Martianus Capella

and the
Seven Liberal Arts
VOl.UM E 1
THE QUADRIVIUM OF MARTIANUS CAPELLA
LATIN T ItADITlONS IN THE MATHEMATlCAL SCIENCES

50 .. C. - .. O.I 'SO

by WilIiam Harris Stahl

WITH A STUDV or THI.: ALL EGORY

AND TIIE VER BAL DISCIPLINES

by RicharJJohnMnl wilh E. L

COLUMBIA UN TVERSITY PRESS

N E W YORK AND L ON D ON '91'
 The Allegory and lhe Trivium
THE w<ln of Martianus Copen. may be consideIed os comprising
three paro' the fU'&t twO boob nf .UegoriCllI ruunove, the trivium,
.nd the qmdrivium. Oí these, the ltlQSt impolUnt in IUsrory of
¡•• miog W;I.'; {he q\lJdriviulIl, tl!c principal subject of crus voIume. The
anegory and me mvium nf /o.1.rtianus, thaugh les. imporolDt, never-
thd.... have had a significant role in intdleccual history. As Wolliam
Stahl has alrtady pointed out, me allegorical fl1lmework oí n , M41'-
";"ge exerted • coosid.rable influence on medieval Iwers.' And tbe
trivium books of Martianus "" important as his q",uirivium boob
in establishing the .. ven liberal Irts as che >WI<brd program of educa-
tiun in the Middl. Ases"

THE ALLEGORY ANO ITS SOURCES

Thc serting of Martimll¡¡' work, in a cooncil of the Olympian gods,
on. migbt think to be a mere literaty conwntion, witb • history ex-
Dending had: ro Homer; but it is den tllat 00 Martianus ir is fu more.
His a1legory teaehes mI[ the unWn of leaming (philology) and 0\0-
qllen<;e (Mercury) ¡,.. gool .. ncrioned by supl':IhulDln anthority, by
tU cmt js divin. ; chat tIle curriculum of tite .. libenl arts, bcing
di<: m= ro .chieve crus che same sanctiuu; tllat thruugh
prowcss in these studies and me bef1eñts une mus brings tú manlrlnd,
it is possible to win ;mrnoI'tlllity ;md the feltow.hip of me gods.
Even aput fmm rhis allegory, mere is in the fim w'o books oí the
work a wealth of rdigious doctrine. A1tbough che princi¡n¡l figuRS
bear me IWII. . uf Olympisn gods, the rcligion is very different from
tllat of Homer or Aeschylus. The oetting is not Mount Olympus but
cdestW sphc:rts, md asttal rcligion is fundamental ro the mought.
With tlu. is blendod Neopythagoreanism, old Ronun and Etruscan
, Sce ab<>.... pp. " _'l. nff. Se< 0100 AppendiI A.
, So< lbove, pp. 11_" .
84 THE ALLEGORY AND TKE TR I VIIJM
RUgiOUS ido=, sorne Neopbtonic concepts, IIOme Egyptian dcities,
more than • traee of Hermeticism. Thc =ds inrerw ...ve inro a
whole, JUSI: ti smnds oí vastly divem: thought interweave io modero
Ouinianity; but io tite one case $S in the odlcr, inconsistt:ncies be-
o:ween strmds may be disccmed.
The serious IIlegory, the 50lemn Rligion =: depicted in .cene. of
the most (aney and goudy imaginariO<!, with much sniving
after Utt\e achievement of real solemnity, and wim írequent at-
rempts al lightness of touch which are nothing moR than inept iri_
volity. The disoordance betwecn tite wcighty mess:ages M3>:tUnUS fecls
impeUed to cxprcss aod the scenes, imoges, aod language in which he
choosc. to apress them makes his work • kind oí sad classie in me
history of didacti<: Utenture. This dlscordancc is moR readily under_
srood, however, if one in mind Manianos' onh;¡ppy choice of
mudels lor his .Uegury.
Af, -.ve hove secn,' the principal mude! is the Cupid and Psyche epi-
me from Apolcius' Metmfl1f'pfx lftt.There i •• morul womanespoosed
ro • god, • conclave of the gods tO ratify the mateh, the apotheMis of
me woman, her aseenr to hewen. TheR, toO, is an allegory, oi the
human souJ (Psyelte) blling in love with Love (Cupid) .nd endunng
suffering before ultimate unioo. AH of this is treated by Apu!eius wim
a deLicate toneh, lIOmetimes humorous, a!ways .nd imaginative,
¡har has ensured me cale's populanty as a romaoce from ceotury to
ceotlll}'. Marcianus' <kbt ro Apuleius 'ppears time .fter time in genmol
situatiom, detai!ed =nes, and innumeroble echoes of words and
pltrases. There is no que.tion chat M.rcianus wu inspired by Apuleius,
nor nnly with the id.. of I.n allegurical wedding" bue also with the
roo.. ntic and treaonent proper to a wedding.
The gaiety borrowed fmm Apu!cius m with tite: rone of
soIemnily and profundily which abo pelVlldes the work .$ Marti'lIIUS
scts OUt Rligiom docmMS Qfrer the manner of lo inspittd mystic. Jn
this graviry-and in much of me material which ¡,¡ thus apounded_
work resembles Mlcrobius' oommentary on acero'. Dtum
of SeipW. TIte elernents of astr1Il rtUgion, me sense of eterml desliny
I nd divine sanction for hUlIllln .crio..., and me didocticim! about me

• s.. ._•. PI' 'l. JI • ...,.

 TI!': ALLEGORY
physical univene are strongly Múlar in the m'o works, In MlIcrobius' "
coITlIl\Cnta.ty the rone is consistent with theme of the work tnd il
maintllined throughout, just as Apuleius' very different is appro-
ro his theme and consistendy Martionus tried with-
out to h.rmonne u.e twO ... so th.r fmm
the leviry of the first ii«'tÍons ro In lpocalyptic mon (, '-22), back
to lighter vein, on to bonaUry (Ir the end of .8), theu wuering
between solernniry (29-30) . pucriliry (3'), and solemrury .pn (J'),
unol We reach a nodir of bod tiste (It rhe end of 34 and )5) , So it
goes on,
In deWls of diction Martianos borrowed most heovily froro Vergil
and Ovid, This does nor ne<;o rily mean tilat he was especitlly fond
of these werc standard amho", for líteury srudy in the
Roman schools aud were popular SOUlCeS of gro.tion, phuseology, lOO
illusmnon in tbe scboob of rhetoric of the &opte, SO that freqll<:m
borrowing frorn rhcrn is normal amongst late Latin More
signiflOUlt are M.rtian".' clear ccltoe., on two ocasions (sections' and
u 3), of caudian; both, but e<p"""'Í'l1y the firn, are rdevam lor dating
Tbt ro th. early fútil centruy.' While there Ire echocs of
other tuthon, noue are as fte'luendy e<;hoed as Vergil and Ovid. TIte
.1most tocal absence of Gceroru.n cchoes in Bool<s I aOO n, together
witil [he frquenr misquotttions and ocasionol misundemaodings of
Ckero in Book V, lcod one ro wonder whether Martianus-though
bimsel( poSiSilily a lawyer'-had lUIy c10se acquaintanCc with th. whole
specchcs (as distinct froro enncts and fmm the ucluúcal rherorial
worb) of che grcatcst of Roman legal plcade ....

RELIGIOUS IDEAS
Tht M.m..gt optns wirh a hymn ro Hymen the god of marru.ge,
Aside froro the obvious dictares of tradition in $IlCh an opening, Uy-
• Muriomu' ....,.tn><J\t of H)'II><Q .... JO<! oí .....m.g. (1)_IIIJ. a.ndlan',
Epilb.' 'UUM P.J/4diut md C,I...... (Co.Ih" " ed Tb<odor lIirT. .110'''''''''''''
O., " ....... N/ltln/e.. 10 [1Ioor1in. 1119> 1, poem xoil, Iines jI'!!; this porm p«>b-
obIy d .... from .... 199- Mstti4nuo' poem ro .. ction "l _.u. a.ndlan'. p _
o"" "" <b# CHNh¡';p 01 flloi<a Mmliut TbroJo,,,,,, (C."'U".. ed,lIirT. p<><1l'1
nii) . lineo '''''''; this C'kW1"bip w... in. ...... j\1l>
• Se< abono PI'> '1"0.
86 TJlE ALL[GORV ASD TIlE TRIVIUM
men lKu has an allegorica.l role: he is pn:scnte<l as d ...t divinc coocord,
that principie of unification, whieh permeateS and inttgraces a universe
made up of infmitcSirml elerne"," I physical concepc whieh originate<l
as euly as Empedocles, 'ud ehen passed inco Plaoonie philosophy.·
With tbis Ir.eynote MartiOlIlus esablishes ehat his physics, and in par-
ticular bis cosmology, ¡, broadly Pbronic. It is within me frarnework
of • Neoplatonie aplanation of tbe univcr.;c and of aU being that
Martianus' religious beliefs ore Kt- TIU. is noetO uy that he is in simple
tem\S • Neopatonis1:; many strands make up hit teligion. Bur bis apa_
mcion of tbe universo, insofor as it is is Neoplotonie,' and me
rcligious ideas Ire broughe into. measun: uf colUÍSttney witb chis.
A1tbongh the niue boob, partieularly Boolr.s 1 and 11, are sct in ehe
heavens amongst lbe .. tbere are thrce p ....gcs where lbe religious
lore is .:speciaUy cieh. One describes roe surnmoning of che inhabitlllts
oí heavOD ro. conclave (,P -6S); in the sec<Jnd Juno answcn Philol_
ogr'. question aOOm "w/ut gocs un in me VlIS!neSS uf roe sky" ('S ....
68); Ihe third is Philology', hymn ro Apollo (,85-93)' The fim has
becn cl06ely srudied by Srefan Wcinstock,' who corrected mueh uf
me earlier speculation by Car\ Thulin;' f.he xcond has becn discl1!ll'lCd
by Roben: TUrcan.lO
Ftom these passages it is cltar c/ut while the nomu Ind manyehar-
acreristics of tbc Olymplan deiti .. have beco n:rained, tbe Olymplan
panthcon has beco intcgn.ted into the tstral. n:ligion whieh penne.res
Neoplarooism, Ncopytbagoreonism, and Stoicism. T heir 1Ibod.. IR
aronnd me rodiac, and tbey are idmtified with celestial bodies. The
rep ..... otalÍon of Mercury varies from an antltropornorphie brido-
groom (S, 35, aod p.usim) and of che gods, to cbe Neo-
plaronlc Mind (9'), ro I planet with. f'IXW aod known orbit (8, 'S,
'9). Apollo is Ir une time tbe god of prophecy sitting on o rock I t
• Pl.." T""""", Fe. Q<>rp. joSa; /o.Empodocl.., ... JI. [);elo ud W. Knnz,
.do., ¡ , _ e <kr' .., '1:17-9'> ,"po 1'''''8''' ,a.'9> ¡J.,
, Seo abo ... p. ,o.
• "Murianus Copolb aod me ('.ocmic Sy=m of di. Etm ........ " J-..M
Rqm..,. SIIId/ts, XXXVI ('1>1'1), 10'-'9-
• "Die: GOuet d.. M.nian.., CopoJh. un<! de< Ik<>ttukbcr >'OII Pi>c<au." 1M;"
¡ivwS<",bi&b,li&b. V..#i<b.""¡ V<>r..-hMm, Vol. UI pt. ,¡'906) .
" "Mortionus Copell. CI Junbliq ...• R..... dt. I...u. Imnel, XXXVI ('9j8),
'Jj-j+
 RELIGIOllS IDEAS 8,
Dolpm ('0.' " ,0-",
'6), ar orber rimes rbe sun (: S, '9), ar orbers rbe
syncrctization of a host of uligious figures ('9'·9'), and again the
NeopLotouic Mind ('9,). This conversioo of the O lympians into dti·
tics of orber, pmlosophictlly ba..d, uligions WIS frcqucnt io late
antiquity." lo Muti3nus, howevcr, oo! ooly rbe Olympians are mus
absorbed, rbe sacred figuru of anciem l rslic are similarly tuatcd,
lArs Jives in me secood regioo of betw«n MIU"S aud Juno
(,,6); Omsus io tcDm r.gion. ",itlt N.ptunc (54); VejovQ io tite
fiftccoth, oen to Satum ($9) . "What weu "' onc time sepanttc and
relatively hornogeneous currents of beli<::f-philosophictl, asuological,
.ltmonie, aomropomorpmc-bave coal<:<e<:d. The minun: is enric:hcd
by a Lorgc stream of uumerology, wmch adds oignifu:ancc ID auy ltind
of group ula,able ro numbcr. ln alI of tillo, particular ancotioo is paid
tO Mcrcury, nOt only aS the personificarioo of eloqueoe. but also as l
god who enjoycd a special cult in N orth Africa."
10 tms tielt blend of flirhs a reasonably consistcnt "theology" can
he disct:mcd. nuoughorn: mOS[ oí ,he worl<, ]upiter is presentcd 0$ me
supreme delty. ltis rus comem that mUS! obtained fOf che wcddiog,
his word tltat convenes me councit of tbe gods. He has dispbced
Sarurn, the former ruler, now rilegatcd ro a minor role. So flr Mar·
tianos accords witb me cradiriol\lll Olympian mydwlogy. H owevcr, in
section '85 aud 'o' we glimpse ,he Suprcme Deity, the Unknowo 2nd
Unkuowable of NeopLotonic rboughr.," fmm whom, by the emanation
of iotennediotics, In heing, inelnding me array of Olympim godo, Iw
itl cDstenee. "This blcod of Ncoplatonism.nd Olympian rcligioo does
on, nec' rily involve a contntdiction; ir simply pusltes rhe hi«ar<:hy
of being ooc mge higbcr, postulatco onc or mOu deiti .. of more
cnltcd .atus, and fitl me irracional O lympian figure, into an inteUte-
tualIy deIemib1e philosophie ¡ystem.. An infinire numbcr of minor dei.
ria can men he accl>JJll11Odatcd, eimcr by simple addiriOD, just as tite
eigbty·four atttu.uot5 ('00)," me ionwuenble gcnii and

" Se. J. HiJroiT, pclitlqw " pt)',b<JlDgiqw d< l. "Iigkm Ni"";"', PI'
' ... · 54·
" W. Dtonm. M....,.,.." l• ....pi.... PI'
.. s.. «p. PIocinuo E_4th 6. 9- i"1.
"s.. Turan, PI' 'J",,9-
88 T HE ALLEGORY ASO THE TRI\'IUM
(152-51) are introduced; or by of gods from fltirhs origi-
nally diverse, .. Latin, G=k. and Asian religions meet in tite wile of
So>turn 6) Of Egyptian. Libyan, Persian, aod Phoeniciao. gods are syn-
cretized in Apollo (19 1-92) .
The dwelling place. of aH these delties are distribllRd in me sky,
borll in plane aod in clevation, .. a draftsman migllt "'y. Their celestial
abodes are describod O$lying in a planc: around the )60 degrees of tite
zodiac (4S-60)¡ rh.y are also described (1;0-ó6) 0$ being at differeot
ltvds in ekvanon, frorn the celestial. 'phcre.t>ove the son, ,..Itere the
muot ualred godIllive, ro the regioru¡ between ¡un lQd muon and then
beN,'(en muon I nd (atth, in t descending sal. of belng nntil we =ch
the surftce of tite •• nI\, inhabired by mankind. Since men', souls Irt
m""" of fire (originaring (rom the divine srm) ;md h'ove • rvtunll
rendency ro rille if unhindered by tite body. the purer souls mayo w hen
rdeüed from the hody, ucend more or less high in tlW seale of being.
Thos • eoncept Ilcin ro the o,ristian COllCOpr of ""lvJ.[;on, oí crem. l
folicity merited by life un ea",h, H implicit in thi. originally Neopythag_
oreon .ystem;" .nd related ro rhis C<lncept H the . uitudo of tsettici.sm
wruch condemns tite body as impure, an obstaclt 2nd hindr.mce tO tite
divine fire-an arotude rcjectw in theo'}' by orthodoJ Ouistimiry but
nonetbeless illnUflKial un mucll uf medienl. OIristian thoughr.. We
begill ro lit< anorhu reunn for tite populariry of Mattitnus' work in
moMStÍc culture.
However, whercas th. Olristian ottoiru¡ wvauon by fo.im, trust in
God's merey, and love manifesred in deeds none of whic h virtUes de-
m;md inrellettual gifts-tl!e men w ho in MutWtus' !lttO.in im-
mort:llity are (with the uoeption of H ercole.) men w hose wisdom, io
marre" of religious lore, agriculture, .00 =hnology, or the &eVen Ins,
h25 bcnefited mankiOO. Th. ide;o !:hat an unturorw pcasant, by the
mere qualicy uf bis Iove for God and Hi! =rures, nuy attain sanctiry
and etemal bl!ss, is alien ro MartiaIlUS¡ irnmortaliry in bis eyes H camed
by fame WOII througlt semce, nut by lov. or ionocence tlone. H e \W5
th. Iast Lotill uponem: uf w hat M.lrrou calls religion uf culrure, "lO
s:alvatioo through p.ridri.. TII. wedding of Mercucy and Phi1ology
allegorizcs the unioo uf etoquence, ;md intellccrual prowcss which
.. F. o.u.-,. 'lft" Uf' 1ft R _ pp. '0" 6,
" Mlnoo. A ffltt»r, of ,t.";qrm,, pp. ,""" ,.
makes thar prowcss effcctive an<! sc:rviecable to manlcind. May ¡hece
not aliO be a futther ,Jimension ro ¡he aUegory: ¡hot Mercury, whu as
"
Herroes Psychopompos CQndllcrs ¡he iOuls of the eleee ,fter death to
beatirude, 1f j, rhe spouse whu brings PhiloJogy, the learning of moml
men, to the eteIlw OC>ciety uf rhe godo?
lo lhis AAvmg afrer immortallty mm are aided Ot impeded by fate
(J J., S, 11-2 " p, 88), which implemtflllS the deci,;ons of tlle gods (18,
64-65, 68-69); ¡hey are gre.tly ..sisted by ;ntenectua/ po",er, which
dirocwers t:hc C<lmpulsions binding even on the godo (H); lhey =y
.Iso ohmio. by propiciatioo rhe bclp of the gods; .Ieh individllllllus rus
personal glludian spirie (, S J. lOO) and al ¡he same time musl conlend
wiili /ml.volent dcio...nd spiria (47, Hl"l-6S). Tu find his way
Ihrough the rurmoil oí litis Iife. man should seek che will of Ih. gOO.
by aU kinds of divinotion-tbrollgh bírds, thunder, entnúls, prophets-
.ud even through numerologica¡ calculadon (89J-94); he shollld aIso
"y tu .ppeue, propinare. and influence rhe wiU oi Ih. gods by .. cri-
ficc and rhe tending of their ;< no crhic.¡ rtAChing <lis-
cernibk in Manianus. no ,uggesoon of moral laws or guidance for
pcnoml conduct eompar:o.ble to the M"",ic cottllm11dment$ Oí the
Q¡ristian beacirude.. There i.s aho no suggestion of i.nici>.cion ;nto a
mystCTy, of salvaoon through divine interc=ion, such as Apuleius'
Metamorpho,u reveals. lmmortality comes not from diwine gilt or
perwnal hoUness bur from tite fame won by intcllectual achievement,
aftee eifort 2nd saerifice.
Aput fmm tIUs interpretation, the religious lore ;n Marri.og.
U; of considerable interest to rhe hl,tori.tn of rdigion. The description
of tite assembly of the gods (4'-6$) i.s one oi the tbree major ""orces
for OUr pitifn1ly slight kuowledg.:: oi Eouscao w hich wu ""
highJy regarded by the Roman •• Tm Marri.og. admirably
the conflnence of rdigious mditions in tite late Ronun Empire and
the role of rkc:ayed Ncoplatonism in bleuding the me3lIl5. Both W ein_
stock I1ld Turean ague rhat Ibis bleoding is OOt tite wock of Ml nianus,
bur tlu.t be used the now-lost leaching of Cornelins [.aben, who had
brought late Grcck .ud ¡",He religion and cosmology mro • synt.l=is.
Martianns' particular achievcment wu ro combine th.Jlt religious syn_
" Uuno... p. 'j.
"W.inorook. P. '0"
I)Q THE ALLEGORY AND TI/ E TRIVIUM
theas with lhe secular "religion of by placing bis creacise on
me seven am in m..t conren.

