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Academy of Management Academy of Management Learning & Education
Academy of Management Academy of Management Learning & Education
Academy of Management Academy of Management Learning & Education
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• Academy of Management Learning & Education, 2005, Vol. 4, No. 4, 434-450.
In Plato's Theatetus, Socrates describes himself as leadership from universities in defining the role of
a midwife who drives his students to their wits' HRM. Practitioners may value the specialized HR
end in helping them to discern whether the ideas master's programs, but plead for graduates who
to which they have given birth are true. During the have mastered change management and cognate
20th century, professional education in fields such interpersonal skills, suggesting a gap in HR edu-
as medicine and accounting played an analogous cation. It may be that pedagogy in HR master's
role in cutting the umbilical cord of past practice programs is good, but it may not be so clear that
and aiding the birth of new professions. The pastthe 2 programs have raised the profession's stand-
decades have seen a new conception of human ing or provided the competencies that support a
resource management (HRM) that emphasizes high repositioned HR function.
performance, change management, and integra-Part of the reason for the gap between what is
tion of HR with broad business strategy (Conner needed
& and actual programs may be that histori-
Ulrich, 1996; Huselid, 1995; Kochan, Katz, & McKer- cally there have been diverse practical demands
sie, 1986; Schuler, 1990; Ulrich, 1997). Has HR edu-and divers academic influences on HR teaching
cation served as a midwife to the newly conceived and practice. HR is a multidisciplinary field, and in
HRM profession, just as medical and accounting industry, HR departments are asked to perform too
education served to those professions? Or is itmany functions for a master's program to cover. As
more appropriate to draw an analogy to medical Kaufman (2002) shows, HR programs evolved out of
education's inchoate identity in the 19th century? both the economic and psychological disciplines,
This article is about specialized master's pro- and both disciplines include classical, critical, and
grams in HRM, such as HR master of science (MS) applied paradigms. Thus, while researchers have
and master of arts (MA) programs, and perceptions
identified many of the competencies that HR man-
about them in industry and universities. My claim
agers need, educators have yet to arrive at a pro-
is that specialized HR master's degree programs fession-enhancing consensus as to a standard
have been a moderate success, but have not course of study. The history of education in other
played the midwife's role in training professionals
professions suggests that such a consensus would
who can execute core paradigms and improvehelp thethe HR profession to improve its status.
field's prestige. A wide variability in course offer-
Medicine is the best example. Nineteenth cen-
ings across programs, while evidence of pedagog-tury medicine was an unconvincing field, and pro-
ical creativity, may suggest the need for betterprietary medical schools were the norm. Change in
consensus about the role HR education should medical education began at Harvard and with the
play, much as there was a need for a better con- of Johns Hopkins Medical School in 1893.
opening
sensus about medical education's role in the 19thAbraham Flexner (1910) wrote Bulletin Number
Four under the aegis of the Carnegie Foundation
century. A scarcity of courses that cover necessary
competencies, such as interpersonal and change
for the Advancement of Teaching. Flexner was se-
management, may suggest the need for better vere in his criticism of medical schools, and ar-
434
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2005
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436
trial relations, and on the other, advocacy of a also argue that HR education needs to address
generalized foundation curriculum in business multiple constituencies.
management." Miles (1985) argues that in business In short, academics who have studied HR educa-
education there has always been a struggle be- tion agree that it needs to balance business with
tween the demands for functional specialization HR issues, that change management and cognate
and the demands for skills of general managers to interpersonal competencies are important, and
address broad organizational and business needs. that the technical knowledge in fields like compen-
Adler and Lawler (1999) argue that global compe- sation, benefits, staffing, training, and job analysis
tition has created a need for better master's pro- needs to be balanced with understanding of broad
grams in HR, and that MBA programs might in business issues, the ability to manage change, and
some ways respond to the emerging needs better the ability to think strategically about the busi-
than specialized HR master's programs. On the one ness. These goals are complicated by the multidis-
hand, they note that while MBAs may not be the ciplinary nature of the field and the importance of
best preparation for technical HR roles, they are balancing the interests of multiple constituencies.
