PART 3 AC

AC CIRCUITS
I. BASIC AC THEORY

1. ALTERNATING CURRENT

 A current that is constantly changing in amplitude and direction

 Either as a voltage switching polarity or as a current switching direction back
and forth

Advantages of AC:

 Magnitude can easily be changed (stepped-up or stepped-down) with the use

of a transformer
 Can be produced either single phase for light loads, two phase for control
motors, three phase for power distribution and large motor loads or six-
phase for large scale AC to DC conversion

2. AC WAVEFORMS

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3-2 AC CIRCUIT

Parameters of Alternating Signal

 Period (T) – the time of one complete cycle in seconds.

 Frequency (f) – the number of cycles per second (Hertz)
a. 1 cycle/second (cps) = 1 Hertz (Hz)
b. Proper operation of electrical equipment requires specific frequency.
c. Frequencies lower than 60 Hz would cause flicker when used in lighting.

 Wavelength (λ) – the length of one complete cycle

 Propagation Velocity (v) – the speed of the signal
 Phase(ø) - an angular measurement that specifies the position of a sine
wave relative to a reference

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AC CIRCUIT 3- 3

1 v
f= λ=
T f

The Sinusoidal Wave

 is the most common AC waveform that is practically generated by

generators used in households and industries
 General equation for sine wave:

a(t) =Amsin(ωt + ø )

where: a(t) – instantaneous amplitude of voltage or current at a given time(t)

A m– maximum voltage or current amplitude of the signal
ω – angular velocity in rad/sec
- 2πf
t – time (sec)
ø – phase shift ( + or – in degrees)

Measurements of AC Magnitude

 Amplitude - height as depicted on a graph over time. An amplitude

measurement can take the form of peak, peak-to-peak, average, or RMS
quantity.
 Peak amplitude - the height of an AC waveform as measured from the zero
mark to the highest positive or lowest negative point on a graph. Also known
as the crest amplitude of a wave.

 Peak-to-peak amplitude - the total height of an AC waveform as measured

from maximum positive to maximum negative peaks on a graph. Often
abbreviated as "P-P".

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3-4 AC CIRCUIT

 Average amplitude - the mathematical "mean" of all a waveform's points over

the period of one cycle. Technically, the average amplitude of any waveform
with equal-area portions above and below the "zero" line on a graph is zero.
However, as a practical measure of amplitude, a waveform's average value is
often calculated as the mathematical mean of all the points' absolute values
(taking all the negative values and considering them as positive).

Avehalf wave = 0.636 Am Avesine wave = 0

 "RMS" stands for Root Mean Square (effective value) - a way of expressing
an AC quantity of voltage or current in terms functionally equivalent to DC.

RMSsine wave = 0.707 Am

 Crest factor of an AC waveform - the ratio of its peak (crest) to its RMS value.
 Form factor of an AC waveform - the ratio of its peak (crest) value to its
average value.

3. AC QUANTITIES

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AC CIRCUIT 3- 5

a. Resistance(R)

 Opposes the AC current similar to DC circuits

 Opposition offered by resistors

b. Reactance(X)

 Depends on the AC frequency of the AC source which is the opposition to

current due to inductance and capacitance

Inductive Reactance (XL)

 the property of the inductor to oppose alternating current.

XL = 2πfL

Inductive Susceptance (BL)

 reciprocal of inductive reactance

1 1
BL= BL =
XL 2fL
Capacitive Reactance (Xc)
 the property of a capacitor to oppose alternating current

1
Xc =
2fC

Capacitive Susceptance (BC)

 reciprocal of capacitive reactance

1
BC = BC = 2 fC
XC

c. Impedance (Z)

 Total opposition to the flow of Alternating current

 Combination of the resistance in a circuit and the reactances involved

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3-6 AC CIRCUIT

Z = R + jXeq Z = IZI  ø

 X eq 
Where: IZI = R 2  X eq2 ø = Arctan  

 R 

Phasor Diagram of Impedance

If I = Im  is the resulting current drawn by a passive, linear RLC circuit from a

source voltage V = Vm  , then

V Vm
Z= = = Z 
I I m 

X
Zcos  + jZsin  = R + jX = R 2  X 2  tan
1
R

Vm
Where: Z= = R 2  X 2 = magnitude of the impedance
Im

     = tan-1
X
= phase angle of the impedance
R

R=Zcos  =active or real component of the impedance

X = Zsin  = reactive or quadrature component of impedance

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AC CIRCUIT 3- 7

d. Admittance (Y)

