Goff Chapter 21- The Americas after World War II

● Beginning in the 1940s - ECONOMIC GOLDEN AGE. U.S. and Canada enjoyed 3
decades of rapid growth and prosperity.
○ By the early 1970s - U.S. and Canada experienced the end of postwar boom.
Reasons: rising foreign competition and federal government spending
beyond its means.
● World War II catapulted national economies out of depressión

The U.S.: An economic Golden Age and Struggles over Freedoms and Rights
● Military Industrial Complex- U.S. economy boomed during WWII, due to the
production of wartime goods.
○ Migration of African Americans from the rural sector.
○ Participation of women in labor force grew. (15k in 1941 to 20k by 1945)
○ Postwar baby boom: incrementation of middle class
● Confrontation with Soviet Union led to the Cold War and a second “Red Scare”1
○ Fear that communists had infiltrated in the highest levels of politics.
● By late 1960s, Civil Right and anti-Vietnam War movements converged with other
social movements (black, latinos, women, gays, youth, environmentalists)
○ Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802: granting equal employment
opportunities for minorities. African Americans saw little improvements in
employment, producing Black rage, beginning in Harlem (1964).
○ Black people (the Brown) were guaranteed equal civil rights, President
Eisenhower began school desegregation.
■ Rosa Parks refused her seat on the bus, leading to her arrest.
■ President J.F. Kennedy was sympathetic but slow to enforce the
Brown decision. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and his nonviolent
approach to civil rights, ‘I have a dream’ speech.
■ Black Panther Party and the Nation of Islam, symbolized by Malcolm
X: rejected nonviolence and focused on cultivating racial pride and
separate cultural and community institutions.
○ Feminist movement issued civil rights
■ Reproductive self-determination: Mass marketing of an oral
contraceptive (“the pill”).
■ 1964 Civil Right Act bans employment and credit bias.

1
Red Scare: Widespread fear of a potential rise of communism, anarchism or radical leftism
 ○ Other social movements: United Farm Workers (Mexican American),
American Indian Movement, The New Left (Students for a Democratic
Society), etc.
○ Many northern whites opposed to the integration of local schools,
neighborhoods, etc.
● Nov 22, 1963 - Assassination of J.F. Kennedy
○ His successor, President Lyndon Johnson: Civil Right Act (1964) banned
discrimination and Voting Rights Act (1965) was issued.
■ New Deal, hoped to lift 50 million poor citizens out of poverty. (As a
result the numbers of families who lived in poverty dropped from:
22% to 13%)
● Expansion of individual civil liberties: poor and uneducated had access to fair
trials. Warren Court: right of free speech and sharper line between church and
state.
● Years 1972-1974 marked a turning point in U.S. economic history, real wages
reached their peak.

Latin America: Reform and Revolution, Poverty and Dictatorship Commented [1]: página 11 está doblada e imposible
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● Roman Catholic Church became concerned with addressing issues of social
justice and economic rights. ‘Poverty was interpreted as a form of structural
violence that could be changed through peaceful collective action’
○ Protestantism gained a firm foothold in large parts of Latin America.
● Early 1970s - most Latin American countries remained under the rule of military
dictatorships. Guerrilla movements emerged.
● The usage of radio and television helped the spread of political populism.
○ Entrenched ruling classes -religion, politicians backed by U.S. government,
landowners- resisted reforms.
○ Fight against international communism to justify their defense of the
status quo.
● Latin America was extremely dependent on U.S.
○ Latin America thought that they should implement high tariffs on imported
manufacturers, to produce a sufficient economic growth to lift them out of
poverty.
○ U.S. economists pressured Latin America countries to focus on the
exportation of raw materials and primary products.
● After 1945- Latin America population increased and it presented high rates of
rural-urban migration.
 ○ Population growth was highest in the poorest areas. (1950s -6 births per
woman, 1970s to 5 births and 1990s to less than 3).
■ Poor living conditions. Lacking sewage and sanitation systems, etc.
Specially in megacities were migration took place: Sao Paulo,
Mexico City, Rio de Janeiro.
● Colombia: dependent on coffee, bananas and other primary export goods. Massive
social conflict “La Violencia” . Battles between Liberal (labor union) and
Conservatives. In 1970s, Colombia became world’s leading cocaine producer.
● Bolivia: dependent on exports of minerals. Separations of groups, but it maintain
with U.S. aid
● Brazil: Kubitschek, brazilian politician, welcomed foreign investment and
industrialization. Government debt mounted.
● Argentina: Perón, illustrates postwar populism in Latin America. Wealthiest,
urbanized, industrialized and literate country. Economy dependent on exports of
meat and grains. Opposition viewed among military, landowners and Church.
● Cuba: Cuban Revolution of 1959, formal independence thanks to U.S. help.
○ Batista dictatorship against to nationalist guerrilla movement led by Fidel
Castro.
○ Cuba and Soviet Union signed a trade agreement. Complications in the
contract lead to a cold war between U.S. and U.S.S.R.
■ U.S. wished to maintain control over Cuba. Nationalizing refineries
and government control of over 85% of its economy lead Castro to
proclaim their independence.
■ Miami became the headquarters of the anti-Castro Cuban exile
community.
● Cuban intolerant government, but it made major strides in
education, housing, nutrition and health care.
● Che Guevara went to Bolivia to put into practice his theory of
revolution.
Canada in the Postwar Era
● Antipathy toward the Soviet Union. Helped the U.S., allowing them the
construction radar post during Cold War.
○ By the Dominion’s government, Canada distanced itself from the U.S.-led
war in Vietnam.
○ Canada’s rural population declined, urban population made the public
sector employment rise.
○ Canada received a continuous stream of immigrants from across Europe,
but also Asia, India subcontinent and Latin America.
Goff Chapter 22 - Asia in the Aftermath of World War II