THE CURtllCULUM OF THE SEVEN LIBERAL AItTS

To * "",dem, the curriculum of the ""ven am ot first appears ro
llave no principIe of unity; it ""ems lo be a nndom grouping oi sub-
jcen in which any ""bstirutioo of one rOl another wouJd be !lO more
significant Illan Ihe sub6titutiol1 of geography fOI Spanish io. rnodem
pupil's COI1l'ge of study. H owe>'er, teachers of lhe eoorly Middle Ages-
OIssiodorus, Isidorc,Alcuin, lUbaouo Mmrus,john of Solj.bury,T1tierty
of a..mu'..... regarded it:l.S an integrated curriculum widl ""ven corn-
ponenl:l,.n mcessary, Thc otigins uf the curriculum wcre in clusical

lt is well knowo thatthe IlNdy of rhetorle bcgon in the Greck world

of thc fifth 8,<;' and W2S marhted in AthclL'l hy the Sopbisu;;"
AristotIc is reponed to have regvded Zeno:l.S the fnunder of di,lec-
rle;" grammar, th. wchnical otudy of longuage, of Ihe trymology .od
of words, abo bogan with the Sophists," The mathelnWcal
srudies I n older than thj¡, bUI it W2$ in clusk.J Athens, espccWly in
fourth-cenrury Athcns, thot thc Iwo groups of srudic:s--the liter:ory-
aOO che mathamoCld CllII1C oogethet ro foon a curriculum,
The rheroricion Isocnres rego.rded mathematics (in modcnrion) :as an
acceptable propaedeutic ro rhetorieal study," w hile Plato prescribed
that Ihe guardiam of bis republi<: srudy IiteNlUre in thc:ir boyhood
before mey .pprooeh d,. nuthemoo""J .nd dU.lecti",,1 pcriod of their
rnining," lo the nc:tt genc:mion, Aristotle pupils 10 llave
"Cas.K>dorw I-u..i<m<, 11 ",0«, 1_', Isidou E.ymoloz;.. " .,; Alcuin
0.4."..1.. <M;,n.. n, Vol. a. coIs. 811-5V; d, po<Ud<>-Bedt. EI.......... _
Pbl!olOpblu J;bri tv (,\Ugne, Pl., Vol Xc. col, "71), IUb..,.,. lIhuruo D< <I<ri-
<'-"'1m mrrimIi<m< (Migne. Pl., Vol, cvn, cok 195-.,.>tl, Jahn 01 SoIisbu:ry M._
.'¡"g/""" 1, 1>: l . ... ' 1, 9- On Thiury, ... tdourd }duD<t!l, "lA f>'I>Iopt ..
EPI"'''''''''''' do Thierty do: Outtr...• M<41MwJ $ntdIn, XV! (''1\'V, '1+ f,
.. Su, e.¡, G. Kenntdy, Tk Án t>f P...,...u;O" i" 0 ...«, chop..,
" s.:. Satus Empiricus Ad".,._ n Dioge_ Loerti.. Liw.
Df "" i. m 9- '5-
a nu. ¡, tIIe period In whlob 1'I0I0', 0."1/'" jo se<.
lO AmidDm .6t-69-
.. RipuMe 316 ,,,,
 THE SEn;:; L I BERAL ARTS 9'
mldied lin:rature dialer:tic, rhetQMC, god IIl;ldt(:t1tgUCS bcl"ore ¡bey come
tO lIim for philosopby,tI The fim =nt WMter whose works ""ver
the essentials of the seven liberal .""" is Hendidos of Pontus, • pupil
nf Alisrorle who wrote 00 grorumat, rhewMc, di..Jectic, music, and
gcornetry, bcoid •• rus philosopbical wom" Even at trus early stage,
then, ¡he pcopIe who wcre lU051: inter<:Sted in the fun spao of Jubjects
wece philosopbers; and che seven liberal grU were in essc:o«, and al-
wgys philosophen' curriculum.
This ""'y seem.o sUtcrncoe, co"'¡deriog lhae,., Morrou
points out, dte philosopbers were oot .lone: in fostering thi, programo
ac.ro and Quintilian, fnr example, considcred che liberal ora to be
the blSC of the ideal or:>ror's edUC2lion. lo Marrou', word" " In tne
Rornao epocn, Ih. nu;ycliOt pifiát ia apptarcd at 1east theoreticaUy ro
he th. rI<X ry preparmon f.or Qll fonos of higher culture: Iitera'Y,
teehnkil, scientific, as wdI as philosophical."tt
Nevenheless, dtete is a world of diffe,.nce heeween lip .. rvice .nd
fulfi11ment. O uiotilian, for insronce, oever ,hows ony sigo of profi-
ci.ncy in, or real concern wim, the smdies of che "VeO
(geomecry, aslrotlOmy, ""d music); Cic.ro, io rus tunsIs-
tioos of Antus and the Tim.uw, sbowt more genuine inte,cst-but
meo ac.ro wu more of a philosophu tban Quintilian. Th. prognm
of the Iiberilans wu no mOte tllan '0 UI1:Itt:ti.... bl. ideal; "no longer
,he ohjece of. regular education, ic was morelr a frame which each
man'. erudition strOve tO fill more or less."to Thc only people who
Iltriously promored the srudy nf.U s.ven hberal artS wen: philosophers.,
Cn whom alone th. Wt four studies were imporunt, for (hey
bnochos of che mathematicQ! sntdies pracrihed by Plato."
The justifications for the fust thrtt srudie, io me curriculurn were
simple. Granunu envere<! borh ch. elemenn of language-which W(;
Sli]] call "gramnu.r"-and che srudy of ]jtu;lture,espcwlly powy; ic\VllS
cbu. dte minimum imroductioo to one's culrunl inh.riWlce, dte foun-
<latinn of aU Dialectic was a trainiog in logic, a formal min-

.. 5<. M:am:ro, Soim AuR ....... ti ¡, 1m dt 4 <W"'" _íqw, PI'- 21' -21 .
.. 5<. O",!<II<! u.:,,¡uo J';"", J.- '
.. M.,.,..,." sm.: Au,..,..., PI' "NJ (my "*"'IdotioD) .
.. lbid., po 216•
.. tu¡"'¡'¡;c 7. jlj"J'"
91 Tln: A LL EGORY AND TIlF.

ing in verbal thinking; rbetoric, mining in expression. Thy wrrcspond

ro &UCh subjeas in modero English-spcaking ",hools as English gram-
mar, English EnglOO expression, and logic-which may noC
all be caughc as fonnal SIIbjeccs in .ny ooe school to<hy but never-
theless pan of its educarinn.
So mueh for the sobjects which me Middle Agcs called che
trivi\lIIL Thc '1utdrivium. as Klinkenberg ..y.," was conceived by
Bo«hius "lIS. gmus whose species the four mothmta,ica.1 disciplinell
of gwmetty, astronomy, t nd music.. Wllac gives ir unity is
tite subjcc:t wich which ic deaJs: number,or racher magnitude. Arim-
metic deaIs wim magnitudes lIS sud\, geomctry with immovable mag-
nitudes, asuooomy with magnitudes in motion, md music with
rclarions oi differmt magnitudes ro ORe tnother." Thc philosopl>ers
srudied mese subject:!i beco_, to quoce Boethius, "everyrhing that is
formed fmm notunl origins _01, to be fonned on • nwnrncal btsis.
For thi, wu the design foreOl<lll: in me mind of me c ..... ror."" The
scie_ of number, aritlunetic, is the k.y ro me other three .rndics:
geomeuy is che stUdy oi nwnber gi9m sllape (we recall Martitnus' de-
scriptinn of Four as "the I\lre perfcction of t ooIid body. fOI ir COO1-
plises ¡ength bre.dm and depth" (7341) ; lStTOnomy is the .rndy of such
Mapes given motion (1I!Id furthermürc. tite st;Irs in Pbronism 1m divini_
ties with sptcitl rclationsltips ro -rhe souk of meo); while music, me
di8ciplioe of number in its proportions, was considered tlle key ro tU
the relationships, physicol and spiritual, '1uanritlttive ,nd qualitatiqe, oi
che world. AcwTding ro Boethius, me cosmos .is held logecher by
nwnber: ''You bind the eletnent:!i with numben 50 that cold oonsorcs
with fIames, dry thing! wim liquids, 10 tbat me puree elcmcnt of fin:
may noc fly or cheir wcight drr¡g dowu che submcrgcd land ..... •
We an: remindcd in.andy of tite operung invocorinn of MartianU$'
work.
For probing the secrers not only ni the pbysical world bur of divin-
iey ond of the Iumw! :soul as wcll, the quadrivium is tn esscntial ¡>re-
.. H .... Klink<o\oer¡,"Oer VerhlI dos Qwdririwm im fríiheo Mittdalcu," in
Jood Koch. od. Arut UbnoJk. wn dn .....a... BiId_ ..... Wimmc"(' dn
Mil"WUN, '(my .... .
.. lIoetIúat., o. Arithnml&. l . t: M..... re., Vol. 6)., coL ",S)I>.
.. <>1 J. DL '''"''1 dtod by P. ••
 Tia: SEVElI LIBERAL ARTS 9l
Jimjnary.le serves two purposes: it er:oins the mind io the mathematial
eonceptl! aod ,kili. necessary ro cc>mprehend aud t he
mathclIIlItical basis of me world and me l¡fe C>f m e world; aod it puri-
fies tbe sonl by leading ie eo dwcll 00 immAterial ehing!. absmlctions,
"nd thus remo,·es it lrom ehe Iife of namR ro that of Soul and Mind.
The laner pnrpose is weU-lmown from Plato's Cl'position in his
&publJ"c, ond wu on argumcot whicb ¡ustified lhese stodieo lo Ihe
Cbristisn Oemeot oí A lexaodria.- Of COUf5e, IIIlIthcmatics hall often
been srudied by scientisu for its own sake, ."d the mathematical and
astronomico.! worl<$ of Hip¡»rchus, Eratosthenes, Euclid, and ome",
hld no motive. Buc in late antiquiry, with tbe new imperus
which Neoplatonism brought eo philosophy, ehere was. new religious
em phasis on che purification o{ the mind and hearr. With the R-
of. philosophy which used number, harmony, shape, and me
stHf as esseotials in la ethics.nd mttaph)"ics, mese four m.thenutical
studic:s reassertcd ehar imporunce. Together wilh the Iiterary studi..
they formed I toral of oeven, I number oí g=t mystical significance
-so much so tlu¡ Augustin., who induded philosophy in his list oí
libe...t srodics, omitted arithmetic (which would io any case be assumed
as underlying geumcuy, astronomy, and music) io o,der to keep Ihe
m.gic Donlber."
In modern time. we justify mathematical srudi.. in our curricula
eimer .... craining in spatia!., numenea!, and nonverbal tlUnking ur,
Pl"llgrnaricaJ!y, as • for a tnany 1)'pes of ¡<lbs and
simacions in e"eryday life. To me lllCients che second consideranon
did not .pply It me le"el of education we are discussing, lor these
studics, and wcl'C thuught 00 be aboye the .. of
cQnung a living. (fhis is hidden nnder Apollo'. remark
aoout Medicine ""d Architectun:: meyan: out 00 speak at me wed-
ding oí Phi lolugy and Mercury m..y are [()() occupied witb
mundano "",ttu. J.) The firsr eoruideution was further
by the ancients than wc would carry ic, ro me poine ehlt m..y n:garded
thcse .rudi<$ as a puciflCltion of the mind pn:p=tory ro mystical C<ln_
templarion C>f nuth. This justiflcation, lin\¡ed wim meir belid in me

.. &''''''''4 6. ,<)-, ,.
.. Morrou, s.;", Augum", P. ' 9'. See ''''''', P.l. n.' ,.
94 THE ALLEGORY TUE TI\IVIUM

necessity of matbematics lor undetst:onding: God, mm, and tite world,

WU obviously only by pltilosophcn and wu dismisscd by
rhetoricians, who regarded tbese studies as impcactica1. The curriculum
of tbe sevtn liberal ares, therefore, wu fully taught only by plúlo5-
ophers, Ind widely =¡xed only whm a resu<¡ence of pltilosophy
coincided with • declioe oí rhetork. A sign of this eoincidence may
be read io {he faer tbat berweco V,UO, in tite !irse ceOtury II.C., and
Marcian"". the",;" no evidence dar .ny handbook of tite sevcn libenl
1m wu written¡ ¡m. contemporary witb Marcianos. Augustine mued
one, in the nen cenrory, Cassiodorus oompiled ooe, wltile Boechi...
wrott 00 many oí the subjecu, discussed the basis of the liberal ares,
"nd 'ppears t(> have coined tite word (or, in hi5 form,
qu.o'¡ruvitnn) ¡ and lsidore of Seville, It once 10 offspring of aotiquity
and a sin: of (he M¡dd!e Ages, !:reaes oí mem io the first three booI<s
of his
Conceroing che stllte of educanoo in Manianus' nme we leam .lmost
nothing from Martian"" himsclf; but, jf our dating is right, he U; .!most
In eDct contempoury and fellow couotryman oí Angustio .. whose
education ;" wen documented .nd tus becn exhausrlvely srudied."
Augustioe was brought up in me lirenry .nd rhetorical educ:anontl
tradinoo Il1d rumcd to philosophy ooly iD ITIlItlUÍty¡ he therefore
provides an eJlceltent pict\lre oí rberorical educarlon in its dol:Igc.
The fll'St &tudy aftn leaming ro read Il1d w rite was gnrnrruor, in ies
two .. oses oí liteNture and lingu4rlc strocrure. The liuguistic SO'\ICt\Ue
tlugbt io Nonh Afria in rhe founh cenrury A.o. w... che Llnn of
Rom. of tbe fIrst CentUl)' p.e. Tt concenrnted on morpbology, deriv-
ing tite rules of .ymllI more trom tite fonns of inflecrcd wom. than
trom their function in eIpr...mg mcaning; by grammatical Merrors,
its teachers me:IDt me deliberare irtegularities IIld licenscs found in
sorne cI"'¡cal wrirus. especia1ly potlá not the ignorant errors bl:cly
ro appear in thc Larin oí . fourth-cenrury provincial boy. The tn::aC·
mmt of lireNtute was if anything even more conuuy ro modem
ideas: it consisted mainIy ;n commennng OD the tut word by word,
pointing OUt gnrnmatial form lJld tunecino, mearnng (a fourth-ccn_
ruf)' ceacher might wen llave bad ro panphrase. cl,,'¡,.,l.utbor rnuch
 THF. SEVES LIBERAL ARTS 95
as a modero teadwr does wim Shakespeare), ,IIe,orical figures, erymol-
ogr, any pc:rtintn, tUstory or mytholo8Y (esped.l!y for propc:r
""mes), and in general any item of inform:u:iOll which me urulemarul_
ing of. pmicubr word might require.. Such • procedure could give
rhe pupils a broad mass of hisrorical, grognphicol, and otller kn"",l-
edge in the coursc of litervy srndies, and ro that c>:tcnt it provided 2
form of genenl educatlon; bu, thi.s knowledge was inevitlbty <lis-
organized, derived haphazardly from single words as mey oo:lUT'ed io
a lirenry coruen. Moreovcr, this procedure coutd ruin thc work 115
lilerature-oever tr(:¡ting a pass.ge as • whole, .JWlys it,
breaking rhe continuiry, emphasWng ,he trivial tt .he expense of m.
subUme.
lJi.otecrie was often tl"eated in .ntiquiry as ,he coumerpan of rhet-
orie. The Sto;e 7.000 liad uscd the irntge of • ""nd," ,he denched
fin is dialecric, compre$SCd and fom:ful¡ me opon patm is rhetoric,
expansive ond wide_=ging. The plll"J"'"C of diolecric in me curricutum
WIS 10 min me power of reuoning, to discovC1" and {ortify ¡:be argu-
mento whidt rherone would t hen use.. It WU I subject of Utde interest
to orhe ... m.n pruJ"",phers and iI. pl.ce in Ihe trivium was effectively
as the handrrWd of rhetorie. Nor untit the twelfrh century did ir come
into ito glory.
The ne.>:t major study .fter gnmmor, .od fo[ rn.ny m. ottly om.r
srudy, wu rhororic, genenUy according to ¡:be formal ruteslaid down
by acero, wim enmptes drawn frorn ruS spc:eches. The ,eaching of
rhetoric in Martianus' time had not ehanged much since Quinti.lilln:
first the terms, divisions, 2nd rules of rhetoric, thm the clemtnrary
exercises, finally the and .u.uori.r., Ihe dedan",riollS. The
policial thernes wcrc still d ....wn frorn the exporieoees of ¡he Rornan
Republic or even the earticr Greek dty-state!, though Rom. liad b«n
• monsrchy for ccorurics; che themes were stiU those of Quio-
tilian's day, though law had becorne incr=ingly a spc:cialist's province.
The main areos Jdt to che ontor as field. fo[ his taleoto were display
or:atory and writing.
The D.rrOwnes\ of this edUClltion, JO apparel\[ to lIS,.. we tist ies sub_

• Cicero Or."" l'; V. fi1lÜ>w •• 6.. 'n Sams Empiricm AJ_ _ ..,..Imn__
ti,,,, •. 7.
96 THE "'I. LEGORY "':;-0 TOE TIUlliUM
j= <mner aOO procwurts, ..coped ehe ootice of tt. t ..chers ond mose
oí its studma btause oí the gte.e .aentioo it poid, afrer ies foshioo, to
comprehenslveness. D id it not require the srudy of a1l the seveo
am "" e;:seoti.J f"r 10y e<!ucate<! man? Aod if these srudies were
not .. cohereot inteUectual discip1i= bU! as SCf1Ipi of iníor-
mation like m= picked up al nndom in Ihe grmllIlO.r class--<l prac<:-
dure whieh tO us vitiaees their eduañoJlllI nJue--ir does nor mean they
were dismisscd as unimpornme. "Leaming" wu dcsired ,nd tdmired
in I lIWl insofar as it might hclp his onto'1' Mmphors from ostron_
omy, appeoJ. bosed on ethicol • ..gomenes, examples dnwn froro
history (or mythology), thesc w ere sought and V31ucd. So ame those
Iwtdboob of many subj<:ets which Martiaou. used as SOUI'CH, pocket
histories Iikc tbat of Valerlus Muirnll$; ond rhough the "encyclopc<lW"
hJ.d h.d. differem genesis, chey eoo were pue ro
'f'/W; ttadition of polymathy, 01 leaming, was ID old-
enablished one. H ippios the Sophist in the fifth = ' 1 M.e. hJ.d an
encyclopedic nnge of intereslS;" Aristoue lu.d trie<! and mu<t lu.ve
pnctially in mureñug tite whole fle!d of lcalmng in his
doy; the ochol.!1 oí H eUenistic Ak,..ndñ . Iu.d tried by eondensing tnd
epieomizing t" reduce the fieJd oí knowledge to mon2geobJe propor-
tion¡. N o one, however, ..eros ro hove tried alone ro write an aceaun!
of a11 tru.I is l<nown unril Varro in tite fitst cenNry Le. H is ...orl<s
eovered nOe only trtatisc. on che Lorin I"'gulge and 011
agrn:uJture bue .Iso a survey of t he am (including medicine and
architecture),. VJsr eollection of essa)'S in milccd veNe ,00 prole (tite
Mtnipptlm S4tiur), and a long ...oIk, the Amiquüiu, which was •
primitive encyclopedia. Varro ""'" ernuLoted by Pliny tbe E/der, wb"..
nephew has \eft u. a vivid picture of bis unde'. "..:isson-oud-pasre"
rnethod, bis $laves wouJd read aloud tO him tM works oí others, while
he told thern WMI jWlS>ge;¡ ro excerpt tnd capy OUt." Thc c"n-
sequences s:condhaud informarion, an unctitical approach, ineonsiJt-
encics, flilure ro acl<nowledge sources, llclc ni stnlctun--ue a fore-
mm oí ManiaUlI$. Altbough many lu.udhoob 011 individw.l. subiec ..
OI groups of subjects were pRpared in the inter'Val, fmm lOme of

.. PIolO Hipp/M M4joT 'lI:!b_¡ Liw. IIH i9! .