 The reciprocal of impedance

 Expressed in siemens or mho (S)

Im
Y=    = Y  y = Ycos  y + jYsin  y = G + jB
Vm

B
G2  B2  tan -1
Y= G

Im 1
Where: Y= = G2  B2 = =magnitude of the admittance
Vm Z

B
 y   
= =tan G = phase angle of the admittance
-1

G=Ycos  y =conductive/conductance component

B = Ysin  y = susceptive/susceptance component

II. AC CIRCUITS

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3-8 AC CIRCUIT

1. AC Resistor Circuit

Impedance(Z) = R

With an AC circuit like this which is purely resistive, the relationship of the voltage
and current is as shown:

 Voltage (e) is in phase with the current(i)

 Power is never a negative value. When the current is positive (above the
line), the voltage is also positive, resulting in a power (p=ie) of a positive
value
 This consistent "polarity" of power tell us that the resistor is always
dissipating power, taking it from the source and releasing it in the form of
heat energy. Whether the current is positive or negative, a resistor still
dissipates energy.

2. AC Inductor Circuit

Impedance(Z) = jXL

 The most distinguishing electrical characteristics of an L circuit is that current

lags the voltage by 90 electrical degrees

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AC CIRCUIT 3- 9

 Because the current and voltage waves are 90 o out of phase, there are times
when one is positive while the other is negative, resulting in equally frequent
occurrences of negative instantaneous power.
 Negative power means that the inductor is releasing power back to the
circuit, while a positive power means that it is absorbing power from the
circuit
 The inductor releases just as much power back to the circuit as it absorbs
over the span of a complete cycle.

Review Question: Determine the opposition (Z) of the inductor in the circuit below
with respect to the phase angles of voltage and current:

Solution:

XL of 10mH at 60 Hz: XL=2  fL= 3.7699 

E 10
I= = = 2.6526
XL 3.7699

Voltage 10 90 .
Opposition = = = 3.7699  90 . 
Current 2.6526 0 .

REVIEW:

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3-10 AC CIRCUIT

 Inductive reactance is the opposition that an inductor offers to alternating

current due to its phase-shifted storage and release of energy in its magnetic
field. Reactance is symbolized by the capital letter "X" and is measured in
ohms just like resistance (R).
 Inductive reactance can be calculated using this formula: XL = 2πfL
 The angular velocity of an AC circuit is another way of expressing its
frequency, in units of electrical radians per second instead of cycles per
second. It is symbolized by the lower-case Greek letter "omega," or ω.
 Inductive reactance increases with increasing frequency. In other words, the
higher the frequency, the more it opposes the AC flow of electrons.

3. AC Capacitor Circuit

Impedance(Z) = -jXC

 The most distinguishing electrical characteristics of an L circuit is that current

leads the voltage by 90 electrical degrees

 the current through a capacitor is a reaction against the change in voltage

across it
 A capacitor's opposition to change in voltage translates to an opposition to
alternating voltage in general, which is by definition always changing in
instantaneous magnitude and direction. For any given magnitude of AC
voltage at a given frequency, a capacitor of given size will "conduct" a certain
magnitude of AC current
 capacitors "conduct" current in proportion to the rate of voltage change, they
will pass more current for faster-changing voltages (as they charge and

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AC CIRCUIT 3- 11

discharge to the same voltage peaks in less time), and less current for
slower-changing voltages.
 the phase angle of a capacitor's opposition to current is -90 o, meaning that a
capacitor's opposition to current is a negative imaginary quantity

REVIEW:

 Capacitive reactance is the opposition that a capacitor offers to alternating

current due to its phase-shifted storage and release of energy in its electric
field. Reactance is symbolized by the capital letter "X" and is measured in
ohms just like resistance (R).
 Capacitive reactance can be calculated using this formula: X C = 1/(2πfC)
 Capacitive reactance decreases with increasing frequency. In other words,
the higher the frequency, the less it opposes (the more it "conducts") the AC
flow of electrons.