Consequences of World War II

● It left tens of millions of people dead.
● Asians started demanding domestic and national independence.
● Japan freed all western colonies in east India.
● Japan: “The leader of Asia, the light of Asia, the protector of Asia”.
● WWII changed power in Asia: Japan was under military occupation and China won
international status, it gained equality with other countries in the United Nations.
● The USSR gained benefits because it entered war with Japan at the end of WWII.
● The communist government in North Korea, China Communist allies spread. USA,
worried, sought measures. Asia became key to the cold war.
The United States Remakes America
● After WWII, Japan wanted to change. The USA made sure it followed a Western
orientation.
● The US occupation (1945-1951) lead Japan to prosperity. Unlike Germany, Japan
maintained its government and emperor supervised by Supreme COmmander for
the Allied Powers (SCAP).
● Their feeling of nationalism was shattered and did not wish to return to an
Imperial government. USA wanted to restructure the government with democracy.
The new government and prosperous economy made Japanese not find
Communism attractive.
● USA gave food aid which prevented starvation. They created a new political
structure and a new constitution. 200,000 former military officers and industrialist
were forbidden to continue their jobs; this lad to
● Declaration of Humanity of 1946: The emperor was a stabilizing force but
renounced his divine status on nationwide radio.
● General Douglas MacArthur (The SCAP) supervised the new constitution and was
promulgated in 1947. It contained elements from US constitution, Declaration of
Independence, British Parliamentary. Some rights: Sovereignty, women’s vote,
bicameral legislature (national Diet), it renounced war and military forces.
● A communist victory in China in 1949, and the Korean War made Japan more anti-
communist and led to a quickly occupation by US.
○ The occupation ended in 1952 with a security treaty. It made Japan a USA
protectorate. Until the 1980’s japan didn’t spend money on military.
● “Yoshida years”: Yoshida Shigeru worked with MacArthur to rebuild Japan
focusing on economy and government.
 ● Economic changes
○ USA gave 1 billion dollars for recovery.
○ Land reform: limit on ownership.
○ Reduced rent
○ Breakup of the zaibatsu: Ten families who owned companies and
industries, whose stocks were sold to the public.
○ Abolished laws restricting labor movement and trade unions.
○ The educational system changed from 6 to 9 years; more democratic
principles and girls were more allowed to study.
○ Opened a world trade order.
○ Brought population growth under control.

