/these (picture(s)) with that/those (picture(s)) over there.
But while all can be used as determiners irrespective of the gender of the noun phrase head, as pronouns the
reference must be to nouns of non personal (and usually inanimate) gender.
In the garden I noticed this plastic bag
this kitten
this woman
Occasionally, the demonstratives may be used as pronouns with animate reference where there is ellipsis:
I attended to that patient but not this(one)
The demonstrative can be modified by predeterminers:
She painted all (of) those pictures last year.
The pointing contrast between this/these and that/ those is not confined to spatial perception. While this
morning usually refers to “today”, that morning refers to “a more distant morning”, past or future. More
generally, this/ these have more immediate relevance than that/those. E.g:
These figures have just been complied, those of yours are out of date.
Especially in informal usage, this/ these are used for the speaker’s approval and that/those for disapproval:
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How can this intelligent girl think of marrying that awful bore?
6- RELATIVE PRONOUNS
Relative pronouns comprise two series:
1- Who whom whose which
2- That zero (ø)
Relative pronouns relate to a preceding noun or pronoun and introduce relative clauses. These clauses describe
the noun or pronoun so postmodified (called the antecedent- the word to which the relative clause relates). E.g.:
The man is coming to tea. (well, what man?)
The man who called you yesterday is coming to tea.
Compare:
I’d like to come and see the house which/that/ø you have for sale.
In neither series are there distinctions of person or number, but in (1) we have some distinctions of gender and
case. With who and whom the antecedent must have personal gender, with which it must have nonpersonal
gender, with whose the antecedent is usually personal but can also be nonpersonal. Then:
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7- INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
They differ from relative pronouns in that a) they do not relate to a preceding noun or pronoun, and b) their
antecedent is not within the sentence. Eg
He proposed a motion, which was accepted. (the relative pronoun relates to motion)
I don’t know which they accepted. (the interrogative pronoun relates to something not present in the
sentence)
Whose, who and whom can be used only with reference to items of personal gender. While whom can function
only in the objective case, who can be both subjective and objective except after a preposition. Eg
Who owns this house?
Who(m) does this house belong to?
To whom does this house belong? (formal)
Whose is this house?
When what is used as a pronoun, the questioner assumes that the reference is nonpersonal:
But what and which can also be determiners, and in this function the noun phrase can be personal or nonpersonal,
the difference then being that which assumes a limited choice of known answers:
What doctor(s) would refuse t osee a patient?
Which doctor(s) (of those we are discussing) gave an opinión on this problem?
As determiner, whose retains its personal reference:
Whose house is this?
The distinction between who, what and which is brought out in a set like the following:
Who is his wife? The novelist Felicity Smith
What is his wife? She is a novelist.
Which is his wife? The woman nearest the door.
8- INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
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They are characterized by having a general and nonspecific reference which the term “indefinite” tries to capture.
They are called “indefinite” because we do not always know who or what we are referring to. Equally, they are
characterized by having functions directly involves in expressing quantity, from totality (all) to its converse
(nothing). Reference in some cases involves gender, such that items in body are personal, items in -thing
nonpersonal. Several of the indefinites can function both as determiners and as pronouns, as we shall see in what
follows.
Indefinite pronouns can be divided into universal indefinites and partitive indefinites
a) Universal indefinites
Positive: everyone everything everybody each every all both
Negative: no one nothing nobody none neither no
We may first consider: everybody, everyone, everything; no one, nobody, nothing. These function only as
pronouns and, although they have plural meaning, they take a singular verb.
The party was great. Everyone/ everybody was having a good time.
Two further indefinites are: each and none. They are both able to operate irrespective of gender.
Many members hesitated but each was pressed to act
Is there any sugar? No, there’s none
Are there any bread rolls?- no, there are none.
Prescriptive grammars have tended to insist on the singular verb, but notional concord invites a plural verb,
which tends to be more frequently used and is generally accepted even in formal usage.
Each (but not none) can also function as a dterminer, in which role it is closely paralleled by every:
Each/ every candidate will be individually interviewed.
Where they differ is that each is more targeted on the individual among the totality itself.
With the determiner no which corresponds to none, plural and singular reference is used:
No photography is permitted during the ceremony
There were no passengers on the train.
With all and both, we make plural and dual reference:
The Factory produces luxury cars and all are for export
Police interviewed the two suspects and both were arrested
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These two items also have a predeterminer function:
All these cars are for export
Both the suspects were arrested.
The converse of all is no(ne), that of both is neither, usually with singular verb concord.
Police interviewed the two suspects but neither was arrested.
Neither also has a determiner function:
Neither suspects was arrested.
b) Partitive indefinites
In dealing with the partitives, we must make a primary distinction between (a) those in assertive use, i.e., those
that occur in positive declarative sentences, and (b) those in nonassertive use, i.e., those that occur in negative
and interrogative sentences.
When some and any are used as pronouns, they suaully have clear contextual reference to a noun phrase:
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Compare:
The police did not arrest either (suspect) ( nonassertive)
Assertive forms can be used in nonassertive territory when the presupposition is positive:
Can you see someone in the garden? (= there is someone in the garden; can you see him/ her?
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