good foundations for the business partner, organi- Because HR master's programs have the poten-
zational effectiveness, and change agent roles of tial to integrate business and change management
HR managers. On the other hand, Langbert (2000) with HR education, readers may find it useful to
has provided data that shows that HR managers see whether the programs have been doing so.
perceive gaps in HR MBA graduates' training with Because of their focus on HRM, HR master's pro-
respect to change management and interpersonal grams have the potential to play a leadership role
skills. in redefining the HR profession. Just as medical
education came to lead the medical profession in
Kaufman (1996) also argues in favor of MBA pro-
grams, and at times loses faith in the future of the early 20th century, so might HR master's de-
grees lead the HR field. This might include not only
specialized HR master's programs because the
education with respect to broad generalist sub-
specialized programs have lacked balance. He
jects, which are most important, but also with re-
(1999) points out that there are at least three poten-
spect to specialist subjects such as benefits, safety
tial paradigms for HR education, to include strate-
and health, training, and staffing. HR master's de-
gic management, sociotechnical systems, and or-
grees are therefore an important set of programs to
ganizational economics. He argues that the
examine. Are they playing the midwife's role?
changes in HR imply that companies want HR pro-
fessionals to be savvy about other functional areas
of the business, and that HR programs need to ENGAGEMENT THEORY
augment HR coursework with coursework in busi-
Although the curriculum in HR master's degree
ness subjects. He notes that demand is shifting programs has important implications, it is only one
from specialized HR master's programs toward of several potential factors influencing student
MBA programs because HR courses are too func-outcomes. Other factors include inputs such as fac-
tional. He argues that specialized programs needulty qualifications (Conrad & Blackburn, 1985), fac-
to do a better job in integrating business subjects ulty research productivity (Drew & Karpf, 1981), stu-
into HR courses. Kaufman (1999) also observes that
dent qualifications (Astin, 1993; Astin & Solomon,
university HR programs have changed their basis 1981), and university systems (Seymour, 1992; Winn
from economics to organizational behavior. He ar- & Cameron, 1998). Astin (1980, 1987) argues that the
gues that the HR field has lost a significant part ofefficacy of inputs depends on their interaction with
its multidisciplinary character and has become too the student's involvement in the educational pro-
"micro" in focus. cess. He contrasts four alternative definitions of
Brockbank, Ulrich, and Beatty (1999) argue that
academic quality, namely, reputation, resources,
HR professionals have to demonstrate competen- outcomes, and curriculum, with talent develop-
cies with respect to knowledge of the business,ment, which he argues is the ultimate purpose of
delivery of HR practice, and ability to manage higher education. In turn talent development de-
change. They argue that HR professionals need to
pends on involvement. Involvement is enhanced,
be more knowledgeable about financial manage-in Astin's view, through enriched teaching modes
ment and customer demands. Wooten and Elden whereby students take responsibility for learning.
(2001) argue that there are five competencies Among
im- the enrichment techniques that he advo-
portant to HR education, namely, technical HR pro-
cates are independent study, internships, experi-
cess, general business, change management, per-ential learning, and small discussion groups.
sonal mastery, and strategic management. They Thus, in his view quality results from the interac-
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438
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2005
compare
ability may be different from what is suggested by
appropr
the course names.
petencie
No course is offered more frequently than com-
managem
pensation and benefits, which, summing the re-
master's
quired and elective columns of Table 1 is offered in
demic p
43 (29 required 4-14 elect ives) of the 49 programs, or
seventee
in 87.8% of the programs. Other frequently offered
tion
courses are employment as law (in [(22 + 15)/49] or
that the
75.5%), human resource management (59.2%), staff-
nical,
ing (69.4%), and training (69.4%). an
Similarly, organizational behavior is offered in
compete
To furt
63.3% of programs (summing across line 118 in
tion
Table 1), organizationalP2,change in 61.2%, and labor
directors of each of 49 institutions. The 18 re- relations in 59.2% of the programs. However, look-
sponses amounted to a response rate of 36.7%. The
ing at the required courses in the middle column of
questionnaire asked the program directorsTable 1 and dividing by 49 (the number of pro-
to allo-
grams),
cate the prerequisite, required, and elective coursecompensation and benefits is required in
just 29 programs or 59.2%, human resource man-
offerings in the MS programs that they anticipate
in 15 years. agement, staffing and training are each required
In addition, to examine proposition P4 concern-
in 25 or 51.0%, HR strategy in 23 or 46.9%, and
ing student engagement, I e-mailed a fourth organizational
sur- change in 15 or just 30.6% of the
vey to two professors in each of 49 programsprograms.