.. P1iny <h. Y0""B" Ú:,"' l. S.
 THE SEl'!:/< I.IBERAL AR TS 97
which did ruS own excerpting, rhere seems ro have oon nO
treatise with tite flInge of Vorro's or for when Augustine, a'
the same time as Mlnianus, felr impclled ro write on rhe scven libcul
artS, ie wu ro Varro tIlat he turned fOI a mode!. M.rtian\l5' work,
derivW from 50ch oou=s, rllemse lves derivative, could be ptoduced
only in an old .00 ft iling ci<'iliution: cenroñes of uue scholanhip.
the whole flInge and depdl ofGreek l1ld R oman learning, lie behind ill
stock definitio,," lts ,rivi.liti.. Ind ;noo"";',enci.., "Are ill rhy eon-
qucsa, glories, triumphs. spoik, .hrunk ro , m,li,do m ..... re?"
Becawe TIu was later used as a school rext, it ha. often
be.n tiS\lmod W have been written .. such. Yee ill range i, TOO wide
and its tr..tment too inadcqu.ote, compare<! with the scopc of the
anciene school telTII we Imow, fOI tlm ro have been its BeCluse
i, conc.ins mmy Neoplaronie and Neopyrh.gorem elcmencs, ir might
appear ro have been I contriblltion for rhe pagan opposirion ro Chris-
tianiry; but I r besr this would Ipply only tu me first two books; the
Iasr ,",veo are ideologicolly and the work . . . whole Ms no
polemicaJ Of etegtTÍcol purpose or all. &cause it appeared in • rime of
• crisis and collopse, ir has betn dlought to have betn ineended . . .
surnmory of the lcaming oí Intiquity. an Mencydopcru.," ro be trlns-
mined co pom:tity before ehe barbarian invasionl: but .gajo che scopc
is roo narrow and deliberately restrÑ;ted. FurthemlOR, such • plan
presumes. degree of foresighr and a .eme of foreboding of wmch
MllI'Tianus giV'CS no indicarlon.
These demonts are nor ro be di'reg:o.rded: rhe seveo liberal i rts wc:re
t e base . &chool curriculurn ; the work is rhar of a pagoo using Neo-
plaronist tenns; ir did appear at. time of cri5is. Bur these f..tures are
not 50fflcient ro explain che won.:. In the words of C1audio Leonardi:
The •• <he ......... lU<h he« ¡n"t.ik and .,." <Xpllin it i< """ only • ounom
of erudition or • Neoploroni<t Ioim; io: i< "" ucirud< <>1 "&",,,I.n<" rulrur< ....d •
<Id."""
........... of ,.u.justifict.tioo .od by pultÍng • •• rytI!jng 00 1, jo .
q""""" of • h......., ottltudt .nd • cWtut'Sl l'<OCtioo ckuly .. pllÚrublo In •
momen, o/ decl&rcd crisis or &c.deo<:< •• dof..... by <he puodiRf! of .u "",,',
.'ptoperty". o...·, oe<:<UIII1!1rioll oi leo""",."

T ms putpose of display acCounts for .. veNI otherwise unaccounttble

.. O..,d .. Leourdi, "N_ introdutci... pe' DO·;lId<eine..,O' lottlIJlo ,¡; 101 ...._
o.iooo Copel], ... l modiocm," BISlAM. LXVII ('95J) '700'" 67.
98 TII[ AL LEG ORV ANO TIIE TJl.IVIUM
fetrures of ¡he work. For {tUs =n. ir covers all¡he seven 1ibem lIftS
traditionally "occssary to Ih<: formation of lO educaled mano For ¡bis
reason, ir empJoys the language and so/le of pelhntic displo.y, rhe tor_
tuousneu . nd bombas! of " wtit<::r straining ro imprc .. bis reade .. with
his literuy skiUs, and to show off his Imowledge of G reek terms,
G=k proper ntmeS, Greek dedensions. For mis reasotl, does. OOok
on tite seven lnS have a gludy mylhological fnmework, Joden Ind
frctted with olk:gory, to our eyes $O disproportion.", in siu and in-
appropriare ro the main body of the work. !Wrti.nus is dispbying his
leaming, in a rcligious eontext, perhaps ro win for him..clf the im_
mortality ¡ha¡ Plato and AIiscotle, Cicero and Varro, Ichicved. And.,
with.n bis bults, bas he not becu to $OIJlC exletlt ,nce·o/fuI'

THE TJl.lVIUM
We have .lready observed ¡he origins oí rheroric, dU.lecric, .nd
gl'llmm.ar as clu-u nnrelated subject3, amongst th<: Grecb oí lhe fiflh
.nd fOOM cenrune. R.e. Of rh=, ,he subject with the mosc prcstige
carne to be metoric; bu! mcroric invoJves lhe \lSC of woro. and rhe
.rudy of liter:>lure, ;IS wcll as rhe \llIe of Iogieal argument•• o thal ir is
closely reJatcd ro irs sister ans, grammar "nd dialcctic. 11>e cementing
of mis rclationship seems ro have beco prirn.riIy a Stoic contribution."
Thc Stoics divided rhe fidd of philo$Ophy into c{hics, natunl philos-
ophy. and Jogic; aOO rhis lut included al] aspects of vernal e:q¡lUIion,
hmcc lhe wbole lrivium. &ndys Zcno himself and bis lile-
cessor in rhe school, Oetnthes, os antbo .. of worb OD gnrnmar"
(Zeno'o wc!l·l<nown comparison of dialcctic and rhetonc hos a1ready
becn rnc.miooed here). Thc l.tu Stoics Chrysippus and CuICS of
M.ll"" cerninly wrore and locwred on grarnmatic:al qoe.oons, and
Chtcll iotroouccd {h.,.. srodies ro Rome." In the first cenrury R.C- Ihe
le;¡ding figures of Rornan iotdlecrua.l Jife, V.arro and acero, who
uerted rhe most profound influencc on aIl subsequent Latin tcholar-

• So. especiilly Oios<- Loerti..• opptndi< lO biI Ii€. oí z.t>O: t;w, 1. JI-
,60, "'1'- I9"+!oJj-Ó<l, 'J'"*-
., J. E. Sondys. A Hino'] o( Cu,ñ&1Il S"boJ.,bip, Vol. PI'- obo
G. Pire. S,oú:imu .. piJ.go¡j•• pb. , ond •.
.. SoetoniuI Do ".4JtlmIlIds ••
 TUE TII.IVIUM 99
!hip in antiquity, wcre tbCJJlKlves pupils of the StQics Ae1ius StiJo and
Posidonius, respecrively." There were a Stoic Ipproach tO and
I Sroic theory of grarnmar, just 3S there wu a Stoic logic; IUd, by
thcir scholarly inte=r in tbese fields, combined with dteir srudies of
comIology .nd th.ir quasi-religious philosophy, the Stoics had the
most UnpolW1t inf)uence in esrablisrung in the minds of the general
edUC3ted public both me connection bctween die trivium and tite quad-
rivium and the counecrian between the sU'en ond phiJosopby,"
In V inO'. encyclopedia and acero', meroricol worb, gramnu.r, día-
leerle. aud rhotoñe .re me only subjects whieh find
a pl.ce in me prognm oi T his refIects thcír aC<:epted position
in the f>4MeilJ, in which they rc.maiu unril Maro.nus' tim . ...

GRAMMAR
The srudy uf granul1Qr begon with me Sophists of die fifth cenrury
II.C. and wu c.ni.d forward by Plato" "ud tO a Icsser em:m by
Aristode." They moy be possed over cursorlly t.:couse ,he mosr ... pid,
wide-nnging, and iofluenrial develupmem is fouO<! in the Stoic
particularly (in trus early pcriod) in the work oí Chrysippus. He is
kuuwn to havo w rltten on the parrs of speech, on cases and uwnber,
ou solecisms, lO<! e;pccWly on anonu.ly."11Ie StDÍc,- with thcír ethic
oE 1 life in lccordance wim narore and thci.r inwae concem wim
qucsl:ioru of narunl philosopby, dmOit iuevitably "'ere committed to
me vicw that language is a "'tunl procea'l in whieh there =y be re_
sembbnces but not "roleSH tnd in ",hieb eoinages, variet)',
are to be aptcted. An opposing view "'os token by cl>e
gnnunarians such aS Amrophanes of Byuntium .ud AtiSW"Chus and,
later, Dionysius oí "I1mcc; these men, with no philosophical commit-
mem but • mission to preserve and =rore th. tat:!l of cw.;cal G=k
.. Ibld. , -¡ : Cicw> 8""", r",-6. Se.: also Gtldeman, ·'G,..",,,,o<il<." .. Pauly_
w _ Vol p<. l . coh. r7'}ll-r800.
.. s.. «p<ciilly Pi«, pt. r. cllt[>- ¡.. "" PocIdouioJs.
.. For o full .. ocrowu of <b< .Je ...lopme'" of <he nte1cJiD, p.>itkio. ... M _
mm"..]. f'I' r76-li¡; oruI Id"", s.,;", A"P"¡", pp. "r -J! .
.. 1" "'" dioIoguo er«,,.,..
.. Se.: Gude"",,,, cols. r¡¡j-t¡.
• I.ooertiwr Uve, 7, '9'.
100 THE ALU:GOkY AND THE TklVIUM

lirerature, found assistance ;0 dttermining die forms of =1lIic and

Wlusual "'OrdiO by reeourse ro analogy wirh similar, more fOlrnUiu
word .. Thc Alcnndri2n:i became rhe ehompiom of "o""logr," the
gt1Immatical rheory thot language is subj.cr m rules, titar word!; foll
mm «ruin clustS ond panems of usage, and titar mere is linle SC<Ipe
for variotion widtin rhe classes. The infICC«d narun of Greek gives
puticular stmIgth ro this because in fta the rang<= of tcnninJ.-
tious is uuuncly limited in com¡nrisoo with thc =ordinary rich_
ness of rhe vocahohry.
Thus in;ts early stages "grarnnu.r" was;o !ILloy way' simihr m lbe
srudy I\OW known as linguistics. Aocienr grtmnW" smdied sounds
(vowcl... mi,·owcls, consofUOrs, syllable. io lSpe"'$); ir srudi.d
the fonnatioo oi word. ond sylbbles ond t!teir clwlgu; ,od ir di9cu=d
lh. rheories of langugge, anomdy .00 analogy. Ir Wa5 indeed NT re-
from rnod.m introducnons ro Greck or Latin gnmrnar, be-
cause it wu nol the study of a 1a0guage--thlIt ¡s., the ",..tery of a
toogut foreign 1(1 the .tudem--but rather thc nudy of bnguage, with
thc seholo" lISing thcir natife rongue for purposts of iUustraoon.
This Jrudy, together with th. study al literaturc, which io anriqnity
was a1wayJ includ.d uoda the title of "GnlIlIllJr," wu introdnccd ro
Rom. by Cntes of Mallos IbaUt 1691.C." Sine. CnteS WlIS a Stoic,
Stoic gramrn.rical theories Were under5Wl,ubly first in che f,dd tt
Rom.; the wave of Sroicism in ethics thot.1so sweIJed in Rome in lhe
second . oo first a:nruries B.C. natunlly fosrued thc Stoie apprOOlCh tO
gnrnmar. Thus the fim sigoificant RortW\ gnrnmarlans, L. A.lios
Solo and Nigidh" Figulus, were in the Stoic traditioo. And Stilo'.
pupil w.. Varro, wh_ tte1tisc:s 00 the liberal artli and 00 the Latín
profided source mareriol tor SO much oí the Latín
gnrnmatical writing. Varro, discussing tt length both analogy .00
anornlly, rook • soruewhat ioc<>mistent cdcctic position." Howcver,
in the fim ceotury A..", • dissentcr appeand, rhe manlUYlÍtted slave
Remmius Paloemon, wh= musive Q'"4h"'uniu (I\OW lost) at_
tacked V. rro. By 1eaning hearily roward lnalogy, clarified
the Larin. dcd.nsions and conjuptions _nd clurly disringuished thc:
n s.. obono ... .., .
.. Soe «po Do 1....... l . • ¡:"Io "'y opIoioo '" dIO"olJ follow both poi ...
0'",,""1 oloo 90 )-6; ,o. 010.
 C!tAMMA!t w,
e.ight po"" of spccch. Subscquent Lacin grunrrwianIlldd little of sig-
nir""nce tO the work of VltrO ¡nd P-I.liemon. The .pprolch of the
liner, which survives molit fuUy in tbe treotisc of Otorisius, is cvident
in rnosr bler gnunrnari.ans, induding Monianus.
Martionus' ¡¡ranumr begins with a Wmition of tite $COpe of the
wbjcct, then moves into on exrum.tive discumon of lemn, their
p"""'0le positions in worus, Ind ¡lteir pronunciation. Syn.bles lre nert
<ÜSCussed. Wil11 comider,¡ble memion ¡»id tO pronunduion Ind
aa;enru.otion. Tite di5Cussion of final iJlbblcs is cnncinued through
e""h of ¡be po"" oí spccch. giving {he r.:ader sorne introduction tO the
<ledensions of nouns amI the conjugations of verbh These ropics ore
conside",d at g""'ter length in Morcltnw;' nen oecrion, on anaIogy as
.pplied firsc ro nouns .nd adjectivcs, then ro veros. The trelOse con-
eludes wim One section on anomaly, complaely diíferem in Ufl.
frorn the rtSt of che trtatise.
The lOmees of Martianus' Book 111 lttve liceo moroughly invcsti.
g:lted by Wilhehn Longbein," foUowing :m .:arlier study by Jollann
Jürgensen. u The srudy is rntde particululy difficult, not to say in·
ronclusive, I.>ecausc our $urviving LItio gnrnmatical tre:otises are
rnainly of che fourm century A.D. Or bter,.nd che most one can do is
compare Manianus wim each oí tItese and construct hypot:ltcKs ro
aplain sUnibrities or differences..
There ue many pointo of correspondenc. between Manianus' third
book .ud me work of Diomedes (dating from tite later fourth cenrury
A.D.), which JUrgenoen apbins by supposmg tila! both borrowed fmm
• comrnon ""urce. "I"his nu.y be true, but the source, ir :my, Iu.s pero
ished. As Langbe.in points out, motcOver, there lre aIso many cotrC-
spondroccs lletwern Mattianus and Charisius, Muimus V1cturinns,
Servius, and oc leur one anonymoWl Imllor; and they Canoot In be
shown ro de"""nd froro one cOnnnon source . Funhermore, Martianus
differs from Diomcdes in his definirlon oí • .¡yU.ble, in distinguishing
lhe thrcc porto of • syJable, in distinguishing me foor gcner. of jwIc.
and in details oí rile of including his UKnion

.. o. C.ptU. " ....

""'De rutio> Mo.nioni Oo.peU .. b"bm," c"""""", ••ú"." p¡,;¡oIt!,H ",aL M
pbi/oJop .a,.. PI'-
102 THE ALLEGORY ANO TKE TRIVIUM

chac a word can bear al! time tC<:e1ltS AtglIClwn) . Langbcin COlI-
dudes chat in tltesc sections Martilnus prtfund co advanee his own
opinian..
TItere is In espcciaUy dose similariey between Mortionru; _nd Ch ....
risiWl in cheir treatnleJ1t of conjugations and d.densions. Now Clwisius
derives from Colllin4nU$, JuUru; Romanus, and uJcimacdy R.nunius
P.laemon. Did Mntionus follow Olarisius or sorne one of the,e othen?
The iesemblonccs are JO close wc Ltngbcin concludes he followed
Ou.risius directly; whue he differs it is because he wished lO adwnce
his Own opinion or perhaps because he foUowed • differmc source,
...eh as Pliny the E1der. Mortionus' t=tment of words cndiog in u is
not found in Othei eXt:IOC gnmrnarillns. His treatmenl of che vowel io
J.u; does no! correspond wich chac of ocher grarnmarians chough sev-
en l discuss chis point.
M.artianus is cJose ro Muimus Victorinus and Servius io his trelt-
meor of common sylLables, final syllobles, pronnuns, verb!, adverb!,
participles, coojuncriQ!\$, prepositions, and iorerjections, but it is Un-
possible lO establish from which he drcw. Though he has a few poina
of membbnce wieh Probus and with che Aoonyrnous of Borne, these
are slight CDml"'rcd lO his correspondences with other gnmmarians.
le seems eleor ehat he and PrisciAn used thc """'" source for d"""ription
of che lmen--wbether the ..,urce is Papirian"" or 10 earlier wriler
such as Probos or Pijny is agajo in doubt.
Langbein'. is that Martiaous' JOurctS ;ll\": of the founh
cenrory rather dun earlier grarnmarü",,; Wt he (.... well .. Olarisius,
Diomedes, Servius, and .0 anonymous auchor) borrowed from sorne
10Uro.. now lost ro W; thOl Martianll.O ocnsiotuUy inserred inro thi.s
material opinio"" of rus own, of no particular rnerir; and lhat SOrne of
Varro's teacrung, .long with Palaemon's, fOllnd its Wlly tbrough imer-
mediaries jotO Marcianu,' pagos.
The inf[uenee of chis book _ppcars ro have heen very sligbt.
GRgory of T ours" mentio"" M.artianus a, a lnsic in the seven
uts, including gnnunar, buc the Rference is cursory lDd implies no
'pecial use of Mart:ianus' Book 111. Diclt, in bis edicion of Martian......