The Triumph of communism in China

● Consequences of WWII: 30 million deaths, a trillion US dollars of lose.
● The party KMT was deteriorating and the CCP (Chinese communist party) was
gaining control. The latter expanded its guerilla warfare to control the resistance
forces.
● USA gave aid to the KMT. When the US realized the strength of the communist
party, it tried to give a solution of the KMT-CCP conflict. Its mistake was that it
believed both parties as equals to democrats and republicans, and asked them to
come together. Neither party trust the USA.
● In 1949 the CCP won the civil war. The factors were
○ The Japanese invasion until 1945: after the KMT took the lands from the
Japanese, its military force was spread.
○ A crumbling KMT government: 8 years of war with japan lead to the
destruction of economy.
○ The communist showed great military discipline, high morale and coherent
leadership.
■ It reverted violent land reforms and moderated them in some areas.
It promised the poor similar changes for all china.
○ The USA economic and military aid to KMT and its withdraw led to its
collapse.
○ The USSR didn’t agree with the CCP, but it helped by timing its withdrawal
from Manchuria which helped the CCP capture Japanese troops, by
providing sanctuary in North Korea and the USSR, and by rallying
international support.
○ On October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the People’s Republic of China.
● Changes to China after the CCP triumph
 ○ New marriage and divorce laws to give women rights.
○ Frequent meetings to learn Marxist ideology. Citizens were also to study
Mao’s thoughts and repeat his sayings.
○ Arts and culture were strictly controlled. There were propaganda.
○ It followed soviet economic style: the five year plan (53-57) to build industry
and collectivize agriculture. The second five year plan was changed to the
Great Leap Forward. It involved mass mobilization of labor and established
communes. It brought total disaster: people were exhausted; there was
starvation. Economists estimate 66 billion lose, demographers e*
stimate 30 million people dead.
● It united with USSR for economic aid and needed to stall western intervention.
● Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance was signed in 1950 and Stalin gave
civilians and military experts to help China modernize its armed forces,
infrastructure and industries.
Decolonizing Asia
WWII ended all empires in Asia. Colonial powers found that they couldn’t hold the rise of
Asian Nationalism. In 1947, Britain departed from India.
● India:
○ In 1939 Britain declared war against Nazi Germany and in 1941 against
Japan, on its behalf and on its colonies’ behalf. Most indians aided Britain.
○ Indian industries grew more rapidly in WWII than in any other period to
meet iron and steel demands.
○ Britain promised India’s independence after the war.
○ In 1945, the Labour Party came to power and wanted to grant India
independence. Hindu-Muslim antagonism led to Muslims to have a
separate state.
○ In 1948, India became a sovereign nation within the British Commonwealth
of Nations, as Muslim declared their independence as Pakistan.
○ Gandhi wanted peace but was assassinated in January 30, 1948 by an Hindu
extremist.
○ Prime Minister Nehru found governing India difficult.
■ One problem was how to feed a growing population.
■ Other problem was language barrier. The 1950 constitution recognize
16 official languages.
■ The national government was modeled after the British parliament
system.
■ It encouraged industrial development, Nehru opted a mixed
economy: the government owned some industries and the others
 were private. He later launched his five year plan. The objective was
to rise low living standards.
■ Many laws were passed which gave women equality in marriage,
divorce and inheritance.
● Pakistan
○ It is divided in two, east and west, and are separated by 1000 miles. They
had very little in common.
○ A year after independence, Jinnah, the father of Pakistan, died of cancer. In
1953, his successor was assassinated. This left Pakistan with political
instability.
○ It received military and economic aid from USA.
● Indochina
○ It was a french colony.
○ The struggle for independence centered in Vietnam. Ho chin, communist
vietnamese, help nationalist movements and a guerrilla. A war between
France and Indochina voke in 1954, which led to its independence.
● Southeast Asia
○ They recieved aid from USA and France.
○ Some problems after their independence were:
■ Ethnic and religious minorities who disliked the government.
■ There was corruption because poverty, political inexperience and
traditional attitues.
The cold war in Asia
● After the outbreak of the Korean War and China’s participation, US was
preoccupied with the spread of communism. This led to the division in two
countries.
● The Korean War was to restore an independent Korea. In the North, the soviet
union established a communist state. In the South, the US helped establish a
democratic government.
● In 1950, the North attacked the South. President Trumman, committed troops to
the defence of South Korea. The UN condemed North Korea.
● MacArthur drove North Koreans out of the South. Stalin wanted the South to be
communist to dimished the power of Japan. Stalin helped China to save North
Korea. An armistice was signed in 1952, after Stanlin’s death.
● 4 million people died.
● The USA helped to modernize South Korea and to stimulate capitalism.
● North Korea became a monocracy. It had helped from USSR and China,
nevertheless, South Korea was economical ahead by the 1960’s.
Anticommunism
● USA made alliances with Japan, Philippines, south Korea, Taiwan. They were
reinforced by the South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) and made a link
with France, Great Britain, Australia, New Zealand.
Latin America after WWII
● 1959 - Present Latin America
○ Expanding middle and urban industrial working classes
○ Woman won suffrage
○ Military ruled major nations until 1980s
○ Widespread poverty and inequality
○ “Pink Tide” elected leaders that were left-ish
○ ISI: Import substitution industrialization (ISI) is a trade and economic
policy which advocates replacing foreign imports with domestic
production. (Failed by 1980s)
○ After 1973 most became free market economies
Revolutions:
● Cuba:
○ 26th of July Movement - Fidel Castro - overthrew Batista
○ 1961: Bay of Pigs, Cuba defeated US cuban exiles
○ 1962: US & USSR tension over military base
○ Embargo by the US
● Nicaragua:
○ Major upheavals after WWII, guerrilla wars
○ Sandinista National Liberation Front overthrew Anastasio Somoza (1978 -
1979)
○ Had various women leaders, was the only leftist revolution to lose control
through fair elections
○ The rival of the SNLF were the Contras
○ Economic blunders by the military
● El Salvador:
○ Leftist insurgency nearly won control in the 1980s
○ Problems date back to 1930ss to the dictatorship of Maximiliano Hernandez
who slaughtered 30,000 rurals, overthrown in 44
○ 1972 - First “Open” elections
○ 1984 wins the presidency José Napoleón Duarte
○ Civil war - guerrilla groups in 1960’s (FMLN - ARENA)
○ 1989 - elected right conservatives to obtain peace
● Guatemala:
○ 1944, Jorge Ubico (1930 - 44) was overthrown by reformist group
○ 1954, US CIA sponsored revolt by Coronel Carlos Castillo
○ 1960s guerrilla groups, killing of indians, genocide
○ 1996, accord with rebels
 ● Perú:
○ 3 revolutionary movements:
■ 1968 - reformist military officers, far - reaching reforms
■ 1980s and 1990s violent guerrilla organizations
● Sendero Luminoso: Abimael Guzmán “Fourth Sword of
Marxism”
● Violence, extremely disciplined regime, strength from young
people
■ Defeat of guerrillas and elected dictatorship - Alberto Fujimori,
wanted peace and economic growth
● Colombia:
○ Long struggle with guerrillas/long history of bloody - civil wars
○ Overthrow of dictator Gustavo Rojas (1957)
○ National Front (Liberals & Conservatives against guerrillas)
○ Guerrillas again - M19, FARC (marxist insurgency)