and Even with respect to technical HR com-
petencies
asked for permission to interview them on the tele- there seems to be little agreement as to
phone or that they return the survey by whate-mail.ought
I to constitute a required curriculum in
HRM.tele-
interviewed 14 of the 26 respondents over the
phone. Twelve returned the survey via e-mail.Despite
TheHR scholars' long-standing assertion
that pro-
response rate was 26.5%. Because I asked the broad business competencies need to balance
technical
fessors to evaluate their own programs, there is HR competencies, only 14 programs, less
than
likely bias in their responses over and above one third of the total, require or have as a
ordi-
nary sampling error. prerequisite an accounting or financial accounting
course (summing the prerequisite and required
columns for Accounting/Financial Accounting on
FINDINGS line one in Table 1); only seven do for marketing;
ten for finance; six for operations; and 23 (or 46.9%)
HR Curriculum
for statistics. As shown in column A of Table 2,
Table 1 shows the prerequisite, required, and elec- 28.3% of the total number of required courses on
tive courses for specialized master's programs in Table 1 (438) is in the combined categories of broad
HRM. Similar to the plethora of accounting courses business, experiential and social science courses
in the 1920s, I identified 150 different courses that(82 plus 16 plus 26 from the subtotal lines of the
middle column of Table 1). These courses are
are offered in the 49 master's programs. The num-
spread across a wide range, with little consistency
ber of courses may be under- or overstated be-
cause courses with similar names were combined, across programs.
and some courses with different names may actu- As well, too little emphasis seems to have been
given to change management and interpersonal
ally be covering similar content. On the one hand,
course number 122 on Table 1 includes courses skills. As shown on line 119 of Table 1, only 15 of
the 49 programs require a change management,
called organization theory, high performance orga-
nizations, high involvement organizations, and organizational
ag- development (OD), or leadership
ile organizations. On the other hand, I distin- course (although an additional 15 offer such
guished between courses called human resource courses as electives) and five require managerial
strategy and human resource management, skills courses. However, 20 do require a traditional
partly
because a number of programs require both. organizational
The behavior course or have one as a
prerequisite. Consistent with Kaufman's concerns
wide range of courses is consistent with proposi-
tion PI that the specialized programs wouldabout bene-a lack of economics courses, while 20 pro-
grams require organizational behavior as a pre-
fit from a clearer focus. Of course, it is not possible
requisite or required course, only eight do so for
to determine whether the subjects that the courses
actually cover match the course names, so theeconomics
vari- or microeconomics.
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440
TABLE 1 TABLE 1
Number of Programs Requiring Subject as Continued
Prerequisite (P), Requirement (R), and Elective (E)
B. HRM Competencies P R E
A. General Business Competencies P R E
54. ER, QWL, Best Practice, Firm Perf. 2 8
1. Accounting/Financial Accounting 5 9 6 55. Empl. Rights, Fair Empl. Emp Rels. 0 3
56. Environmental Law 1
2. Accounting (Managerial) 1 4 7
57. Environmental and Occ. Health 1
3. Business Policy/Strategy 3 6 7
4. Business Research 1 58. Ethics and Prof. Issues in HRM 2 1
59. Generation X 1
5. Computer/Information Systems 5 3 12
6. Decision-Making Techniques 1 1 60. Hazardous Waste Management 1
7. Decision-Making in Public Admin. 1 61. Health and Safety Mgmt. 1 11
8. Delivering Customer Value 1 62. Health Policy 1
9. E-Commerce 1 63. HRM/HRM&Labor/Employment Sys. 25 4
64. HR Certification Instruction 4 1
10. Entrepreneurship 6
11. Finance/Money 3 7 6 65. HR Consulting and Job Analysis 1
12. Futures Studies 1 66. HRIS 12 11
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2005
F. Social
tive
Science
with Competencies
the business competencies.