.. H;.. .., i>f ,h. F.""k, ,<>. J' .

.. Pp. '06. 'oS. "o, ",. "J.
 GRAMMA R "3
n')tcs certain similaritie5 betwcen 800k IR an<! Btde's De.".u _mea.
Ooe ntIUIuscripc <>f Martin of Looon'J commcntuy did not even bother
to g10SJ 8001< 111." John Soot Eriugenú C<lfI\InOnrary" trt:Its 8001< III
v«r bridly. most attenrion bcing given to rhe a!legorical iotroductioo,
2nd = e n I S on thc technico! port of the book being confined 2lmost
eotirely ro expbining the uncornmon words and proper Domes w hich
OCcur amongst Martianus' eumples. Remigius' trtaUnent is oven more
striking," for ",hile h. is nonnally much more full in commcru:
Eriuge"", 011 Book 111'. technical material he makes 00 cornment
whJ.tever¡ his notes deal exclusivoly with the aUegorical sections.
Apart from manuscripts oí the tDtire twenty-thrte of the
manuscripts by Leoondi" include Baok III of sorne par[ oí it.
Two of these (006. 76 .ud! '9) are 110 slighr as rO be An-
othu (no.... ) conrains the conunenl:lry of Remigim, but litde oí
Mam..nus¡ ;mother (no_ 13) L eonardi describe. simply •• conwning
excerpts. OoIy two (oos. 77 2nd ,89) c011tain Book 111 entire; the!e are
In D<' twelfth-cenrory gruumarieal Jttisc.,l1any fmm Fulo:la
(no_77) and I ninth-century litetllty {rom Treviri (no.189).
Thc remaining seventeen manuscripts hU inro two gro0l"" Eleven of
them (nos. 56. '03, 1"4- 114, "7. 185. '9' , '95, 10'. 10J) c011tain
O11ly section 16, of Morcionus, on the pronu!lC:Ílltion of •• eh lener of
the alph2bet. and O11e (00. 138) contains '58-6,. Of thcse, nine
ue o:Iated from the ninth to the twelfth century, none from the thir-
t«nth or fourteenth, thru from rhe fifteenth ;md sirteeoth. The
second group conWn$ Murunus' scctions 1<>0-9 (discussion of
ending in thelmero S th.rough X, and oí voiees of verbo) 2nd 311-'1-
(eonjugarion of verb<) or porrioRS of these. O í this group. four (oos.
¡ -f, 75, 14-1), '40) ore date<! betw.." the eighth and ttnth «nturles,
and one (no. '08) from thc fiftecnrh. Th= oí the early manus<.:ri¡xs

.. Bib! .... fondo 1... MS u \IÓO. poblisbed by Con E. L""" .. [)wu;1ud: al<> ...
su In M .. n.o oaribmion '" Martín ot Loon ..,d ti>< idenriflCOtion of
futtllor ".."...ml'" ¡" by J..., Pú ..... ''U Commcnulro do M...-cin de LooD .....
I"<rIlWC do M>rtwiU. <Apcllo.- lAr_. XU ¡'9JJ), pp. 417-19- 5<>C obove, pp .
.,1I.¡.aod6¡4
.. A ..... ,.wws In M.. <d. w",
., RHnigiw: oí Auuru Co;m,,,,u,,,,,;,, M...no- C.ptIi_ /l/_IX. td. l.utz.
.. " ' U>dLci di ManiaDo <Apell.; A ......... XXXUl ¡'9J9). XXXIV ('960) .
104 THE ALL,EGORY ASD TUE Tlt.IVIUM
(n01l. 7i, '08, '40), '40) 2nd the fJteenth-century copy .ssociate the
M.ortianus possages willl Book 11 of C..sio<;lorus' 11IStitutionu and othcr
gramrnadcll moteM.
The p;crure ;. fairly clear. Book lilas a ",hole WIIi oalnmst unuscd.
W ....t valoe could ;t llave .... d for people ro ",110m Donsrus' far su-
perior grall"ll1U.r "WU I ""ilabk¡ The treltrncnc of pronunciadon "WU
found useful " nd "WU oflen 'I0oled; "nd a tundbook made op of Cas-
siooorus' Instiruti01lts II, J ulius Severitnus, t ¡me....1 computo!, and
excerpu froro Mtrtianus (JDO-<}, JI '-'4) .... d • minor vogue.

O!ALECTIC"
Tbe $Ubjecc oí Manianb$' foorrh book is in mosr ""'P""'''' che: .. me
... the U"2ditionsl fonnal logic derived froro Aristotle ",bici! tus been
taugbt unol recattly in most univeniry counes;n "Logic." Now il has
becn incrtt.!iingly $Uperneded by "Symbolic logic," I more comprehen-
sive muly whicb includes Aristotelian logic merely ... one of irs mb-
Ordilllte paro. In Martianus' prologue (sectiOll 3)0), Dialectic hendf
claims ro have originmd io Egypt and ro .... ve emlgnted ro AcheD5
witlt me phllO$Opher Ptrmenid .... Arlstotle, howcver, is $UPposed 10
....ve .ttributcd Ihe discovery of dialectic lo me phllO$Opher oí pa:r-o-
dox. Zeno." The alleged Egyptian origin may be puc down 00 a per-
sisten! cendency 00 ascribe che: finer producrs of Greek civili7ation ro
Eastun, .nd espcri·Uy Egypn.n, 5OUn:c&." For inst:artce Plaoo" in •
mytlt amibntes che discovery of number, c:aleulation, Ind gcomrtry
(... ",el! as astronomy, dice, dnughts, and writing) ro me Egyptia:rt
god T hoth, and in I symbolic sense he is problbly right. However, me
of arimmrtic and gcometry as intellectual disci-
plines bued on ¡ogicol deduction sccms ro be purely Greek. In pbilos-
ophy, PalIDenide.s was che fllSt 00 make cotl9ciow use of logical de-
duction as t way of seeking certW. lmowledge. Zeno advanced [he
5Ubjecc by bis use oí che rtducrio .d Qbsurdum, 2 procedure understood
by Aristotle U diaJectical, ¡numuch U ;1 involved positing the views

.. T1tio ooctio>a io wrinea by E. 1. 1Io.rg<.

.. Oio¡¡ttt< r-nill< Uw, lo f7; 9- 'S.
O< Kopp, in hilI edition of Muti"".., citu Hcrodo<uo •• '09\ Oiodorul r. Ó9-
.. 1)Jc-d.
 DIALECTlC '"s
of an opponent and showing che contradictary which
rhey lagicolly entlllled.
In ltl; arigin dialectie wu ''a method af enqulry es!IOntially involving
This is iUustrated in the early dialogues of Pltto by
the conversadonal muudon, tO whieh SocrateS dC"ored the grcarcr
I"'rt of hit Ufe." The word lt<elf docs not occur euJier truon che M..,o"
ond may hove bccn comed by Pltro after rcflecdon upon Socrates'
philosopruQl.I metbods. Thraughout che later writings af Pltto rhe
word has a persistently favorable eOllIlOcation, but la m.rence varie.
wltb Pl.ro's ehangillg views . bout whieh mrthod promised to be mos<
uscful for investigating philosophical probkms." Socn.tes had used
dia.lecrlc.l InCthoo. to convine. men of cht:ir ignoranee. In che Mmo
PItro bold. out che possibiliry (Jf achieving ethieal lmowledge by
mahod, .kin ro those used wim conspicuous success by 1M Pyrhag_
(J/Un goometen. Im lectic now 'ppean; u • method oí achieving
positivo doctrine, but rcuini from Íts Socn.ric ance5Iry an lVOWed
pu<ion fOl ¡ruth (in distinclÍon from mirle, which IIOUght m.rely ro
win argwnems), I question-and-tnfWCr method, and a 'Zenonian COQ-
ccm witb che logicalconsequenccs uf I given position. By the fupublie
dialectic promised ro ..hieve I higher fono of Imowledge dan C"en
Jl13thernaCcs." Unlike mathemarict, which worl<s down fmm nncer-
ñf!ed lSSUmptions, itwould be able ro mount up ro In"unhypochetizcd
beginning" fmm whicb 011 knowledgc eould be deduced. As the high-
est poine in che edue.ñon of the prdiaM of Pltro'.id<::tl ciry, di.lectic
becomes "tbe coping-.!tone of.JI tbc scienccs"" and '}'nonyrnous with
philosophy.
Imlcctic'. fucure, more humble position.., . selV,nt of rhetoric aIso
luid lts origiD! in PLaro.ln the Pbitednu dialecric is indispensable to the

.. l. M. Ch>lnbie, .in E _ o " 01 PUto', Do",""". L p, .....2 _ tbo

ocó....... of d>< nrb di.tk, ..... "ro di!crimintte." .. ....u os d>< ..".. of die
middk roiee. "ro """v<ne." lo In ,he den""" """ dW«tü., """- he
dlete{o,e doll ... -dioleetio" os "diocrimUu.tion througlt coop<t>ti ... diocwoIo ..."
.. ApoJof;1 U _'j •
.. PIoto Mrno .
.. R. Robinstm, PIMQ', Eorl;.. DW.&tic, P. 7"-
" PIoto RepubJi< S''''!l .
.. l/>id., JW'.
106 TUE AL LIW O\l.Y MiO TIIE TII;IVIUM
113 role is threefold, to control the SIIbject IIIJtteT,
true rhetoricisn....
occasion, and atrangement of discoUISe; to provide tbe MeIev..tion of
.oul" ne«ssary to complement the outor'. IInura! endowmenQ;; Ind
ro stUdy '"tIle uarure of soul," or, as we should say, psycho!ogy, in
order ro Imow what will persuade in any given caK. The samc passage
introduces che equation of dialecric wim the method of collection and
divisWn chracteristic of tite late dialogues, ... d influencial in the for-
mation of Aristotle's tlleories of chosifieation, dermition, and me syl-
Iogistn. De5pire the importarux of Itis late dialogues and especially tbe
Sopbisr ro logic. Plato does nor envisoge che stUdy of Iogic solely for
its own sake," or its laru roles as eitber in'ltrwnent or constitutive pan
of philooophy. An interest in logictl ... d verbal p1Jzzlel fOl thm own
sake SCCQ'IS ro have b«n che province of eeruin Sophists" and of •
group founded in Mega"" by Euclid",," and Imown vuiously as Me-
garisos, Eristics, and Dialecticians.
AristotIe shared MM of Plaro'soptimism for meraphysical
or scienrifu: trum by dialecticaJ merhoo.. He Iherefore distinguishcs
between philOilOpby and .aence 011 Ih. Olle hand, and tbe principies of
valid reasoning used in ID disciplines employing argulneo! and infer-
= on the orher. Bcing concemed wirll proof, Arhitotle also w.till-
gWshu" betw.en demonstr:ation (valid ugumem from p,emises seen
ro be ttlle) and di'lectical rtUOning (from premises adopted in debate
bUI not ncc_rily lme) . His To pkr ore • handbook of dialectial
argumen13 suit:tble for use in debate, tite rules for which are Iaid down
in tite eighth book. His A.1I4/,riCJ prcsent lhe thwry of che syDogism
in me conrexr of investigating demonsuauve proof; but, as Aristode
hlinKlf Klmowledgcs," it,¡ principies are equally valU2ble for diolcc_
tial ugummt. By now, dialecric has come dosel to what PIno would
!uve termed "eristic," and ks methodoJogy involves • study of what
the commentator Alennder oí Apltrodw... (3d calt. A.o.) was Iattr to
can "Iogic." Hcncdorth che twO sep<ll'llte sttands of dj'lectlc as che

.. PbuJ.", '69-74-
.. W. ond M. Kneo1e, rile o.wJ9pm.:m of Logie, P. '4-
" Ariotodt D< SDpbimds Ekn<bil 'ós"!)-J7; p¡..., Eutb,dmmJ, poaim.
.. DOogttt< Laenius l. ,06-
,. Prior iI...J,,;« ....._bu .
.. p,.;.". Á,w1';" ...
 DIAI.ECT I C J07
puu science of logic lod the practica1 Itt of disputation become in-
txuicably =gled.
As hdr 10 devclopment, compendium of dialectic
1ppears e:rcessivcly wcighled wilh irrdevanl logical UIlItcrial, if viewed
U a debating manual, Or sadly contaminatcd by ies sub,erviernx ro
rheroric, if vicwed as tbe inrroductioo ro logic wlUch it more nearly
".emblco. lo aliditioo. tus work, in keeping m,h ,he Ioog tr1ditioo of
which i, is pln, ¡neludes 1 good deal of. more philo<ophical
eh.neter. nm is because of che circulllSWlce rhar Aristode'. early
work rhe C4ttgories wu pllced by rus edirors or the heiod of che more
stri<:t1y logical work$ De intt1"f"tutwru, Prior md POr/mor ,hu,/y/¡es,
and T opies (of wruch the Sopbitricd Rtfut..ti<>ns originally formed
pan) . As rueh ir ..",ed as I geoe""¡ iotroductioo tO logíc .od philos-
ophy in the AristoteliQn uadition. lo MartiilllU5, secaoos JSS-S) are
bascd Illtimately on the The preceding distincri"", of
genus, species, differenm, accident, proprium, and ddinirioo ()4<1-49)
.re derived ulrimatcly from tbe doctrine of che predicables in Aristotle'.
To¡Mt." Their position is due to Porphyl)'" influentia11mrodu&tWn
rO tbt c.,ugori6, wriueo io tbe rhird ccorury A.D. M.m.nus' discus-
,.joo of how the ,ingle tenns previously discussed are C<lmbined into
complete s e o = II1d .specio.Uy into assertDrÍC propositioru <388-<}6),
hll its disWlr ancestl)' in Arisrotle's D t i1Ittrfnffllfiont, and in PlatO'S
&phi$! hefore chat." The ""'luare of (4D'-J) is u1timotely
derÍved from rhe same work oí Aristotle, whlle lile Jfucussiou of the
convenion of (397""4"J), Uke thar of che three mood.s of
eattgorical ')'llogism (.¡i>4-'J) , is descended from me Prior AnIIly,ics.
lo this last_ru.med work Aristodc hod introducedlettet'S of che .Iphabet
ro stand as variables in rus infuencc pmerns. l o thls ""'y he Qchicvcd
both clariry and geneniliry, ;as wcJJ os showing thtt syUogi.tie rcasor>-
ing was vilid by virme onJy of ia fonru.l eharactt.ristics. Martitous
iIIld hi. 10Ur« refl= Aristode's earJier pnctice of giving specific
eumples ("All justice is advaougeous") which are ro be undcrstood
in a gtmul nunner ("AlI A is B") . That M.rtianus mows no twiU"e-
tte:\ll of Aristode', modal logic;" oot SIIrprisiog, On the ocher hillld hit

failure ro treat ot fallacies, which would be highly rtlenot ro dispuu-

lO Arirtod. Top;C1 l. '-<J.
.. S.pbin
 lOS TIIK ALLEGORY ANO TIIE TRIVIUM

tion, results from a tao:k oi proponion and plmning in me re:st of me

book. The deflcicncy is mconceaJed by Amena'. aUegatic",. (413) tbol
tbe teaching oi sophlsm and de«ptions is unpleasing ro Jove.
W,th the uception of a few .. minal rcferences 10 the
syUogism" in the AnIIl,tics,'" Arurotelian logic is concemed wim
Inllp.ed proposiciolL'l, and me varió>bles employed stand for single
<UItt$ ("mm, M"justice, " "ldvantagcOU5," .nd .'/O 00). The possmg iug-
gcscions oi the A1IIIJ,tics "'ere de\·eloped by Aristotle'. succ O[ os
bead oi ."'= L.yceum, Theoplmstus, bue t"'= fuU development of alogic
oí whole proposirions ("Justice is advantageous," ii day," and so
on) wu me work oi me StoiC$. To rnark me differencc h<:tw«n thcir
propositional variables and tbe tenn vuiables oi me Peripatetic mm-
tion mey uscd ordilU! numbtrs ("'the firse.." "the sec:ood," and .'/O on)
in their schellUltll..'" Tbe me oi this symbolism by Manianos
(410) indicares. &oie origin ior hi. discwsion of me hypometica1
(c01ldiciorudiJ) syllogism (4 '4-10) .
Apart (rom this, ,00 the referenee ro me greatest Stoic logicisn.
CluysippU5, in t"'= introductory allegory (j17 J, the« ate other indica-
cio", of Sloic infIucnce in Book IV. One is me fOl"lrultion oE me conm-
dicrory of a given proposition by prdinng me negocive partlcle ro the
",hole proposition, H and 1101 merely lo it!! verb (4".). Oifensive as 1m.
oflen wu 10 idiomaoe purists, me logieal propriety of saying ''NO!: it
is day" nmer .han is not day" an be seen by considering tbol this
fonn a10ne shows unambiguously the extent of what is being negote<!,
and by cornparing wilh Ihe rnodem symbofurn "nol-po" AgIlin, the
nce' nory use of the fonn of disjunccion (.rur) in Manlanm'
fourth condioonal modo (4-17) is chancu:ristic:ally Stoie.
Manianus' inclusion of argurncntJ lIS "conditionallyllogums" whieh
have a complu major premise bUI bck .ny "ir' is due ultimatcly ro
Theophnstu!.. Reflecti.ng On hints in Arutotle'. logieal worles, Tbeo-
" Aristot1e PrIor Auytkt S¡b-u. 57116. k ohonld .00 be noud <ha, Arirrotlo
.... Out the J)'1Io......... conditio,..¡ ..o",oce, to ..,. ¿f..,. that lf <he
premioes bo!d so doeo dio coocluoion. The P"'f"""iootl ....dw po ...... lo dwo
p< ... pp<>o<d by his proccdure.
" Apnleiuo p.,.; to. "'....1.... w-So: <d. Thoma., p. '93 •
.. S<ttu< Empiricos, Ado.wlUl mnb.-.k<>t "1911. Apo"'¡'" P"'; "'"'n ...........
>Ó7: .d."l"1Ioow. p. In. B. M..... s.m, Lo,;., p. J' .
.. M..... p·SI .
 D I AL I\CT IC
"'9
phrutus appea .. ro hay. bcgun investigating atgII=nts "from hy-
potbtsis"'" in wlUch a desi.rcd conclusion is tgree<! ro foUow, provided
sorne other proJlO'itinn (stiU ro be invesUgtted) is uue." This le<! ro t
recognition in tIu: Pcripa.. tic ""hool oí sevcnl 'rgumcnts in the prop_
ositional form loro- inve,tigoted by the Stoics, and the eneMon of
"hypothetial" ro COyer a11 arguments with a I... ding prcmise formed
fmm mOfe thon ooe simple proposition. Martianus' pruematioD of the
subjecr, in wlUch t he premises .re dnwn up w;rh a view rO a ¡>re-
de.. nnined conclusion, is in k«ping with mis dC\'elopmcnt, and with
the ArUtolelian vkw of the subj=-s d.i.olectieal, ... ther thon logial Of
scientific, imporrutcc. It Cln thm he seen that Martiaous is heir ro •
tndition which ClTed linle fOl" punty of aUegianee ro • p. rticulor
Stoie or Peri]XItttic, but rook what ir pleued from either.
In tIu: Stoi. tndition, w.ting from its foundor, Zcno of GtillDl,
dialectic hccome lhe genenl name for me study of logic and orber
",lated topics. such as gr-arnmar .nd episremology , As such it W;1S ",;m
physics aOO erhics I constituent ]XIrt of Ihe total provincc of plUlos-
ophy." The choice of nome shows the important cOllrn'ction oí Sro;c
logic "';th me Megañan school mentioned aboYe. T he logicians of lhis
<ehool, prttminently Eobulidcs, Diodorus Croou .. aod Philo, in suc-
ccs:Yon ro Ihe E1 .. tic Zeoo, had maintaine<! a persirum imeren in
]XIradox. OS w en ts in modal arguments and conditionol propositions.
Dilcussiol\$ oí modalities (neccssity, possihility, aod so on) , wherber
Aristotdion, Mcgui.on, or Stoic, lavo no trae. in MattianllS, Of !he
"",en paradous attributed tO Eubulidu" twO ate tderred ro in M.r_
1¡lJ\US' npening illegory <>'7). bUI are lhe .. associated with Cbrysip-
pus and me Sto;c T hese are tIle "sorit..."" or "Bap" ("Would