The Tyrannies:
Mid 1960s to 1980s power more related to the right, military governments, most often
illegally put in power
Support from armed forces
Police structure of well - educated technocrats to operate governments “bureaucratic
authoritarianism”
Economic development through foreign investment
● Brazil:
○ First military government: General Humberto de Alcancar Castello and
General Artur de Casta - 1964
○ Limited civil rights
○ Wage suppression - foreign investment economic development
○ Achieved democracy in 1985
● Argentina:
○ After the overthrow of Juan Perón in 1955 - decades of alternating military
government
○ Juan Carlos Onganía 1966 - expulsion of leftists from universities
○ Guerrillas, kidnappings by the “Montoneros”
○ Perón comes back but dies suddenly, his wife is elected
○ Darkest chapter in Argentinian history (1976 - 1983) with Jorge Videla: no
laws, only torture and murder, “desaparecidos”
○ War with Great Britain over the Malvinas, Argentina loses of course wtf
 ● Chile
○ The tyranny that emerged in Chile during the 70s was as shocking as the
one in Argentina but lasted a decade longer
○ Socialist Salvador Allende is elected in 1970 - first elected socialist head of
state in America, promising start but ended tragically
○ Unable to rein the most radical factions of his coalition, lost support of the
middle classes and the military
○ Military rebellion in 1973, Allende dies
○ Augusto Pinochet led the coup and obtained power, eliminated the Left,
imprisoned, tortured and murdered thousands.
○ Pinochet closed congress and outlawed political parties and labor unions -
16 years of dictatorship