Also consistent with proposition P2, column D of
139. Comparative Labor Markets 1 2 Table 2 indicates that program directors foresee
140. Economics/Microeconomics 3 5 4 little change. Program managers foresee a slight
141. Economic Institutions/History 1 2 2 increase to technical HR competencies for the re-
142. Ethics/Business Ethics 3 2
143. I/O Psychology 2 9
quired courses. Currently 58.4% of required courses
144. Industrial Interviewing 1 cover HR competencies, while they foresee an in-
145. Industrial Sociology 1 7 crease to 62.6%. They see a slight increase in the
146. Labor/HR EconVLabor Markets 10 5 interpersonal and change management require-
147. Labor History 1 5 ments from 13.2% to 16.6%, which is still less than
148. Psychometrics 1 half of the allocation that the HR executives rec-
149. Public Program Evaluation 1
ommend.
150. Social Psychology 2
Subtotal 4 26 40
Grand Total 46 438 566
Program Structure and Philosophy
If an institution offers more than one course in a su
The variability in course offerings is at least partly
subject is counted only once (N = 49 programs).
attributable to differences in paradigms or philos-
ophy rather than specialist majors. HR practitio-
Competencies ners distinguish between HR generalists and spe-
Consistent with cialists. With one or two
proposition P2,exceptions,
columnalmost all of C o
2 shows that the the HR master'sHR
14 senior programs focus on educating HR
managers in th
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442 Academy of Management Learning & Education December
TABLE 2
Percentage of Required Courses, Courses HR Executives Desire, and Courses Program Directors Expect
A B C D
Me
Current percentage Current percentage Mean response of program directors
of required of required HR executives as to as to expected
MS-HRM courses MBA-HRM courses desired emphasis emphasis in 15
(N = 49) (N = 23) of courses (N = 14) yrs (N = 18)
generalists as
variability opposed
in the course offerings is in part due to to sp
fields such as compensation,
differences in program philosophy. With respect to
source development, program philosophy, there are at leastsafety
four models an
This is likelythat due to resource
programs have followed. Table 3 compares the
ployers' stronger course requirements indemand
four actual programs. Pro- for
specialist graduates. The
gram A is the one most closely linked to economics majo
fer specialized electives
and the economics-based industrial relations para-such
ing, but generally not
digm (Kaufman, 2002). Program A does in suffic
not require
to constitute a master's level concentration. Sev- any business, change management, or managerial
eral programs offer alternative tracks in industrial
skills courses. It focuses on human resource manage-
relations versus human resource management, ment and labor relations. It requires a labor econom-
and two programs offer alternative tracks inicshu- course but not an organizational behavior course.
man resource management, industrial relations, I call this the industrial relations model.
change management, organizational leadership, Program B in Table 3 requires only technical HR
and human resource development. One program competency courses, such as benefits, health and
offers three unusual tracks: instructional technol-
safety, and HR strategy. It includes a single orga-
ogy, health and safety, and organizational devel- nizational change course, but no business, statis-
opment and change. No HR program in the sample tics, economics, or other social science-based
offers specializations in compensation, benefits, or
courses. I call this the HR-focused model because it
staffing.1
focuses almost entirely on technical HR competen-
Rather than specialization, PI suggests that the cies. But like Program A, Program B aims to edu-
cate HR generalists. There is no sequence of in-
Although there may be logical explanations for the absence of
depth courses concerning a specific field or fields
within HR.
specialist education, to include managers' preferences, it may
also be the case that HR master's programs are overlooking an Program C in Table 3 requires business courses,
opportunity to provide post-master's study in sub-specialties. including accounting, business policy, finance,
Post-master's integration of HR specialist fields with change management, marketing, legal studies and two
management and interpersonal competency development
might yield gains for post-master's level students that pro-
statistics courses, but it also requires four HR
grams do not presently address. For example, a specialist courses, labor relations, and labor economics. It
course in benefits planning might be designed to explore not does not require change management or interper-
only the strategic aspects of benefits policy, but also how sonal skills courses. I call this the business-
change in benefit plans might be communicated, how interper-
integrated model. It is closest to the MBA program
sonal problems in selling benefit plan changes to line manag-
ers might be addressed, and the economic rationale for inte- model in that it emphasizes the business and tec
grating change in benefit policies with broader organizational nical HR competencies but not change manage-
change strategies. ment or interpersonal competencies.