.. Arlnod. f'Ñ• • A>Ul,<l", ,.oI>,¡, 4}b,¡, j"'"J"

.. Seo Kncole, pp. 9l. !OJ . Oor Imowledg<.io """ ro Al.<andu of ApIuo<Ijoj ..'
CO"""""""Yoc> <he A""'rlÍU•
.. This th=fold divioion is forahodowed in A,iJtOd.', cl..,¡f",atioo of "",1>-
Jems inro edúcal, pIIysicoJ, ond logicoJ (Top/<.I 'o¡blO) ,
.. Diot<".. L.urtlus , . ,01.
.. "Sorio:s" is.....uy used by rnodtrn logiclsN ro <da '" l)'Ilogisoic-<ype or_
g'u,,,,,, wid> ""'" 0' lOOr< 1"""",' P. k is .... d iD Mutisn.... ooncludinS v .....
of Bool IV 14'J) ro rel... ro OD occumclado" of "'T""""'" w1tich bocomo
;",p...ccpd>ly """" .nd <nOn milkWi»g .. dIty pro=d. Seo <l=o ""."..-
"'¡c. r. *'
110 TIlE ALLEGORY ANO TIlE TR l lllUM
you .y dile ehis single grain is a heapl_No._ Thesc two
ThC$C thrul . •• etc. Then where do you draw the 1inc1", and the
" Homed Mln'·. ("What yoo not losr you still halle. But you
have not 1= homs. So yoo stiJI have homs") . le should be noted that
an intelest in ehe an:olysis of pondo,. is a sign of ehe true IogiciAn, far
from the trivUl gune it seem5 ro those who lack un<krmnding of the
subject. It is therefore noc surprising chac Chrysippus slrould have
oonccmed llimsel f with the Megari.an pondOle5, Or that Martianus'
undenunding CAlUlot go beyond malting I witticism.
Yec another aspect of Stoic logic which \eo.= a tnce in M.rtianns'
terminology, if not bis full understanding. is tlw: distinc:tion made be.
twttll vcrln! sigos and che meaniogs (Idta) which chey signiIy. The
Laner "",re regarded by che Stoics os incorporesl and crnnmon ro dif_
ferent Iangut-gc:s. The class of le/ita of special concem ro the adhercnts
of • propositiolUl logic wue those signifltd by complete sentences
uscd ro make ''Il idolli whlch must be eithcr troe or fabe. In G=k
¡hese were tennc:d uiomat«, ¡he ternJ. \\/lIS lendered ioro I..atin os nIU'¡'
ti4tum by acero and as f1>"oloquium by Varro." Martianus' use ol che
rerro in secrlou ;80) and clsewhere, substantiates the suggestion of che
prologue (¡IS) thn he is following. V;llTonim soum:. lo Martianus,
II<lwever, me use of ¡he terro is couplcd wirh. rever.;ion ro l O Aristo-
tdian ",,",don where the f1>"oloquium ittClf (nthcr than the senunce
which uprcsses ic) ;. made ol a OOIIn plus. verh, and moy be "doubt-
fuI" U well as trile or (.\se (]O)O). Tbis we]] illustntcs M. Kneale'.
view thu "for !lOme cenmnes titer Sl:oic logic had btto formuloucd by
Chrysippus wc find discussion of the merla of bis system and dlar of
Aristotle, d\Cn • pual fusion, <Ir perhoJ"l we should Sly confusion,
which was completed ae che end of classical antiquity in che wor!< of
Boethius..""
lf che ultimare 50= for rhe moteml in Book IV JIe clearly dis-
cernible, che channels through which ;t Dlade ;15 way ro
p:oges are farl.... evident. Inevitl>bly the lWI1e of VIU"lO is d>e fllSt ro
come ro mind. The most striking Varronian choneteristic ;., os wc
llave set1I, che use of the ternJ. prQ/oquium, wlUch corresponds in most
.. o;.,g.:.... Lttrtitu l. '117.
" ApoIeius Ptri b"m ........' <d. Thwoos, P. '76, line 'j. AuI"" GdtiuJ t6. 8-
.. KnooIe,P. 'n·
 D I ALE CTI C ,,.
i :p, ti. ro OUT " prop...;'ÍOQ.." lne US1t of ",;(1'1 I bis mean-
ing is ' "","el in thc Pm be,",,,,,,,;'" <O Apulci ..... bul
io QOt
M.m.nus, il is resernd fo. tbc lcacIing (compln) p<anUo: of a
hypodlttieal $yllogism (<t ' ,.) .00 imroduecd wichoul ddiniúon o. n-
plomOOn. c::!caO'1 _"' of lile ttnn {Ind abo the UfOcialed lmtI
-Pl;O (o. .rullQr premise) wim thc ..1M mailing 15 Matlianus
"'g¡¡esa that l. mly go tw:k ro tus leaeoo L. AoIi ... &il", who WIJ
lito .he ItaCOO of Vlrro.O\ Stilo's book, nR in the IICcoood cenlUf)',
"'"1 elurly unknown ro M.rtimu:s, .nd Monlanus' di$cuuion of lhe
hypothetial syUogism iI likely ro be Varroniln. Whether
Vuro Is being ",cd dircctly it is impoosiblc lO .y. It is nottwonhy,
b(lwcver, thu 011 bu, mc third of thc te"en modCI of thc hypothcticol
Iyllogiom by Mutilnus corr.. pond with me list in Cicero's
T flIÑU," ond tlu.t thc one discrq>oney con be .ttributtd ro Cicero's
misundcnundingoi tlle diffucoas lhe ro". bask Sroic infet-
enec schtmatl. and thc li5t of kVm " ..en in onrnc other manuoI." In
thc si.nh <'CtKllry Ca..iodOfU$ a<:crptftI a oimilat liIl of ....ro hypo-
thcticall)'lloaisuu from a wod: by Marins Vietorinus." lne differ_
rn<:CI = sufrocitntly grut ro ududc Victorinus OS Manianus' ..... rce.
Cas:siodonu mcntioru In e=nd.ed WOfk by otherwisc unkflOWll
Morall ... of Cardu,i" of which two bool<s were dcyoted lo Stoic
propositio ... l logio: .00 were followed by I booJ.: 00 "miled" syllo-
gimu:. The use 01 so fulla ,reotment by M.friln", Ken\I unlikely, bUI
COMO! be rukd out, in view of his including •
"bit potssage on m;xed syllogisms (..,,), nO doubt in¡end.d ro gil'C the
suggarion nf the grcoter profundities ",hich eould be !leall with if
nnly Mcn:ury In<! Athcru. would .11ow more time.
n.e Varroniln "'nn prt>laqWmr be1on¡-s ti) • IC'ries o( rebted lUmS
whcn thc l'O/)t is k(pt constaD! and the ",.. ninr .¡I(mI by vo.tying

.. A",!ti.. I'm .,,_..n.r >OIiI; .... '11__ .. P. '77.

.. 0. ............ , . J7ff.s.. 0100 Rbnt1rie• .,¡ •. ,s.
.. A.t .. Gdliooo ,f. .. s.;¡,,'. _ '"" _ _ _y .... i00i o. .>""'",,,","'. ..t,;do
.',..... _ tbe ..... "..14(,' '" "",..... d witIo ......
.. 0"'0 T.pic' !6-j7.
.. ÑIaI<, pp. ,19-1, .
.. o·.......... Ifurl,lltÓ>IOt, ,. 'J' in Mp, n , Vol. LXX, 001. " lló td. My_
- " P. " \Jo
IU TIlE ¡\LLE(lORY AND T IlE TRI VI U M

rhe preIlI. Thi:s method of coining cechnical tenns is iIIUStrl1ttd in the

f,""gtnent of Book XXIV of Varro', DI Jinp1...nin4 quoted by Aulru¡
(,6. 8), lisIiog tbe kinds oí eornplex propositions:
Conditional proposition: ad;unaum (or crmerllm)
Conjunctive proposition: ComUfUtum (or eoptd4rum)
Disjunctivc proposition: disiuncrum.
The other terrnt of the series to which pr%qWum hdong. deccrmine
the ruucture of MlrtWt\15' whole book, and are listed .t tbe outset
(n8) as tite ftrSt four of si% canouical di..uions (normae) of dWcctic.
Thus the discussion oi \lrIC(Imbined ccrms (the Aristotelian prcdicohles
ond cattgories) is CI!led de klquendo; the discussion of temu combine<!
ro form compkte sentences is CJUed de eimluendo, me discussion of
che ",hcb.. of tb=: whlch make ....,rtions and are thu!; eithet =
or
falsc is caUcd dt pr%quendo, and fioally the drawing of infercnces
from combinations of these is calle<! the _ proloquionnn, "-"1III-
m.ltion of propositions." T he samc: terminology and principIe of oroer-
iog the subica";' foulld in che founh chapterof De by olle
Augustinus, which is indnde<! as an .ppendir ro the works of St.
Augustine.. A compmtivc study of thiswork and thar of MaroanUl by
Fischer" shows that neither is .....urce for che other but that both rely
on I third., either V lUTO himself Ot • elose foUower.
Itwould se.m chen that M.roanus rook. hasiCJlly Varronian fnme-
work and expande<! i, with matuial froro both bis Varronian .... W"Ce
:and dsewhere. Comparison with me Augustioi.1I document indic:lws
that NO are Varronian: Fim, in the possage on tite combina-
don oi!ingle: terrtll Ü89-9», which co-m::sponds (as note<! by Kopp)
ro the Aristotelian De im"fJrtt.úWne, Mardanos, lIS Diek observa,
"follows other footsteps." Thc Augustinian document and Mamanus
he", COlTCspond el_1y in conteot and ternIinology, bot not in de-
hile<! syntu or tite examples given.lt would be reuoRlhle ro suppose
th:tt Marcitnus is excerpting, ",hile Augustinus is ponphnsing. An im.
ponant difference is tite us, ni che = wrbum: in Martianus ir COl"-
.. Seo Migne.1'L, Vol XXXII, col . ••• 0.
.. B. FIso:her, D< A"".,m.; #bro quj.s> IÚ JW""i&.. I ha"" ..
d>t tiono oJ. wririog been u...hlc '" resd riocltot', dioxrw:io:oI. aod lherefom
luid '" rely on btief """" tlktol """" )'ntJ 19<I by • cou .. gue..
 D1ALECTlC "l
rtSponds only ro our "':erb,"" jo Augustious jt a1so C<lrresponds ro Ihe
Stoi. whe!her in the sense of a single term or. C<lmpltte ulle,_
.neo. T he inelusioo of >In otymological discussioo oí wrbum in Augus-
tinus, coupled with his rejecrioo of etymologizing" 'iUW"'" not unir
th •• h. had" VuroniJon work before mm bu. th •• he was n • • úog it
crirically. SeCOIId, !he p=age (3H-60) which srands as an innoduc-
tion ro die ten CIllegOries (;n place of AtisrotIe's explanaúon of what
is mU/l' by "homonyrnous," "synonymous," 2nd "patonymous") .Iso
has affiniú., wilh Ihe logical w orles incJuded in lhe Augustinian cor-
pus, The influent;al temtS lUqWWcum and wriwcum do nOI seem lo
occur ;n extant authors befO<'(: their occum:ncc in founh-ccnrury
Atrico;" the term p/urivocum is uniquc ro M:artionus. If Marti.nus
coincd il himsdf, Dialccúc'•• pology fo. lhe ....oro (JJ9) is SlraDge in
the writing of Lotin', moS! prodigious user of h4pu kg<mte11d. Tt cor-
responds ro Ihe Grcek I<':nn po/ron' .... , IISIXI in lhe Hme con,at .1
the ope:ning of pseudo-Augustine's T n< jI i. ilIus--
tno:ed by the same aample. 1M Th discUS$Íon of lhe fo no. ñon of
words ptr simi/itudillem, pe. prqpin.¡uitarem, and "" conrrtlrium
(jóO), with lhe esomple of Jucw derivcd from luuro, _pn ha. its
countupart in the Augustini.n discussinn nf uymolngy.'tl
lo lhe Latín W est duliog the Middle Ages, the srand..rd introducrioo
ro philosophy was provided by Bocthlus' lraMl.tion with conuncntary
of an o. lntrodrution, ro Aristode Cllftgorits, written ;0
G n:ek by Ihe third-cenrury Neoplaloru.t commeutacor Porphyry_
Bued opon Aristotle'. discUS$Íonl io the TQPics, lhis WON deall with
,he prcdieables geous, species. differenili., proprium, "nd accidcnt, IIld
is importanl both fo. detennining the order uf ptlscnting !he subjece
2nd for inspiring ¡he grtal nomioaliS!-versus-rcalist C<lntroveny in !he
twclfth century, wrote • cOll1mcntuy on lhe text of 2
founh-ceotury uanslaúoo of Potphyry by Marios Victorinus. Exam-
illQtion o( Ihi, silo"'! lhat Vierorinui tnDSlation is .... ther free, ..,b-

.. o. ""p'ii.t ¡SS ff, Ci, V""" D. lMJ<u ¡",¡,." u-'J'

.. Mip. PI-, Vol col, 'tU, fmIi. 11, tJ;avm _ .."..,.,.., "'*" fIk'd
npjfic<l ;",;.11<,"""'"
.. lbid. col ' 4'oS.
'" IbId.. col, '4"_
... lbid. cols.'.,,_,¡.
114 THE ALLEGORY AJ;D THi: TRIVIUM

ocitucing Roman prCIpet names for Grul<, 011 occa&ion surnnurizing,>G

and sometimcs rnisiruorpreting, Ihe original «:tt.
Tbe am. de..:ription eouId be given of Martianus' OCC<lllllts (344-.w.
361-87), whlch lO Porphyry'. and AristorJe's C.U-
gotier, Thc immedioee for this sectioll are unknown, buc no
one who compares M.rtianus with the Greek 0rigiru>1s can hclieve that
he is hl.ndling them directly. His versioo of Ih. ClttegomJ is 8evenl
times differendy ordered from Aristod.'s both in its major divisions
and in det:ail, and whik in pc>rt k reads tike an transIa·
tion, a grcal deal ís in rhe fonn of an expb",tory commenwy, Sorne
of this SUIM di5proportionately elaborated in a presentation wbich
othcrwisc givc:s onJy Ih. rechnical termS aOO the NlUt oudin. of the
subjccr. Of tite predicables. tite defuUtion of is most ¡n=I-
ing; ir is contru')' ro Porphyry'. and ro any IIth« titar I know. Mor-
tianus d.r.neslCcidenr as quaUties peculiar eo one species. Ordinarily,
wltire 01 black are taken as accident'l of nwt, bnt clearly Ihey apply ro
otbcr speeies 111 wcll. Althougb ir is rempciog ro suspcct Vicrorinus lIS
Martianus' nuin Am.:otWan soun:e, this is ollly • guas. LaM definÍ-
tions of "gen"''' ond ""P"cies," as well as ''partitiou,'' are oc lcasr. as old
as acero'. Dt (l. )2), and wonld lu.ve been avr.ilable ro
Martiallus {mm mony soun:cs, inclnding his oWII
Ther<= remain. Martianus' account oí the quantity and quality oí
categorial propogtions, conversi.on, the square of opposition, and Ihe
IlÍntteCO vsJjd moods oí the categorico.l 'yllogivn (39Ó"41) . Ir .. gen-
crzlly agrced that, lik. !:he simibr ac<:oUne in Cassioooms. that of
M.nian"" is takm fmm tbe brief manU2l. PerI btmmldiu, amibnted
10 Apolcius, Tite correspondence in coruen, bngnage, and exarnples
is very close. ne RUin difference is that Apulcius, ""hile of !he
renn fJToloquium (and a number of other qnÍVlIlcnu), prefefS 10 ll5C
fltopolitio. He ¡,¡ aIso concemcd 10 oontrast Aristotdian logic with
Stoic, 10 !he advontage oí !he fonner. This polernic leaves nO traCe in
Martianus,
Evcn tbis, our mas! confulenr .ttriburion of sonrcc, mnst, however,
remain $\Ibject ro doubt. This ¡,¡ becawe tltere are ,,","ges in Martianas

.-
... Seo B-. od., c" "'UF"'" loo
Vi."" . "' 11
,,,, ,--
1""0'"
<1m ""tI<J ......
A""",tk.ot G'M"" Vol. IV, pt.
4p/)_ q.- ¡"
J, P. >:ni:
Lom/>"oij¡
 DIALECTIC 115
which are exp,msions of the material in Apuleill!, ,.. and other pes-
ages'" wherc Apulcius expreases file thought not ooly moa clearly
dlJn Mlrtianus bOl also more briefly. The possibititr of • common
ArisrottlWt $Ource cannot be rouUy aclud«l. If, howcver, Apuleius
is uuty M.rtimus· prinle ...urce, oue Cln only wish dIJe Martianus had
plogiariud IJIOre whotcheane<lly, sinee Ihe copy in no way improves
upon !he presumed original
The inOuence of Martianu$' Book IV emuges oorly from a srudy
of l.eooardi·s cemU$. lrom Ihe cntire lk nuptiif, fiffWl of!he
manu5Cl"iptll he Iist:s contlin IH oc part 01 Book IV .." T wo of these (1lO$.
76,105) ore fngmenc.ry, md one otIIer (no. ll) consists of notes fmm
Hook IV. Tbe rcmaining twelve conWn either the entire book oc !he
.nOre teehnicoJ discipline, omitting !he alJegorical setting. Thirteen
!IWluocripts ore dote<! betw<en ¡he nineh and t\velfth centuri • ., witb
Ihe biggest concentntion (five manuscripts) in !he tenth =ry; NO
are doted bnwceo !he fourtttn!h aud sixtttnth «nrones. Two nan-
uscripts (nOló. '35 Ind '16) = from Fleury in the mmh or tcmh
«nrury; One (no. 151) from westem Fnnce and oo. (no. 105) froro
OrJ6m.'llt!he same time; one (no. 17') from Be.: in Ihe [Welfth cen-
tury. JI would stem !h.e Ibis book enjoye<!. a vogue in northwc:stem
Francc up to the end 01 !he eleventh = r y bm w.. litt!e used alttr
Ihe dnmatic developmene of togic from dIJe time omvard.