4. SERIES Resistor-Inductor Circuit

Impedance(Z) = R+jXL

1 R  jX L
Admittance(Y) = =
R  jX L R 2  XL 2

 For a series resistor-inductor circuit, the voltage and current relation is

determine in it’s the phase shift. Thus , current lags the voltage by a phase
shift (  )

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3-12 AC CIRCUIT

XL e
Phase shift(  ) = Arctan ( ) I Z I = R 2  XL 2 =
R i

REVIEW:

 When resistors and inductors are mixed together in circuits, the total
impedance will have a phase angle somewhere between 0 o and +90o. The
circuit current will have a phase angle somewhere between 0 o and -90o.
Series AC circuits exhibit the same fundamental properties as series DC
circuits: current is uniform throughout

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AC CIRCUIT 3- 13

5. SERIES Resistor- Capacitor Circuit

Impedance (Z) = R – jXC

1 R  jXc
Admittance (Y) = = 2
R  jX C R  Xc 2

 For a series resistor – capacitor circuit, the voltage and current relation is
determined by the phase shift. Thus the current leads the voltage by an
angle less than 90 degrees but greater than 0 degrees

Xc e
Phase shift (  ) = Arctan ( ) I Z I = R 2  Xc2 =
R i

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3-14 AC CIRCUIT

6. PARALLEL Resistor – Inductor

1
Z parallel =
Admit tan ce(Y )

Y = G - j  L where: G – conductance = 1/R  L = susceptance = 1/XL

E
Z= , by Ohm’s Law
I

 The basic approach with regards to parallel circuits is using admittance

because it is additive

REVIEW

 When resistors and inductors are mixed together in parallel circuits (just as in
series circuits), the total impedance will have a phase angle somewhere
between 0o and +90o. The circuit current will have a phase angle somewhere
between 0o and -90o.
 Parallel AC circuits exhibit the same fundamental properties as parallel DC
circuits: voltage is uniform throughout the circuit, branch currents add to form
the total current, and impedances diminish (through the reciprocal formula) to
form the total impedance

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AC CIRCUIT 3- 15

7. PARALLEL Resistor – Capacitor

Y = G + j  c where: G – conductance = 1/R

 c = susceptance = 1/XC

REVIEW

 When resistors and capacitors are mixed together in circuits, the total
impedance will have a phase angle somewhere between 0 o and -90o.

Review Question

1. Compute for the total impedance of the following SERIES RLC circuit?

Solution:
 Convert individual components to their equivalent impedances:

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3-16 AC CIRCUIT

 Since this is a series RLC, the total impedance (Ztotal) is the sum of individual
impedances

Z total= ZR + ZL + ZC

Z total = ( 250+ j0 ) + ( 0+j245.04 ) + (0 – j1.7684K)

Z total = 250-j1.5233k = 1.5437k  -80.680 . ohms

Analysis:

 Although impedances add in series, the total impedance for a circuit

containing both inductance and capacitance may be less than one or more of
the individual impedances, because series inductive and capacitive
impedances tend to cancel each other.

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AC CIRCUIT 3- 17

III. POWER in AC Circuits

1. APPARENT POWER(S)

 Represents the rate at which the total energy is supplied to the system
 Measured in volt-amperes (VA)

S = VrmsIrms = Irms2 I Z I

 It has two components, the Real Power and the Capacitive or Inductive
Reactive Power

Power Triangle

Complex Power
S = P ± jQ

2. REAL POWER (P)

 The power consumed by the resistive component

 Also called True Power, Useful Power and Productive Power
 Measured in Watts (W)
 It is equal to the product of the apparent power and the power factor
P = Scos 

Power Factor

 Cosine of the power factor angle(  )

 Measure of the power that is dissipated by the circuit in relation to the
apparent power and is usually given as a decimal or percentage

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3-18 AC CIRCUIT

Pf = cos 
P
 Ratio of the Real Power to the Apparent Power( )
S
When:
Pf =1.0 I is in phase with V; resistive system
Pf=lagging I lags V by θ; inductive system
Pf = leading I leads V by θ; capacitive system
Pf=0.0 lag I lags V by 90°; purely inductive
Pf =0.0 lead I leads V by 90°; purely capacitive

Power factor Angle (  )

 The angle between the apparent power and the real power in the power
triangle

Let v(t) = Vmcos(ωt +  v ) volts V = Vrms  v

i(t) = Imcos (ωt +  i ) A I = Irms  i

Instantaneous Power (watts)

P(t) = v(t) i(t)

1 1
P(t) = VmImcos(  v -  i ) + VmImcos(2ωt +  v +  i )
2 2

Average Power (watts)