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2005
TABLE 3
Required Courses in 4 HRM Programs
Program D:
Bus. and
Accounting X
Business Policy and X X
Strategy
Computer Inf. Systems X
Delivering Customer X
Value
Finance X
Management X X
Marketing X
Legal Studies X
Statistics X
Advanced Statistics X
Benefits X
Career Mgt. X
Comp. and Ben. XX X X
Employee Assistance X
Plans
Employee Relations X
Empl. Law X X
Health and Safety X
HRM XX X
HR Strategy X X
HRIS X X
International X
Employee Rel.
Staffing X X
Training X X
Communication X
Consulting X
Org. Change X X
Team Building X
Labor Relations X X
Labor Law X
Labor Economics X X
Labor History X
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444 Academy of Management Learning & Education December
TABLE 4 and
Senior HR Executives' Assessments of Academic
Preparation of HR Professionals (N = 25) We are viewed as partners to the line. The
days of HR as a specialty function are over.
A B
HR graduates need general business knowl-
Mean ranking of Percentage of edge. How to put in a program from the busi-
degree as to responding senior ness side.
preparation for HR executives who
jobs (1 is worst earned highest
8 is best) degree In answer to the question, "which courses are
needed?" the interviewees almost unanimously
MS or MA in HRM 6.65 4% agreed that an HR program should include a "mini-
Master's in a 5.65 8
MBA." Several respondents emphasized the criti-
related field
such as IR
cal importance of entire courses in accounting, fi-
MBA 5.43 28 nance, business law, economics, and computer
HRCI 4.43 4 technology. This may have been in part linked to
Certification some executives' interest in ultimately rotating
Law degree 4.39 4 junior HR managers into other departments.
Bachelor's degree 4.08 40
Other graduate 4.05 16
No degree 1.63 0 Interpersonal Skills
With one or two exceptions, the HR executives em-
phasized the critical importance of developing in-
which 40%, or tenterpersonal,
respondentschange management, and indicated
related
managerial skills.
attained. Twenty-eight HR managers need to
percent act as
have ear
Thus, although HR consultative
executivesproblem solvers, and in to do sothis
they sm
need master's
perceive specialized to maintain long-term relationships
degrees with as t
preparation, only their
12% clients, have
the line managers. For example, a speci
earned
grees themselves,senior
and HR executive
only for a global
4% financial con-
have ear
degrees in HRM. glomerate pointed out that:
The biggest thing HR graduates need is busi- The need for relationship skills coincides with
ness knowledge. Knowing the language of the need for organizational development and
business. You need to understand the product change management competencies. For example,
and what the business is about. HR people the managing director of an investment bank noted:
need to understand what the client's needs
are. They need to know how to work with the It is critical for HR graduates to understand
business manager, the process of organizational change and how
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2005
to mana
sized the role of GAAP accounting. A vice presi-
employees with culture" and "culture dent of HR for a large entertainment conglomerate
change" are what are needed. said that:
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446 Academy of Management Learning & Education December
TABLE 5
Assessment of Pedagogical Practice in MS-HRM by 26 Program Faculty in 21 Programs
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2005
Thus, specialized HR programs appear to be from SHRM, the Academy of Management, and
moderately successful from the standpoint of en- other stakeholder organizations. The purpose of
gaging or involving the master's students. They the commission would be to initiate change in HR
would improve by requiring capstone projects and education that would contribute to better defining
outside-of-class activities, emphasizing economics and integrating necessary competencies, profes-
to a greater degree and offering internships to a sional preparation, and certification. The commis-
greater degree, although the respondents are sat- sion might also seek additional ways to advance
isfied with the extent of experiential learning in the field's credibility, such as integration of expe-
their programs. riential learning, ways to attract better students,
and ways to enhance funding for curriculum devel-
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CHANGE
opment and faculty. The process would include
development of curricular models, circulation of
Education in HR programs seems to be moderately standards for practitioners' and academics' re-
well enriched, although it is natural for professors view, and linkage of master's degree reform to
to be positive about their own activities and certification.