ItHE T OR IC
The otudy 01 rheeorle origirulted in Sicily in ebe fueh c:entury •.Co'"
sud ..... hroughl by the Sophist:S to Athens, where jt found a ready
.udicntt in a political dc:mocncy with a p..S;on fOI lirigo.tion. In the
uen genention, hoent.,. wu its princip:al exponene, Plato the leoding

.-'" FOI enmpl .. me Ckuonion nomplo m oection j!l9 .... DO ".,.",...".. In

... Ci. lo< insta"" .. tlI. 011" '"" of tht ptiIIciplo of ''minimtJ in=pr"0t2-
<ion", qu"';"'" id potWi",,,,,, ."""""MJdum, quo4 .......... Iu/m inuIk........
Whf_ pro IU:cipótw (1tbrti>.nUl j96) IDd pro p.r<kWrl
wJtt, quJ" ,""Ws ." Id 1m.... , • ..eI"..-., quo4 minus en (A.poleius P"'; iH<-
>66; <d. Thomu, p. m) .
, " Nos. 19, 19, 'j, '9.]6, 'Ol, "¡' "8. Ijl, [JS, [¡oS, Ijl. '7" 'Oj")9-
<.a.
' .. Se .. Keno<dy. pp. ><i, jU"
116 THE ALLEGORY AND THE TRIVIUM
voicc oI me opposition; • coufIjct between philosophy ,..,d rbetoric
endure<! io G reek higher eduation (or AltOrher ,wn tenturies.'" De-
spite ÜIiS conflict, Ari5totle W2S the autoor of the ,tarHest majoe me-
rorical trntise we posuss: His RbttlJric is • srudy of the principIes
implicit in the pnctiet he observed in fOUM-«rttury Athens, ond
undee the wcight of his luthntiry ,..,d the precedent of his amlysis.
the observ:ations Ind clusificauons Ippropriate ro the pnctice of
Athem in his time beamc: enshrined u principIes oI rbetorical
theory.'" Arinode's $OC«S!Or in rhe Lyccl1D1, Theopbnsrus, cootrib-
uted ro thc theory of Iirenuy sry!e, but otherwise wo.s. linl.
tdnnce in rbetorical tbeory ro match lhe wid. dissemination oi its
in education the time of Hennagm.., in lhe middle of
the seoond ccntury ...c.
Hennagoru of T emnos wrotc on foratSi<.: orarnry, in partiCllbr, un
inwmiIJ, rhe discovery of arguments. He laid grQr st=s 00 rhe de-
tumination of the lima, the essemi.l ¡....e in ,..,y given ase, .nd
fommlatcd ptccepts for ia dUcovery Illd uuoocnt. Thus me emplwis
in rbetOrical teaching, w hich liad for 5OD1e time bun on diccion and
sryle (getttflting (he "Asianist" $Chool, and Iater, by reaction, me
MAtticist''), DOW bcc:m!e focosed 00 the more objective llnd ntional
upect, inwmiIJ. Ir W2S at this point of developmenr tlu.r Greek rMe-
orle fIn! beg:on ro comrnarod the seriOIlS .ttention of the Romans.
T he carlicst Rornan tredtise on rheroric wc 1"""'.'5, me aoooyrnous
Rbttorico lid HntMium, is probably of the early fim cencury I.C.'"
ir is thuefotc clase in time to acero'. fim uutise, inuffltione,
and. in late outtiquity and me Middle Asa' me two worb togW>u
wcre gencnlly reg:>rded "" Ocero's, despite the differeru:es between
thern. Ocero', other major rbetorical treaWes-Df 01,"01,
,..,d fu optimo O1llIorrm< 00 me ideal ontor; Brraw 0Il great
Ontol'S of me past; Topia 00 argwnentatioo; and Orllforill, p¡.rritionel

... So< MorroI!, 1I1s<o>, PI'- l , .. , l .

... Ef:. tbe divioioo of rboro,;" inro th= (oruI onIy rhree.l 'J'P'I" b<>alevtlc.
lo""';'" cpi"'idic; tbo dirioioo of!be dwioo el tbo ..,dieoeo (Rbnorl& ,. J. ,_¡l.
For die toploal. o. spocificolly Atbrn; .... b1Is of che - . ...,. l. ,. i'"S • •"-
... Rb#orl&."¡ 11 •• "" ....... • do Capbn. PO.ü. bnt ... A. E. DougIo<. "0""0'"
;" tbo Rb<tori&• .,¡ HmAJi_ _ Eridooce of la Dote, c,.m,.. Qru¡ lO' '" IU.
X (1\)660). PI'- ós-¡t!. which 0fJU<S ¡{JI: • dore of olMm, S" Le. it _IIIW.
 RHETORIC "7
011 thc divisioro of rh«oric-gwenl1y received much les! aacrotion io
IcIttr Latin schobrihip me dcspitt thcir meritll,
which & ;mJmriotu. Ocero'jI contriburion to thc developmc:nt
of rhelori<: was rh=Eold: Eirst, as the anthor oE the ueaclsc$ men·
nOMd, he mnmtitted. greot deal oE G=k theory ro thc l4nn world;
second, under thc infl""ncc oE bis $roic .00 Rhodian teaclttrs he
denied and tried ro heal thc bre:ach betwetn rheroric .ud philO!Ophy ;
third, as thc oUtl;tanding Roman outor, he 111
r<:pcrroirc of examples oEall aspccts of rhaoric in pl1lcUce.
Ocero's late/" yOB coincided with !he heginning in Rome of rhat
pnctice of declamation which origilllted as thtrorical O"Ilioing and
becamc virtually In art form in ia own right, with • profound inOu.
encc 011 l4tin Iitenture.". While this was an inlponaot development,
il liad lime effea on theO!)', which in the fitu century A..J). was mOre
occupied with the cooflict betwem ApoUodoNS .nd TModoros Ind
Iheir respective foUowc.rs. TM ApoUodore:ans ltad t reJatively rigid,
doctrif1<lire 2pproach 10 the composition oi '-pw;hes, which thcy re·
garded as. se:ience reducible ro firm rules; ",hereas the Theodore:ans
tre:atcd il as m Irt, ne>cible .00 tdapto.ble ro thc n«ds of rhe moment
in !he particubr = As we ¡¡hall _, $Omc Theodore:ao inOuence
.ppears in MartianUJ.
The last major Roman writer 00 rhctoric was Quiotilian, l t the end
of the first: ccnlllry A.D. Quintilian'i synthcsis oE ancient thougltt 00
tm. subjecr $W; out io rneasured pace and at coosiderable lcngth,
lucidly tnd witb .buo.um illusmtion, me way ro produce orators ro
much tite immorul Ocero. As a treaÓK on rberoric ir is unrnatched
Eor Eullness, cl.arily, and intelligcnce by anything rurviving from
aoti'lWty. Ir W2S too good EOI Quintilian's SIlccesson, and did not
real.ly wio me appOOl non il dcserves until the Renaiseanee.'"
The lim Il1d second centuries a.n. sow in the Greek world thc d ·
nmtsCeDCc oE lheroric lmowo as thc "Sc:cood Sophistict with .n
Iccornpanying of rherorical rertboob of genenlly littk VlIloe.
The major uponent WH Hennogenes, and he appelts ro bave had no

... Seo S. F. Bonou, R.tn>td CH,'- d, .. PI' lf'rÓ?

W Fo<. our\'ey o/ ÍII inIlUO:DCC,..,d ito llinited populorily" 1m ontiqulty, ....
F. H. Cohon, 001., M. F<ObII QubaII.... IMhwlo"l¡ o<.....-w. U«< /, PI'- lIIiiI-
lO';'
118 THE ALLECORY ASO THE TRIVIUM
influeru:e un MartiaoU$. At the same time tnd .iter, appeared 2 num-
ber oí I...atin handbooks on rher.oric, many of wlUch have bun col-
lcaed by Halm.'" In genen.l they bcar the pme re.latiomhip ro ¡he
major authots os do hlUldboob in the othor ancient subjccn ro the
primary SOlll'C<'i; them we fUld 2 grand concoctioo ai acero and
Quintilisn with Ihe subtJcties, oflen imperfectly undusrond, of rhe
fU'St- and secood-eenrury Greeks, and sometimos, loo, with stuins
more directJy descended from Hennagoras."'" It is on men sudl t i
rhe.e chat MartianUll drcw.
'The two principal <tudies ni the lIOlll'Cts of Martianus' Book V are
thosc of H inb' " and Fiochor"" From Hinb' srudy, thc more pene_
IrWng 2nd precise of thc NO, lre taken the following cooclusi"",,:
D. inw1Iri_ wu • prime oource fOf MamanWl, both os •
din:ct sourcc of tbeory .nd as oUenng I fnroework for a ue;¡We on
rheroric. MartilnUll to make frequent dircct use of lhe De ¡",.
in ros chlpcets when tteating thc definitions and the
divisions of rheroric. He takes fmm it SQII\C cktnents of the rheory nI
constirntions and tIle subdivisinns of q1lJ/iun. And fin2lly he U5C5 it for
hls tr<:atnlCllt uf uordium, ptOpositiOIl and pamtion. Martianus .Iso
uses acero'. De oraron lUId OrQtor especiolly for the rreannent of
CIpIession, mcmory, and delivery. Olllitccary stylc he borrows. lime
ftom D Ol1lltw and minor gralIUJl3rWts alld • long passage on figum
(scction 5' )-)7) froro A<Juila ROlllanus.
Besides tha¡e fairly obvious SQurces are $Ome Je!lS ealy ro ul\COver.
Hinb'" $hows M.art:UnUll' use of cornrnenllrie$ by Marius Victorinm
00 Cicero', Dt im.>emione and TqpieJ. n.cse, while adding bur
confusion ro Mam.nus' theory, give us firm evidence for dating his
work; far ViClOrinWl, after his conversion ro Christianity, was affecJCd
by the edict of the Emperor Julian in )61 forbidding amstians ro
tcach in the schools, .nd in !ti:¡ last yean Victorinm wrote tbeologieaJ
"" Úlini Miamos.
,<-<
, .. D. A.. G. Hinb, 1.1.... Cop<IJ. "" Rb<wri<, pp. 4"J. 'l1ús ""P"blisbod
di:acnotioD,;". tbe libnly of Triniry CoIlege, a"nhlidge, is. bJ:íIlimt UlirtnliD¡
oí thcJO""''' of Martionus' Book V.
". s... ti>< pr..... ding ..... .
,,. H,W.Fioober,U .....,w,I""" .. liH>diI Qw/kfI4r Jos M .. '·'e,.
Ctrp</H.
' .. Pp. )8-.4', 61-6$,
 IIHETORIC
"9
worb. Vicrorious' commcntarics on acero, in Hinb's words, "can
=oly ¡,., pbced «rUer than about J%) 2nd may woll Ix much
later." '"
For his theory of constirutioos Mutianus dtaws on thrce sources,
ofttn incompatible: one QceronÍan, OOe womng 00 principies which
welrnow from Quintil.ian (l . %. %6) to be: Theodorean aod not found
elsewhere in Latin, md one clear\y Hennagorean. Tite Tbeodore.n is
unidemifiable. The Henn.gorean is shown ro be 'Oery likely Mateo-
mannus, the source eommon ro Martianus, Fortunatianlli, " nd much of
SulpltilL'l Vktor. Nothing of Matcomannus survives, but Hinb with
striking schoiarship csablishcs as probable rhat he was a H ermagorean
md 10 older contcn"lpolllry of Hermogenes; thar he wrote a commCO·
tary on Dt invtmitme, applying to ir latn Greek rhetorial theory;
tnd that he WIS ¡he source who medined to Mam..nus QuintiUan's
teadling on memory and delife'Y as well as the work of:an uuknown
thoorist on ductus (;ifUS(Je . nd sorne of ¡he pua of spcech.
Behind Manianu,' sections 447-,,8 (on tite c _ ) dtere
appeo", ro ¡,., • loS! 501m::e, probably Gr«k. with I better understand-
ing of Aristotle's eheory Di this subjccr than is found in survifing
Latin rhetorlciins. This =y have beco mnsmitted throngh sorne
other sout«.. juse as che unidentificd Theodorean', material UIlIy havc
,",o.
It would 'ppeor that Mlrrionll$ used • widet tango of 80Urces for
his discoursc on rhcroric lhan for moa: of hil orber hondboob, .nd
.ttempred, with ncimer success nor conscioumess of f:¡j}nu, ro como
bine conflicting cheories. Virrwlly;ill the sonrces hove been bid
by HirW with an acumen no less admirable than his modesty. His
f1ll<l1 remarks I n in more titan one way illwninating. He that
he has said nothing of Varro-althongh Varro is reuonab1y dtought
ro be be:hind the third tnd fooM books (m tbc: fifth book mere seem:I
ro be: no trIIee of VIITO) - ''because, if w( .'l:I.W • traCe of Vano, we
could not recognise it. Normng wlutever seeros ro be known tlut
book of his whicb d..Jt with and when: noth-
ing is known I foroome to eonjecturc."'"

'" Hinb. PI" ,_'o

,,, H1nb, PI" ""'1·
 no TI/E ALLEGORY ANO TI/E TR I IIIUM
TIte loter .... of M.rclQnUli' Book V is very peculiar. Tweruy of me
manusc.ripts listcd by Loonardi'" contain sorne portion of Book V. In
only two (0011. 39 and 6,) is the cntire book containcd. Two othen
(nos. '39 ond '-t') cOIlrun the emire tedmical trcatise, omitting the
aUegory; boch of these are bmuonisr nunUlCripts dated between che
fourteenth ond sineenm ccnruries. Of me toul of twenty nunusc.ripu.
thirreen'" come from this perioo; the ome< scvcn, between me tc:nth
ond twclfth centurics. Of me mirteen, ten contain scctions soS" 5 (me
introduction m tlocutW, aU the figure:s of thought, ond the treaUllent
of Cl4wul4f ); most of these 'ppea.r 10 come (roro nonhem luly. T1tree
otilen (no. "7, fmm me tenth cenrury; and nos. , .(; and ')1 Erom the
twelfth) contain Momian"" treatmenr of me figures of opeech (n"
J?), witb nnous matuial.
WlIaI is me complete picture1 Book V was used 'pondicaUy. es-
peciaUy in nortbem France and Gennany, in the tenth aud elnenth
cenrurit$, I'Omewhat more ofteo in the twelfth; meo, in composile me_
mrictl fllInuscripts of North ltalian hum.nists, M.r\Unus' lrearmenl oí
docutW, me f.gures of moughe, and the w=
fouud espe'
cilllly interesring IIDd were ofren reproduced. This oa:ords well wim
me revived in!eres! in .... ';n sryle which wu cllarteteristic of human-
ism; wher... for me full treatmcnt oí rhcroric III me weolth of Ocero
lUId Quintilian was o, llaud.

F.aeh ni the three para of Tbe tw(> boob of allcgory.

the trivium. the qUldrivium--htd • lit. ond influence of iu own ;n
European learning. Bur fOf • fult appreciation me work dcsuves m be
..en as I whole; oud ro be seen not 's • colIcction of seven llaudboob
but as OII( philosoplUcoreligio"," work. Tho interrelations of the re-
ligio"," bcliefs ond numerology witb the seven 1m and wim rhe
Iitcr:>ry styl. of me work can then be seen 10 be remarkably litrong
.ud comple.L Thcse ;nre=laóOOl, trearcd fuUy and di$cemingly by
Fanny Le Moine,'" cannot be utensive1y trearcd here; we llave bcen

'" N"., ,6, u. 'J. 190 J<Io p. ,,6, 'só, '7'. ,Ji, '<». "l. ,,6. "7. "7,
'l'" ')9. "t,.
'" N"., ... 'l. f', J<Io p, 6" ,s.. '<»' rol, .. 6, "7. ')90 ' 4"
", la I Ph. D. disouta<io" .. 8<yII M ..... CoIleg< omided Ji u......,Ro ........
IwtlMo <>f ,N D. ""fl';;' PbóJol"p- '" Mlrcuri/ <>f M."Ja:not c.pdIo.
 RHF,TOII[C
'"
able ro enmine only briefly tbe basic reJigious idea. "ud me union
bctween them "nd me seven tmltises. The ",t<lkowes of Marmous'
work, in conteot and ;0 sryJe, have beco poioted out almndandy, yct
when one speculattl on me intwt of tbe work ss a whoJe, one may
",en enncur wim Miss Le Moine Wt ir is a "g=>d attempt" and ss
such ro stand in tbe long tn.dition of works which are ron-
sciously designed ro presenr a synthesis of tbe total panero 01 die
cosmos-"'"

,.. ¡bid .• p- >91·

 PART 111

The Quadrivium
 O. Geometry
u,oa. me bridesmaid Ge<J(tIctry ",.k"" hcr entr.nce joro the celes-
tilal lWl. rwo attcndanm' 'ppear, bearing In
.wcus' sprinldcd witb greenish powder. This object, i¡ is explained,
is dc:signcd foc deUntaring geometric figures and can .Iso rtpresent
the cirdos of the world, gr.at and smaU. Geom<try coter.!, carrying
a r""'ita' in he. rigbt Iwtd wd • globe in he .. left. T he globe is •
replica of me universe, wtought by Archimedes' lund.' In ir
The plantou)' orbs gloam in rhe dusk of night,
As precious gems ',,"ricio in. oetting of goW.
I SatÍu • momcoI lo.., identif_ tt. ...... .nJ !'..Jia. n- 011<_
gorictl I.oili« r«niod !lO ol '''''' omu., with rh< ...... lWIlU, '"00 fJgllf<d in Ihc
CuecD 01 promineo' wn<ers. LucWI. m bis .utObIogtap/llcol dre>m (Somni_
9).1»_..,.,. Pudia, lb< cuWnted Iody "''''' drew JUm into, car= of Jesrning
ud phiI_phy. 1\oWI¡1l<' De r .....""""" phíloropbiu is • dw"",e
m...m.or &nd on oIleJoricsl )'O"'Ig-old fomde 1WIlOd Philooopby. Sopenmuhl.
youog-<>ld figures Hu !bese ...... frcqunclr introd"..d into otOtieo ¡., tmiqui<y
."d by thc fiftb «Dt>Iry bod beco".. th«Ofieol diehéo, ><:<»<ding to Olrtin<,
pp. lO'-\". 0JrWu (1'> I<>V po;.u. to ,is of Abttianos' bridesmoido .. ruch .no-
gotIooI oter<o><yp<a. [ rol! '" .....hy lit omi¡rod furmony, who, tIlouJh JlO'I
"ddcr>..... in drtill," .. "" ")'$o lo dopO>=! by M.m.nllS (909) . . . "Io{ry figure
...boto ..... odiouo beod wu odomrd ",id> omuneo" af glitteling JOld" lIId . . .
maideo ",bo "moved _ • ¡¡roce ..... her motbtr cQUld hardly nu.td>,"
• Abot",: • tray. rov<mI with .."d o, f'O"'d<r, ... d by lo<
d<a"'u., dis¡fU'I.
, A g«>m««'. nde (...... ,._tri,,};,), occordinfr ro Remigi .. (ed. Luto. U.
'lo), In medien! .n tbe ,lid;", ..... •bo .... n ti> be """'ro-.."d ¡., "... 10-
....,." Gto<no:try b /<><Ind wilh • ntle in o,," hsnd."d """'1'""'" in the othor.
See bille Mil<, J«Iifiotu A" ... 1''''''''. XI/J C"""':t, PI' 7R 8J .
• Arcllimedeo deYiood _ CODItntcted "" o«<ry in whicb tbe t<I.otl .. motions
of .... pWteu ...d me cc1..uol .pb<,.. ..... <e oc.:"",'dy I"<pTOd\lced onJ in whi<h
1...... «:111*" eould be _ ... cd. He I"<!!udcd "'¡" ",he« .. his
teehnicoI ocltio ....... 1lt. 1, ,.... brousbt ti> R_ 01.. t.btcdl.... "P""'< o/ Syn-
.... la ". a.c. Fo, .. 10 It ¡., .... lAtin writ<" ... J. G. Fru.er'. """" ti>
(hid 1'."¡ 6. '71 in his editio<>. Vol. IV (London, '9'9). P. '''4. Accotdiog 10
 ,,6 THE QUADRIVIUM