The Exception - Mexico:

● Military played a subordinate role
● Single - party political system, yas PRI yas
● The regime used selective violence and patronage to remain in power
● 1940s to 1960s - economic growth, prosperity
● 1960s, PRI lost touch with common folk, protests and massacre in 1968
● Oil reserves in 1970s maintained economic growth but mismanagement and
corruption squandered the oil revenues
● The PRI continued to elect presidents through 2000, when PAN got into power

Resurgent Democracy and the “Pink Tide”

● Latin Americans freed themselves from right-wing tyrannies, they all ended by
the mid - 1990s.
● Return to free - elections did not bring about immediate amelioration of the harsh
conditions many Latin Americans endured.
● Some nations turned to the left
● New leftist leaders: Venezuela’s Hugo Chávez, Ricardo Lagos and Michelle
Bachelet in Chile, Luiz Inácio “Lula” da Silva in Brazil - “Pink Tide” leftward trend.
● Hugo Chavez started his regime on a positive note - lowered poverty rate and
provided education but inflation remained
● The country continued to be at the mercy of erratic oil prices; Chávez pushed
through a number of political reforms that concentrated power in his hands and
limited the opposition
 ● Latin American political leaders who came from the socialist and communist Left
remerged and alleviated extreme inequalities. A left of center coalition ended
Pinochet’s regime in Chile, reduced poverty and grew the economy
● In Uruguay, Tabares Vàzquez won with the support of the old Left. Then José
mujica, a former guerrillero, won elections
● Alejandro Toledo, also from the left, solved many of the countries problems after
Fujimori in Peru, then they came back to the right
● No one touched or altered neoliberal economic policies
● New wave of Left politics: Lula de Silva in Brazil, socialist reforms, founded the
Brazilian Workers party
● Most obvious old-line populist to emerge in the Pink Tide was Néstor Kirchner in
Argentina, rescued Argentina from the economic crisis and employed many
● The most radical emerging left leader was Evo Morales from Bolivia, first elected
indigenous president, fucked up, became poor
● Democratization has proven inefficient in Latin America, the Left has maintained
a strong commitment to democracy
● The Left has not surged to power everywhere in Latin America; Colombia, El
Salvador, Guatemala, Nicaragua, México

The Struggle for Control of Everyday Life

● Latin Americans retain their sense of locality, saving the nation - state
● Strong sense of local governance and tradition in the Peruvian highlands - the
Shining Path alienated much of the countryside and intruding on local
prerogatives but local organizations brought together to protect villages
● Mexico: PRI lost power in 2000 partly because of its unresponsiveness to local
needs
● Migration to urban cities resulted in slums barrios and squatter settlements
● The end of tyranny and the resurgence of democracy gave new life to local
autonomy

Indigenous Political Movements

● Since 1990 there was a rise in indigenous political movements, taken up the
struggle to enhance local autonomy and preserve their traditions
● Indigenous people comprise 11% of Latin America’s population, 60 million -
majority in Bolivia and Guatemala
● Most famous effort took place in Mexico in 1994 when the Zapatista Army of
National Liberation (EZLN) rebelled in Chiapas against NAFTA
● New political movements (Movement to Socialism) MÁS in Bolivia
 ● Throwback to the struggles of the nineteenth and early twentieth century

The New Global Economy

● Three general strategies to achieve economic development after democracy began
again:
○ Promote and diversify exports, by finding new primary products or by using
the advantage of inexpensive labor costs to manufacture goods
○ Import substitution industrialization:
■ Two versions:
● Set forth by democratic governments
● Set forth by military dictatorships
○ Neoliberalism, adopted after policymakers declared ISI a failure, new
markets and removed governments from dictating the economy

● Both export enhancement and ISI required extensive government involvement,

costly importation, heavy foreign borrowing, massive foreign investment
● Poverty limited domestic markets, stopping development based on ISI
● Major problems hampered sustained economic growth in the post-1959 era.
○ Volatile cycles of booms and busts because dependence of external
markets, capital and technology
○ Steep inflation
○ Foreign debt
○ World petroleum crises
● Remittances (migradollars) have enormous economic impact, in Mexico it
constitutes the third-largest source of income after oil exports and tourism
● Diversification allows countries to not suffer as badly from the swings of the world
economy