1
Pave = VmImcos(  v -  i ) = VrmsIrmscos 
2

where:  = phase shift between v(t) and i(t) or the phase angle of the
equivalent impedance
3. REACTIVE POWER (QL or QC)

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AC CIRCUIT 3- 19

 Represents the rate at which energy is stored or released in any of the

energy storing elements(the inductor or the capacitor)
 Also called the imaginary power, non-productive or wattless power
 Measured in volt-ampere reactive (Var)
 When the capacitor and inductor are both present , the reactive power
associated with them take opposite signs since they do not store or release
energy at the same time
 It is positive for inductive power(QL) and negative for capacitive power(QC)

Q = VrmsIrmssin 

Reactive factor

 Ratio of the reactive Power to the Apparent Power

 Sine of the power factor angle(  )

Rf = sin 

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3-20 AC CIRCUIT

IV. BALANCED THREE PHASE SYSTEMS

 Comprises of three identical single-phase systems operating at a 120° phase

displacement from one another. This means that a balance three-phase
system provides three voltages(and currents) that are equal in magnitude
and separated by 120° from each other

1. CLASSIFICATION:

Three-Phase, 3-wire systems

 Provide only one type of voltage(line to line to both single phase and three
phase loads

Three-Phase, 4-wire systems

 Provide two types of voltages (line to line and line to neutral) to both single
phase and three phase loads.

2. BALANCED Y-system

VLL = 3 VLN and IL = IP

VLL and VLN are out of phase by 30°

3. BALANCED ∆ system

IL = 3 IP and VLL = VLN

IL and IP are out of phase by 30°

Where: VLL or VL– line to line or line voltage

VLN or VP– line to neutral or phase voltage
IL - line current
IP – phase current

Note: for balanced 3-phase systems:

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AC CIRCUIT 3- 21

IA + IB + IC =0

VAN + VBN + VCN = 0

VAB +VBC + VCA = 0

4. Three - Phase Power

P = 3VPIPcos  = 3 VLIL cos  watts

Q = 3VPIPsin  = 3 VLIL sin  vars

S = 3VPIP = 3 VLIL va

TEST YOURSELF 3
Review Questions

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3-22 AC CIRCUIT

1.The description of two sine waves that are in step with each other going through their maximum
and minimum points at the same time and in the same direction (November, 1999)
a. Sine waves in phase
b. Stepped sine waves
c. Phased sine waves
d. Sine waves in coordination

Answer a. Sine waves in phase

2. Term used for the out of phase, non-productive power associated with inductors and capacitors
(November, 1996)
a. Effective power
b. True power
c. Reactive power
d. Peak envelope power

Answer c. Reactive power

3. Refers to reactive power. (November, 2001)

a. Wattless ,non productive power
b. Power consumed in circuit Q
c. Power loss because of capacitor leakage
d. Power consumed in wire resistance in an inductor

Answer a. Wattless, non productive power

4. Term used for an out-of-phase, non-productive power associated with inductors and capacitors.
a. effective power
b. reactive power
c. peak envelope power
d. true power

Answer b. reactive power

5. The product of current and voltage in an AC circuit refers to the

a. Real power
b. Useful power
c. Apparent power
d. Dc power

Answer c. Apparent power

6. The distance covered or traveled by a waveform during the time interval of one complete cycle
(April, 2005)
a. Frequency
b. Wavelength

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AC CIRCUIT 3- 23

c. Time slot
d. Wave time

Answer b. Wavelength

7. The power dissipated across the resistance in an AC circuit (November, 1999)

a. real power
b. reactive power
c. apparent power
d. true power

Answer a. real power

8. It is the number of complete cycles of alternating voltage or current completed each second
(November, 2003)
a. Period
b. Frequency
c. Amplitude
d. Phase

Answer b. Frequency

9. How many degrees are there in one complete cycle? (November, 2000)
a. 720°
b. 360°
c. 180°
d. 90°

Answer b. 360°

10. The impedance in the study of electronics is represented by resistance and ________ (April,
1998)
a. Reactance
b. Inductance and capacitance
c. Inductance
d. Capacitance

Answer a. Reactance

11. It is the current that is eliminated by a synchro capacitor? (April, 2004)

a. Magnetizing stator
b. Loss
c. Stator
d. Rotor

Answer a. Magnetizing stator

12. It is a rotating sector that represents either current or voltage in an AC circuit (November, 2003)
a. Resistance
b. Phasor
c. Solar diagram