The peplas shc wears is crnbJazoned wid! f'S"I"CS celesri·1

orbito .ud spheres; tbe cartb', shadow =ches intt> tite ¡/¡;y, giving
• purpti.h hue to the golden oro. of the SUR and rnoon; IN
gnomons of surnfuls ,nd figures showing intuva\$, wagha,' tnd
measures. He, lWr is beorifully groomed, but her fte!: an:
wid! grime and bOl oboes are wom ro shreds from treading acl'O!lS the
entiTe surfa •• of che etnh. Sh. can, Geometry!lllys, describe my por-
tian of the earth's surf.ce fmm memol)' md I<nows the Qact distan<.:e
betw...., me .. rt\t and tite celestial spbere. down to tite moh. As shc
""ps fofWllro f.O dnw on me . bacus, shc DOnCe¡¡ Archimtde.
"nd Euclid among che wcdding gucst<. She could call upon cbem ro
expound tite di!cipline, but thc oc::casion calls for rhetoric:al $Iril];" since
.hey .puk no Lo.tin, Geometry hU$<lf will J'C\'. .1 the seer." <>f the
Uf in Latin, • nn: oc:cum:nce for thls $Uhicct. die ave .... '
Amidlt tite resplendem sening of me Cl'lesñal <:on<>py and dte Vr-
mene ""d accoutcrments of !:he "-dy her.;clf, ir is not tite abacus and
geomettr's rule or me f'S"ru on hOl garmmt that huid me due ro the
conteOtll of mis book: ramer ir is tite tamred boots. Geometry reminds
hOl audienee oí me tirenl meaning of her nome.
Th. bulk of tite lengthy discoul'SC thn follows (lfte longcst book in
che cntire work) is devoted not W dofinitions, moms, and proposi-

l&ctontiw (llio1ru, imtinttitm<•• • ¡), .... 'pbeu _ mode al btonzc, oe<:<>rdin¡

ro ilindiw le.""J"" ".¡"",.. J'). of gl .... Ptttupo .... cdOldaJ oph<<< WOI al
gI........ """ru orbo of \mmz<. So< olso E. J. Oijbtt:rlutio, Me_4" (Copen-
h<g<", '916). PI' 'J"S,
• 1'I\io io .... ""'1 ref.... oa I ha.. found in MIJtionuoo lO • flDlCtiod 01 Go.,.....
euy dw: .... ro bw>ü>t 1"'00"''''' ¡., d>< Middlt • lOd lo ....,.,d .. """
'.qt<ilw.
IUDCtioD ¡., tite .... di . . . lIln<DIO<lic ro.: .... oevon libonlllrtl: a..... DU
...... 40e", RbI _b. , . . . . M ... e_, A. _ ..... G«> Al .<>1#
""•. Oa <IIe ottrlbute> ol a-.-,. ÍlI nIO<I>:nl ut ood O« Klibsnoky.
PI' JI7-J8.
• W. ha"" b=. fine =.npIe o/ tbe del .ltrio... </flX< tIIOI d>e rhtwricw>,<
.rcirud< had Dpor> RODW> ocie""". Cio<ro (O • ."."'.... l. )-6, ".,6) od-
mirllion fo. tb< occomplilbmcrns of G_k ",ienri. . ond bu! ...
..... bJgb<r «prd ror • Roawt rberoricion', ,kill in Uf"'Wlding "'" retnIu al •
Grttk thoouticiau·, C«>Cept> ood coos<n>cD. n.. lhelO> ¡d.n dld no< ","Ice
me dfOl'l ro eomprehtnd G_k oclemifk: theory "'" .... I=nned ODIy ¡.,
SIlIIlIltIriziD .Bd oppI¡ring in re<uhs.
, ror , ... seltÍ!lg described here. se< S<CtÍOIIS H¡-88 ollhe CH nupriir.
 GE O METay
" 7
Dona bu, (O , of the Irnown world." Al me conclll!lion of
hu swwy shudmi!! tha! shc: 1m ben> di!. rrri!\jl ond WI me topic
she is about 10 cake up is me tnIC wbjtct 01 tht disc:iplinc (oII"fit "..t-
etpt.¡. Becousc lhe <by is "'.ning, shc iI ady¡"'d (O muia
I>erKIf 10 ftICOtiols, and. ro wuch lighdy Ot\ thttn (""""'4
JO as IKK to ya her Iistcncra.'
W c nat1.lCllly ,,'oode, why Georneuy dccided 10 pruent hu bridal
olledng in me fonn of • geographical compendium ius«:ad 01 de-
YOting hu nwn atun tion to the appropriate quadrivíum lubjecr. OuT
p"rplexilY might IK ,di.ved if we had «ruin knowltdge o:>f huw
VIl.O tl'CItcd gtOfTlCtlJ in (he funrth book of tusl"" BI.>I.>b of
1M DiseipJjntl. 1I ouc elrlicr surmisotll are: eQrrect," that V....... •• 0001<
cnmprised I modicum of geomttty and !he ciernen!! oí Il1lVeying.
Mutianus lll\ISl han bcen largcly indtpendtnr of Vlrro in eQmposlng
tus De I",,,,,n;'. MartitnuI· book makcs 00 n1ClIllon of su,,",ying, and
ir ÍIi deu W! V .......'. book did . - doaI ",¡,h rqu-I gcogrophy.
W. IIJ... lOI1\C san! knowlcdge ahou. Lotin SlUdits of gcomeuy
in me period jua. ""d jllSt .fur tbe ,.JI
of me W$tm Emplee.
AH qUldrmum srudi.. languished in me ..... tin world. .00 gwrnouy
,.".. tht mosr negJecud subjca in tbe four." Augustine, w ho, prior
ro ManiuluJ, had been engoge<! in compiling rnlnuals 00 the ..... n
ditcipUncs, .bilddon.d me plojee! ,fu, comple,ing I DI gr_,ic4
""d. dn.f, of lix boob (me .hytbtnus poníon) o:>f a De ..... ric•. " How

...,...,.
, s...dom f'/O'1'OJ ... dn<>tcd .., &cOfnphy¡ kCrions

, 7<'). TOj. h ¡, OlUIdord pncric:. """"'1 Lori.o. «>mpilen '" off .. _

or. <Ie ..... d lO

f.,.. _ <leol;" .. id> dio ""'; " • I oí G,oo\< ""'" el ' ,,1 .. bjecu, tho ....J e..,...
rt. die 0Qbi«''' reodus.
.. SOO ....... "'" _ 7.
"e ' l·,·, " 01-.. die "J" ., of '1- ¡';"'n ........
t ..... IV.,;,., l. jI. 7)
.. 1m dooy' "No _ ott , +. Ioaorc "" ori:hmorio, I ...... a ' ......¡ fot
<p«::iolioa; .•. ÜopuC<O _ _ ' - - ' " ..... 10ft .. pool . """ .., .. , .....' s...
"C , L<)' in rbc o\Irdj' .aI QuadriñIm," P. ,(\o, "" " ....
1"""- ......... "" .,,6, . _ ... C
'.' ,...... u, ..
""'*" ....""" """'.cipll'"l'"
do<
OC>
tho ui,'" ........,..... :o tho oo>d oool, .... 'o ......"a, /hin............
My_), .....". ...._ •
1/, ocI. booII .. _ic.
book :ti (runmot, • ood •
.. do< ....... qooodm-¡',,,n, 1'00"'''y • IÍ"'" orJ, _ P"P'
in ",hidI
I.E>"
lO
,'.,iN. ocI.
s... oIxI.., p. ,.
Ülld!ay) .
 ,,'
he """,Id
TU I': Q UADlll'lUM
geomury is no< knoown. &ethi.......110 cune
ÑU. Minian ... and ..... thc fir.u wrirer 10 "*
lM u""
did complete. DI ,!<'JUUII;" U pan of hiI oet: 01 quadri"'¡"m maooo1s.u
n.,;, work _ • trlIlSIf;óoo 01 olI or put of EueIld', Ekmnu•. As
ofeen I I medien] l.üin fngnotlltil ol g<'OMCa')' tutn up ond are found
ro ... KCUnt<: translaÓOll$ uf Euclid, dlCY m: ItnUllly considcred
by scllolan ro be vcstigcs of Boedúui venion." Rut, lo! sfWl see.
tltere are sorne fmly faithful tranSlatiQnJ uf Euclídean propositions
(widloul me proofs) in Muo.nus' •• venth hook, whlch show thll
good t..tin IftOsl' ÓOru of al leut pottions uf me EInnnu. w_n in
.Drtence befo", lIoethius' Cassiodoml muchos cvcr JO lighdy
011 thc diJciplinc: uf geomeay (/"rrin.rio ... , 1. 6) tnd his ueaanent
"",''d ha... COOlttib.n.ed nothi:lg to contomporo.ry Imowlodgc uf tht
subjea.
Why <:lid MartWms peder geognphy 10 ¡eOmetir u. subjea for
Itis Dt gt_nir and why did be inrmduce moR Eoclidetn mucrial
in Book VlI lhan in Book VI ? Eao:h al hiI brid s".ids is ... imp<a
Ji.oly .",e Iody and tKh holds 10M iD • !cG¡thy dio<:oane.. Mu-
n.RusHlo'1d DOt, .. Cu,iodorus <lid, give. twO-pag-e. dacunin lreI.l·
mtfI( ro romeUY. H. had ro find sorne subj= ro mI OUt Book VI

ro IIQrmtllen¡th, and onc dw: would D<H: repo:l his readus. The Eudid-

" Of &.tIUuo' '1""dr;'ium dio o. .... .u"-rl,. ond pen of tbo

f...,_ ru""'"
0# ""'11"'1.... >mUk.
.......¡... ;.,
(dio ' - olenn <110""",, .... Iooc,); di. D. , ... ".. ,,"
&Dd tito book "" _ r,
<h<><>th Ioot, lo w.u ........
fo< • <Ul el tlM lino. twv...,.b &IId ....... .,¡ "'" r<""<"Y ''100: _ _ tbo
d to.

edWon el (J. P,lodlcia; fo<. el &etbiuo· qadririoam boob, _ SabI,

Stlne., pp. ,,. .... ,.
T"
,. o.c ... D. <h" '. s.n, TI":dI.! ·v., El,,..,
jo.

.... rwdfdl oet\tUry .... 01 . _ . ' ••

V_ ''1,. "P ((;oIdc. p.
-+. _....
nIuoobI. oaody el .... _ _ ..... in< el [Ni ... . " ' - U f . p ....... oniddic el

'4> ...... jut - . _

üat.-k . .. .ti«" ,.".
..,. Mario e" .,
Ii",/Uh 1 . . , ..ti r.... _ .... 'ha• .. tMiIoIo. >9'l6l. Go, .......... tbo
iD iho fol•• " ._., 0Dd boüono ..... tho)I1>tIoGi 10"'11 m ' ... ...
" .._
11 ttIio tIoooio jo - ..... ;, _ d indO , . . truo... """'" _ (1'
l1000 .... _ . . ...,.,...... _ _ he <' " 1· d lIio o. ."."''''
.,.J. _
lO ""'"" _nOOO¡ boo ........... lO Mutio.......,.", in
Book" V( <hu .. 1I0oI< Vll, ..... di.otIclt 1Iook VII ....... !. iho ....... """ · m ol
Fadjcl¿", .."",dol. So< <'r. l' .8; 1. L Hoibo'l' Un....... nbkbt/ldl.
Sttdino ' " ' FMItIiJ ILtipo;,. ,88.), pp. '0'·).
 GEOMETRY "9
ean material in Book VII is on numben, not geomeuy, md originaeO<!
in arithmetical books of the (VII_IX), Geometry prop«
w.. obviousIy a subjoct tIlat Martian"" could noe Mndle, md he d.id
noe suppose tIlae his miden would be jmcrcsced in it, His choice of
subject-a geographical su.rvey of the known world-appcars ro ha,'e
becn 2 uniquc one for a "",outl of me tradjtiol\31 The
re¡son fOf his clloosing geography probably in the enormous
popularity of me worb which were his rwo cllicf ""urces, the Col-
UCfif11e. urom memorllhi/.itnn <>Í Solin"", and PUny'. NlttUtiJJ Histary ,
le is common knowledge tMe PUny's encyclopcdia was one of the
/JI05t popular and authorimti,-c works on Lotio $Ciencc mrouglwut the
Middl. thls ji at;este(] eo by che frequtnt OCCUrrencc of bis I\3I1lC
in medieval libnry Clmlogucs and by lOOmbnce of Plinim ex-
ccrpa in codic:ts of scienrific writings." But tho grtat bul1ciness <>Í his
work militaecd 2gainse its use in ominty. Generally spcalcing, wtite ...
like Bede, whu quote Mtended passagts fmm Pliny verbarim, used
only cert\lin b001<s md did nut hwc tccess ro ehe complete work.
Solio... hit upon a dcver 5Chcrne fo! reducing Pliny: he depended
upon 1IIl existing epjrornc of thc g<:ographical books (111-VI) ro con-
srruct his frameworl< and inuoduced • few hundred choice tidbjt3
from Pliny', nongoognpllicol books {lIlainly froro VII-XII, on moo.
wology, and (Xotic cree.; and from XXXVII, on precious ..) ro
produce a compiladoo which h. frankly tdmit3 in bis Prcfacc is de-
signed eo catch che =der', imercst. More than three-founllS of
Solinos' was ultim.tdy derivcd from
Pliny. MomlIl1iCn found appro1cimatcly ','50 elttnco:s froro Pliny and
)8 from Meb in Solinus' book, which munbers lcss than one hundred
pages." Solinus' book of marvcls-in ..ll probability utracted from In
euly second·ccnrury epitorne of Pliny'J gcographicol books"-bccamc
" M...y oí _ ou ioclnded ;., pusifIa by Leo ...,d) m hls =
"Tb<odor MOl"" ... porltopo tite of lrlOdem clossiolll ocholus.
I...i.hcd Iús eIpcn .nemlon "" tite pnpontioo 01 hio .-..Iy .ditiom oí thi!
',!hwl
irlvltl W<>ii<. JI", u.r (pp. of P""'"F' deci.«I by SoIinu< 100m Pliny sruI
MeIo, lII>il of F V duived by la=- outhon (Ammiüuo MarWlinlJl, AugmUn<,
7

M,utwr... Priocion, Aldhdm, Sed., DicuiI, ""d thc Ambo, of <he 0A01l_
)'11>0" Do ,;¡u ""bit) from Solinus, is • nluablc fO tite delCrionlio:t of
cluoiclll writings "' tht Iund. of Intd;....] c<omp;¡u..
"Sto: lbo.... p. '7'
'JO TUI': Q UADRIVIUM

even more popular than itl well-\nwwn forebear. And, as we have _no
Martianus furmer digcsted che work of Solion. ond Pliny ro produ«
me gcogra.phlcal txCUrsus whicb fonns me bulk oí BOlOk VI.
The geognpmcd writings of me Greeks reflttt two ""Iiem CtlLrural
pencJunt foc tbeorctical stu.ms, including mathe-
macia, ond. love for, and de¡>C1ldcnc<: upon, the sea. In matbt:matical
geognphy they were outstanding. Thc accomplishmenr:s of mros-
th(;nes, Hipparchus, Ptolnny, and others ranlo: high in !he history of
grodcsy.1t D=ripave gtognphy, 011 tIle otile. hand, Wa5 not a w. U-
devdoped or wdl_defined fidd. From che begUllting me di";nctiol15
bctwecn history and geognphy w= blurrcd; hisrorims lil«: Hero<!-
otw ugular!y introduce<! gwgn.phical and geog•• pbers
fele Impclkd to deal with lúswrical backgrouods." Grc.k treotise. on
geognphy tended from .. rliest times ro assume the fonn of • pt"rit-
glm, a 5IlI'VCy of cicles, peoples, and COllOtnes uranged in the order
char. navigaoor would come upon he saiJed che coas< of che
Medituranean IJld oucu seas. The commo .... t starting poin. foc such
surveys wu che Str.l;t oí Gibraltar." A ptritguis natunlly gav. di ...
proport:iomre attcndon ro regions, ro tIle neglect of the imcrior.
Geognphical writings of rbc classical period are now represente<!
oolr by fragmentl Or by borrowings in =ndary sm1l'<:"'. T ite litera-
ture surviving froro the Helltnistic Age is writtcn almost exclusively
on • popular leve], and hu a standardiud fonn. Introduaory chap€m
contain stereotyp:d doctrines (lf mathematictl ge(lgnphy, Nch as .re
fmmd in thc handboob (lf Thcon oí Sinyrna, Geminus, .nd Qeom-
cdcs:" thc « le";.] sphere and circlcs define<!, and the positions