it is Ultimately, such standards could be
possible that they overstate the degree of enrich- linked to AACSB accreditation processes.
ment. But the data presented herein clearly show The literature on total quality management (e.g.,
that programs are inconsistent in their curricular Crosby, 1979: 8; Seymour, 1992: 15) suggests that the
offerings, in part because of competing paradigms, most effective improvement processes come from
and do not target the business, change manage- within institutions rather than from external stan-
ment, and interpersonal competencies that have dards. But productive change in professional edu-
become increasingly important to HR executives. cation has often begun with external stimuli. Other
Thus, the key challenge that my work here uncov- professional fields, such as medicine and law,
ers is curricular rather than pedagogical. have seen improvement through the standards set
It would seem that there is a need for HR educa- by professional and learned organizations. It
tors to arrive at a better consensus as to core busi- would seem that a good place to begin to improve
ness, HR and change management paradigms, the and rationalize human resource education would
coursework necessary to address the paradigms, be the development of model programs. If the ben-
and the integration of the paradigms and course- efits are sufficient and visible, pressure may result
work with certification. In turn, this would suggest to motivate programmatic change within business
the need for a consensus as to model programs schools.
that could be developed jointly by the leading ac- An example of how this might work is found in
ademic and professional organizations, to include the history of the Accounting Education Change
the Academy of Management, the Industrial Rela- Commission (AECC; Sundem, 1998; Wyer, 1993) that
tions Research Association and SHRM/HRCI, as helped stimulate change in universities' account-
well as related organizations such as the Inter- ing curricula in the 1990s. The AECC's roots were in
national Foundation of Employee Benefit Plans, academic discussions during the late 1970s. Its
WorldatWork (formerly the American Compensa- goal was to enrich accounting education, attract
better students, and to refocus the curriculum, in
tion Association), the American Society of Training
and Development and the Association to Advance part by enhancing interpersonal skills education.
Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB). The need for enriching and refocusing the curricu-
In some fields, such as medicine, there has been lum was recognized in the 1980s by the American
rapid and effective curriculum change to accom- Accounting Association (AAA), the learned society,
modate paradigm shifts. In others, such as ac- and the American Institute of Certified Public Ac-
counting, the change has been more gradual. In countants (AICPA), the professional association. In
both medicine and accounting, the relationship be- 1989 the then Big Eight accounting firms estab-
tween academic institutions and practitioner orga- lished a task force that advocated a focus on inter-
nizations intensified to facilitate a clearer consen- personal skills and a broad-based approach to ac-
sus as to how educational programs might best counting skills. The AECC was established to
address changing paradigms. accomplish these objectives. The Big Eight firms
To target master's level HR education, it would donated $4 million to the AECC, which was later
seem that the academic and practitioner organiza- supplemented with an additional $1.5 million,
tions might create a temporary human resource about half of which was used for institutional
education change commission (HRECC) that would grants to encourage business schools to develop
be funded by corporations affiliated with SHRM.model programs.
The commission would include representatives The AECC decided to begin by focusing on the
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448 Academy of Management Learning & Education December
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2005
tity. Th
integrate accreditation and certification standards
with master's and
gest thatpost-master's level education in
HR HRM. Such prog an endeavor would require financial as
in more
well as moral support from the practitioner human
most resource community. com
and employment law, are not the courses that It is possible that better and more consistent
managers indicate are most important to real- specification of HR programs would have a mean-
world HR generalists. I have identified four pro- ingful effect on the entire field's status, much as
gram types, the IR focused, HR focused, business better and more consistent specification of medical
integrated, and integrated. Therefore, part of the and accounting education had on those fields. A
variability in programs is due to competition concerted effort by university programs to achieve
among paradigms. However, all four paradigms do a generally accepted approach to HR education
not address real-world concerns equally. Consis- might give birth to a better HR profession.
tent with the claims of HR scholars, HR managers
indicate that they would like to see greater empha-
REFERENCES
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Astin, A. W. 1980. When does a college deserve to be called high
nor specialized master's programs emphasize quality? Current Issues in Education, 1: 1-10. American As-
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Copies, W. G. 1958. A survey of the graduate curriculum in
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Company.
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