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3-24 AC CIRCUIT

d. Velocity

Answer b. Phasor

13. The relation of the voltage across an inductor to its current is described as
a. leading the current by 90 degrees
b. lagging the current by 90 degrees
c. leading the current by 180 degrees
d. in phase with the current

Answer a. leading the current by 90 degrees

14. Find the phase angle between the voltage across through the circuit when X C is 25 ohms, R is
100 ohms and XL is 50 ohms. (April, 2005)
a. 76 degrees with voltage leading the current
b. 14 degrees with the voltage lagging the current
c. 14 degrees with the voltage leading the current
d. 76 degrees with the voltage lagging the current

Answer c. 14 degrees with the voltage leading the current

Solution
50  25
Ø = arctan ( )  14.04 deg rees , since the circuit is inductive voltage leads
100
current

15. Calculate the period of an alternating current having an equation of I =20sin120πt

a. 4.167 ms
b. 8.33 ms
c. 16.67 ms
d. 33.33 ms

Answer c. 16.67 ms
Solution
1 1
Period =   16.67 x10 3 s
f 60

16. What do you mean by root-mean-square (rms) value? (November, 1996)

a. It is the average value
b. It is the effective value
c. It is the value that causes the same heating effect as the dc voltage
d. b or c

Answer d. b or c

17. The maximum instantaneous value of a varying current, voltage or power equal to 1.414 times
the effective value of a sine wave. (November, 2000)

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AC CIRCUIT 3- 25

a. RMS value
b. Peak value
c. EFFECTIVE VALUE
d. Peak to Peak value

Answer b. Peak value

18. If an AC signal has a peak voltage of 55 V, what is the average value? (April, 2000)
a. 34.98 V
b. 61.05 V
c. 86.34 V
d. 38.89 V

Answer a. 34.98 V
Solution
2Vpk 2(55 )
Ave =   35.01
 

19. If an AC signal has an average voltage of 18 V, what is the rms voltage? (April, 2000)
a. 12.726 V
b. 19.980 V
c. 25.380 V
d. 16.213 V

Answer b. 19.980 V
Solution
RMS = 1.11Vave(AC signal) = 1.11(18) = 19.98 V

20. A 220-volt, 60Hz is driving a series RL circuit. Determine the current if R = 100 ohms and 20
mH inductance
a. 2.2A(lagging)
b. 2.0 A(lagging)
c. 2.2 A(leading)
d. 2.0 A(leading)

Answer a. 2.2 A(lagging)

Solution
220 220 220
I=  
100  j2(60)(20m) 100  j7.54 100.284.311
=2.19 A (magnitude only), lagging because the circuit is inductive

21. Ignoring any inductive effects, what is the impedance of RC series capacitor made up of a 56
Kilo ohm resistor and a 0.33 µF capacitor at a signal frequency of 4650 Hz (November, 1999)
a. 66730 ohms
b. 57019 ohms
c. 45270 ohms
d. 10730 ohms

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3-26 AC CIRCUIT

Answer b. 57019 ohms

Solution
1
Z = 56K - j  56K  j103.71  56000.09  0.11 ohms
2( 4650)(0.33 )

22. What is the time constant of a 500mH coil and a 3300 ohm resistor in series? (April, 2000)
a. 0.00015 sec
b. 6.6 sec
c. 0.0015 sec
d. 0.000015 sec

Answer a. 0.00015 sec

Solution
L 500 x10 3
λ=   0.1515 x10  3
R 3300

23. What is the relationship between frequency and the value of Xc? (November, 2001)
a. Frequency has no effect
b. XC varies inversely with frequency
c. XC varies indirectly with frequency
d. XC varies directly with frequency

Answer b. XC varies inversely with frequency

24. The reactance of a 25 mH coil at 5000 Hz is which of the following?

a. 785 ohms
b. 785000 ohms
c. 13 ohms
d. 0.0013 ohm

Answer a. 785 ohms

Solution
XL = 2π(5000)(25x10-3) = 785.398 ohms

25. There are no transients in pure resistive circuits because they

a. Offer high resistance
b. Obey Ohm’s Law
c. Are linear circuits
d. Have no stored energy

Answer d. Have no stored energy

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