" Fo< • dMo . o/ di. _ti< o/ ...... _ ... uiccl geoscop ....... "". Tll=-
.."., chapo. V ood XI; ..,d e.
H. Bunbt>ry, A Hin • .., ., AtJ&i<m a"'vqhl,
....po. XVI, XVII. ood xxvm .
.. F. W . WoIbonl< .... wrjlt<1l • brilliaot orticl. with e....irW¡hto ¡JItO die
populu tr'djtiom o/ G,...k ¡cognpby: "Th. G""I!,"phy o/ Polyhlllo. Cw,;co
« ""'.¡....,.¡,.,IX (>941), 11. onribnteo <be geognphksl digr...>oo ...
nrumsI f..""" of hiororiogroplly '" tII. n>ethodo o/ the srory-<dler.
b I ionol Pnnon, Enl, 1"';"" HitwrlMu (Orlord, '939), P. In, thlnI<s di..
11" "' ¡"", Por;",.';' (e. l"" a.c.), th< <.ru...: Greok googrophic:d ceolio<.
"'" ",""" begun ¡.. """oy"' Gibftlru .
.. T ' - <d. Hiller. pp. """11; Gemio.., o..po. IV, V, XV, XVI; Clto<nod<.
lh """" .;,-• ..uri l. "J.
 GEOMET!l.Y • 3'
of planetlry orbits and che carth are locatcd¡ then lollow disemsions
of tilo locadon ol me carth'. zones of human habitadon and me diri-
sion ol ¡he mown world into ¡hrcc condmnt'l. Polybius interrUpts me
oi his HistOrUl, ¡use beiore IUnnibal's crossing oí me Alps.
ro introduce a digrcssion (J.)6-)8) on the tItree continenoll divisions.
Sc:nbo, afeer • historical introduetion, devotes fifteeo of me "venteen
booles of his O:ogr¡¡pby oo. descriptioo of che conntries of the world.
Bnt nest:led betwcen bis historical inttoduction and regional desaip-
tion is a Jengthy chapeer (,. S) containing all che stueotypeB of •
popular handbook 00 eosmography, che .lIape "nd che ZOIlC$ oi heaven
and earth, che rehdve position and siu: oí me earth, che four zones of
huma.n habitWon, " coasCll SIIrvey of me Irnown world, and lasdy •
discussion of che climates and me bours ni dayUghr lit eaeh of che P'lnl-
Jet. It che time oi che solstice. A similar introduction to C<lsmography
is found in che pseudo-Aristordian Dt mundo.
The Rom.ns mad. theiI" fim emnsive contacts wim che Greek io_
tdlecrual world in che =nd Wltury I.c. Bcing unable ro comprehend
che meoretical ueatiscs oi che thinkers Uke Fntostheneo and Hippar_
chus, they depended upon populanw-s for thcir tech.nical infornu.tion.
WriteIs ni rhe fim centuri.. I.c. and ...1>.. gave. <:anoUlcal form to Latin
gt'Ographical treatises, diriding them into two P'I"CS' . concise OCO)\Iot
of tilo dernents of mathematical geograpby, and. chorography of che
mown world, prepondcrandy of eouul rcgions and coruisting Iargely
of lisa oi phcc namcs, with remorles about U<OCi<tted persons OI things
irnerspcrsed. Sinee me RolIW"IS lwI linle or no interest in geomctry
and thcir C<lnqutSts lUId adrninistrativc operations were eondue... d in
me interior more rhan in coastal regions, ir is cltar titar Roman grog-
rapllen blundered in adhering ro t=!iUonal parteros of Grcek geog_
nphy. Fonnal Lo.rin ehorograpllies wue of linle use ro provincial
administraron and milit:ary commonders, who dtpended instead on che
daUI compi!ed by MOlCU$ Agrippa in a grOIll2.Uc survey oi che higb_
way' and proYinees oi me Empirc, eonducted under me sponsoHhip
of Augusrus. The Iesula oi this survcy were made u.iJable in itiner-
aria and C<lpi.. of rhe master map, one of whlch, the "Peutinger
T1ble," survive:s in a late form.
Mela offers rile ilinten traecs of mathematical gcography in • few
sentenees in me opening ellapter of his DI ritu Drbis (c . ....D. 4'). H e
'l' TUE QUADlllV l lIM
titen move& on ro me divisiom Qf the world ud ro a <:horognphy. by
provinces, sarting at Gibnlc:.r. Pliny begins bis monumental
History, rhlrty-seven boob long, with a book on me uniVCISe (lIook
11), tbc convencional opating ot Guck matltemlotical but
he does DOe compuhend the .nthoritie. he is nsing. H e then divkks
tIle known world ineo two inhabited islands, os it weu. bisected by me
Meditcmlnean and the Black Sea, and procceds on • CO\lSOI survcy oí
me nonhun half (III-IV) and the SQuthem hall (y-VI), eadI time
starting Ir Gibnlw. Pliny show. a high regar<! fOl' the ebt::l compiled
by Agrip¡n and makes fn:quent use of them in rec<lrding disances;
but he fails ttJ rta&e mat Agrippa's $Urvey would llave made a sound
basii for bis chorogn.phy. os a Greek-.¡ylc pniegtsiJ (prohablr
Varro', )<lid noto gives mease:..
uearment tO interior r.o:gions
wllicb were of viul importtnce ro me Empire. Though he se,..,cd in
military campaigns in Gernlany and wrote an authoritaove history oí
the Gaman mlr. in twcnty boob, he devotts aboot one hundred ud
flÍry words to this pare oi thc: world. 'lb. reaoon is dear. He is dn.w-
ing ¡mm boolrs nmor than from rus oWft aperien«." Solio\!! omits
a mamenutical inuoduction altogether and begins bis chorograpby
witb luIr, though he uses Pliny ud Mela throughouc 1$ rus sollfCel.
Dividing die known wodd mm hall'CS and assuming that m ocean
f1owro continuously .bout both halvcs sacisflcd Greck gcognplten
tIw: • wouJd serve Il$ .,. adcquatc h2si$ f« world
nplly. Bot ro Roman geographen. lware of militllly
and uplontions in BriTllin, Gennany, Uppe! Egypt, and the Middlt
East, it ' ppeared th>t pr""f. wcrc rcquircd ro dcmonsuate the .do-
qnacy of coast:al surveY' ro cncomp'" remoce r.:gions. Lltin ",ritul
eustonwily inaodu=! proofs of • COntinUOllll oceau-Ñbulous circum-
navigations of the nortbcm and southem eontineuts. Pliny's proofs
are gublcd by Maniaous. Pliny (l. '70), 011 the IUthority of Corndius
Nepos. say' tbat MeteUus Cele! u a prneru froro the lring
of the Sw1tbi2m some Indians wbo liad beco driveo from thcir coorse,
by stOml!, o.Il the w:ay ro Germany¡ MartWws (6u) has it that Cor-
oelius, alter aking sorne ludians captive, sailcd post Germany. Mar-
rdoer mon u';"bIe
.. He bad atcd talÜ<r ( •• " 7-,8) tbt. writuo can oh:o.I
dota .bout tbeir own region from boob ., ...... by oudIott '"'" 111ft <IOTCr
been tIIere th1n from llIti_
 GEOMETRY

rianus also ltl'd13 PliDy's fabulous reporn of Augustus sailing post

."
Jutland inro cht {rozen Scythion Oeean, of Macedonian sai!Ol! crui;ing
frorn cht Indi'n ro tM Caspian Sea, and of thipwrecked huLIs
of Spanish ships found in Anbian GuH."
Martilnus' Icngthy UC\ll'SIIS 1m geogn.phy, beillg duivcd froro Pliny
llId Solinus, follo.... armnical fonn of Lacio chorognphies. The
stock f...tures of m.tMmatical geosraphy ae che opening_ proofs of
earth's 'phericaL.ru.pe ond il3loc:ation ae tM cenrer of tM
(s9"""lío'), an expbnation of tM terresniaL ZOJ1ts ond four human h2bi·
tauons of che carth, ond a Iisting of ellt dirru:nsiom of tM known world
(60 •• ,6)-come froro che chorography and gtncraUy
foUow PliDy'. order." TIIt ma.in pan. che re¡ionaL geograpby, follows
,00 not ordu, begianing che surveys of tM nortbern
and southcrn Ilalves of che known WIIrld at Gilmkaf (6'7'711')' The
precise borrowings of MorlÍmu¡; {rom Pliny and Solinus llave
traool. by Lüdecke."
Pliny', fo .. , booh of geog"'phy, togeche< wir!. a<:uprs {mm other
book .. which had b«n by SoliDu. ro a tte • .u.
of less !:han

.. On RomIUl =ropcioao of Greek t<pottI. ... &l>bury, U.

.. TIto pm.oe,;,;.., Suvndw (S9D>, reod by """" sebo'·... pon: oí tbo ""'"
but <:OOWIcnd by Diek (>¡n. ,?"",) ro be o gIoss. lo ... ockDowled,ü","" oitItor
by M .... ismu "" by lb< gIoaotor, _ lb< matuW ro follow ( X I " - from PIioy
l.l'Iinius SocundllJ) . Tho .... iutetnIodl.ry, ond "'" Pliny, wu uocd by Motti....,.
jo fr<¡m do. """""" of gubIing llOd ...u.oodma of Pllny',
ron.. L,., P!iDy'. pInse rtriul ""bi. iIIi h . ,So) be""""", o ..,...·i,....." "'1""""",
Se ..;." Nobilio, io Moniuuu \!W: PIioy (l .•,sI lw <WO ol'f"'"'""'C<' o, tho
Beu .. M=é", iD tho eveolng ...... ....,.."... >Obtic. ond .. doyb ...k i- befo«
lb< rWng oí A<rntn.Io: M""""", (,9J) cocnblnc! ti>< twO: ., tbe """""" ",btic<,
.. do,..,. ,bono: lb< tim< of doe risiae: oí A=nn<I. Oa tfte aereotyped chuoct>or
oí P!iDy'. ond Id...... """ ........... oí modtemotictl "",ppby ond ro. lO"" clu.
sictl f"""'IleJo .... Macrobiuo Co'fflj""u"", <r. SmhI, p. '5'" m. ..nb oecu""'"
poiDt in OJ>IC<; PI'" tho eutItlo Ol tito _ of m. uninl"X; m. oenttt jo
t/u; lIUddlo ond tM mlddl. jo di. bo,rom oí <he uni...,...; p...... oncipodeo ""..
<limo""
.m.¡J ... P. ..... !he....... lo", "11100" of l'nInwI ""bi<otion.
ond lnDS>"Us<.ly oppooed ro - ' " od!er. Seo oloo below, p. ,;76. bidore fE'l'
""'¡"/llM ¡. ¡0;61 <h. e l . . - of boDe """""'S'"pby _ J.eqner FOIl-

-
n.iD< ..... dt..""d _ I."gtt.y obap<et ro <han;" hio ,"'-_ d. S¡,,¡¡u, 11,
Hio eIobo ..... providoo ...... oi puoIWo in cl...nJ ond modievtl

.. s... obon, "Soa..,..," n. '7.

'34 TIfE QUADRIVIUM

ooe bundred Fg<S. wcre condensed by Mlrtisnn. inlO an e:rcurNS

one fourth .. long as Solinus' book, PUny's mOUSilnds of place names
diminish 10 hundud!; in Mutianus. If Pllny Jac.ktd good scnse, tic did
not lack industty. He gives distances between p1aces bcN.'«'I
boundari.. en toute. ¡\hoy of these figures are omitted in M.rcimus'
cut, and tocals are sometirncs incorrecto Solinus culls from Pliny me
beuer-known place mmes and thosc with eotcru.ining ,,·ociaoons.
When Martimus further distiUs Solin... me rerolr is ludicrous. Whole
pangnpb.,¡ are comp=d ioro tortuous senttnce!l, sud\ .. this oomo-
dous =ple (668): "No! far distutt are Rven mountllÍns which, be-
caUse oí their «¡mI ore caIItd 'TIte Brothcrs'; rhey teem with
elepllonts and u. beyond the province of Tingitana, whose length j.
'70 mil..:' ElcÍ$ÍO!I$ inc:virably I..d ro wnfusion, in che $eCrlon no
Cerloo, Plinr (6. 8.¡-88) reports me vml of C.yloncse .mb.... dors ro
Rom. and their surprisc al fmding chat the suR in nonmm btitode.
ris .. on che leíl (oí an observet Iookiog south ooward che NO); Mu-
tianus (697) omiUl the report of the ambusadors' visit ro Rome and
hu tlle sun rising no the [.eft in Ccylon. Pliny (6. 81) says that thc"..
betwecn India aud Ccylon is genenlly shallow, only sir: paces deep,
bllt tbal in sorne channds thc deplh is SO gual duol anchOr> do nol
reach the bottom. MtttianU5 (696) says thar thc sea there is depmlcd
by deep channds.:;iJ: paces in deptb."
Ncar thc opening of Gcornetry', discourse, .. we have obsuved,
M-mianus has thc audacity ro try 10 explain Erato6l:bene.' method of
rneasuring thc circwnfereoce oí thc eanh, Oeome<les accuralely re-
pOTtS lhe procedures used by EratoSthenes .. follows: uuming Srene
10 be direcdy ben",th the cdestW. tropic, En.t:ostItenes rneasurcd the
length of the Syene.Alenndria are and, fmding the are of lhe gno-
mon', .hadow in. hemisphetical bowl pl.ced at Alenndrla al noon
n the JWl1mer solsrice 00 be one-fiftietb of a cirde, be multiplied the
Sycne.AI..... ndria dist:ancc by fifty ro gee a value for the eanh'. cit-
curnference." According 00 Marti<lnU5 (597). EratoSthenes meti\lrcd
the Syene-Meroe are and, d«mnining the length of che gnomon'.
shadow from the ccntcr of the bowl al the equinoI, rnultiplicd by
., For. putioI u.. 01 tII. M."i."w bu garbled 'mm Pliny _ Stohl,
RMr:... pp.
"0_",0.
 Gi:OMETRY '35
tw,nty_fonr ond "got m. measure of a double cirde ..... Martiauus
'ppem hopelcssly confused. suggest!i chat in che woeds "donb!e
cire!e" (citculi duplicis) M.nian"" hsd in mind the douhling of the
twf cite!. of the bowl." But Remigius g\osscs ú,cWj duplicU as fol_
!OW!i' qui4 dividitw circuJw in dW.llUqUdl pmesj á,culus enim dupkx
m cuiu.s dilnntttT circulum in aeqtJ4ies fJdrtel dividir." When Rerni_
gius !ays chat 1 di.meter divides. cirde into twO equal pans, he is
assuming," M• ..wDus doe. dsewherc," mat t diameter is half. circle.
Johu Scot M Ugma, C<lmmenbtor "n MartW1uS in another work,
devotes .eve""¡ hundred words (tbree columns of clase p<int in the
Migne edition) of rus D. di"isione ro explaining EnOOiSthenes'
method. John too assumes mat a diameter ;5 half • cirde." H is explol-
nation is an of Martianus' hrief itatement .
.. Elsewher. (876'> Mutiamos mimkooly placeo .. the oummet uopic .
• E. It.lkrger. DII,t<lgr"Pbh&ImI F,.,.",cnl< 4" E,nonb"", (Ldptlg, ,SSO),
P. "7, obo ,hillA "'" M2ffiutuo tneaIIt 10 use the Syene-tq.,..". ore, which. oc-
roro;"II ro Emo.tltonrs, m",""¡ .6,800 ........... d ,..... ono-foftumb d ,¡..,
. .

......unment d En.-ben .. 10<" the eanb"s circwrtf<rmce. ...... "'" Mori, "Lo
t1UO.!U!tlc. dd podo <d al .... D<IfÍ<k I<ogttf!cbe dell. '0."""",.;.'
di M....,¡."o Capellt," RMt<. /toJl;""" xvm ('9")' ¡!16, thinb "'"'
Bcr¡¡er'. npw..ooa "'" cotTectiort al MMtWtus' ,ooiuoed ...t<mem ¡, the ortly
""",,"bI.. 00<. Both ocbobrt oR girirtg M""¡"' ... "",di, 10<" ",.".. matbomatb.l
. 1dIl m.n h, pe " ""d.
" Remi¡iuo (ed. ,W. "8000... . circle Jo di-rid<d iota """ <qua! 1"""",
lro:. circlo ¡, 'dooble· """"" diultetu dirid<s the cir<:le iota equal poons."
.. Mmiaml:I nI (Dkk ¡JO. ,¡-,.v,."..kIng d "'" """,bu fI.o, ..yo: H"""
_ _ qull ...,,, .,,, J'..-" ,_, N _ J.u4# P"1"rJ.> ,lrrul"'qt<I ¡".¡,.,
btmitpb4t"fio .dmu-. IWbo wotdJ deny <ha. thlo n_be< Rpcnen<:llhe dio-
m< .. For the dtcod, perfecdoB "'" me circl<, is =: in bill by the
..micircle d thi< numbu.l Romi¡in<"¡ 1"". (<>:1. Lutt., 11. ,iS) , H""" _" .........
id Ir< quiurium. Dim>mum qt<II/ Jimidium J"""¡¡ ",1 d/l>li4ium [1 .. ,
tIt. 00_ (iyo. Th< dÍ2lll<tcl" ;" .. jo; W<<C, holf d ten ot hall d • circle.) Fro:
• f""'Íb'" oxpIanlcioo <>f thi< rnillOk<, ... bel<>w, p.'.¡6.
.. D. Jil.-mo... _ U ) . Il (MigD<, n, VoI. ",,1s.],6-,th Duplo noJm
,.;".,m"..b;¡". m",", 1m 1/>b4<r4, mu m.Jkw •• "'m..¡, ..... N_ .. dtnM/I
....,...¡, """" """".t.m e!..<'lSII, "..,....."" di "''''''' en. J.n,t io. tht I"""'g< Jolm
gi... f.,.... ¡M the • •¡.,ooo xad .. ud Ay>
dw: the dWnet<r ¡, ,,6,00<> '''di. the ...... f'lr"" .. the di.... « lO the DIOOJl.
Jol,,' wu disturbed by the veo' dio=pucy l><twCI<Il the figu.<el d twO m>« •
• bIe .uthoriti.., Emootbencs hjl,o<lO xadW ... d Ptok"'Y (,-.,- ""dio), "'"
oought to «<:Oocil. than by. diff....!ICe ir> ..... duda. Sto: Anbtey Diller, "Tbo
, l' THE QUADRIVIUM
Before bcgiuning bis Martianus divides tIle known world
inro thtee continents: Europe. Asia, md Afria. The Strait of Gibnl11l'
sqm\ltu Europe md Mrica, tIIe Don forms die deroatation
betwttn Europe and Asia, and die Ni!e separares Asia and Alriea.
ore Pliny's divisions. ,'\{uti;¡nus concludC$ by observing (ÓJ6)
tllat "very many prefor f.O '.gard die Sea oí Mmnan. os
the boundary betwcen Europe and Asia. The "very many" Ir<: acto.Uy
Solln\lll."
Spain seIS tIun its ¡11m: of notice {roro MartianU9-fi ir di<!
fmm Pliny, rhe usool upL>nation for this bcing tItot Pliny servcd as
procuutor in Spain. ond dt.tt Vuro, Itis presumed IUthority, had
•• rvcd .. militory conunander in Spo.in in tite Ovil Wu apinst
01 t." But Varro and Pliny drew their gcognphy fmm boaks and
r«<mls nmer tlwl from persoDil txpc:rienee. Pliny also Mld procun-
rorshipi in Gaul ami campaigned in Germany but those countrks got
5Cant actention fmm him. Pliny givcs undu. cover:ag<= ro Syrio., I
ptovince which di<! noI figure in bis carter, if M evcr did visir it.
Indiatlons are tila! it WllS the G",.k gwgnphecs who, just.,.
¡hey btqu.. thed the fnmework of the ro Rom.o gwgn.phcrs,
detennin«l rhe amaunt of discussion ro be giveo ro «eh province of
tite Empke ro me outtr resiON of rhe world. Spain w.s • Jand of
keen inrerest to Greek geographm from thc time of Hccataeus (c.
soo s.c.), while d!e attention gilT<'n to Syrla probably ren= Posido.
nius' inrus in Pompcy's campaigns. Pliny in turn determincd me
propornonace length of treatment of each region fOf IAtin writerS
who compilcd from him directly or indirectly, such u Solinus, Mil{·
Uanus. l5idore, and Dicuil;" and mus. throngh him, Greek anmorities

Anclen. Me..-.r= of lb< E&rth," hit. XL (J<)o49l. 90 DI1hcm. tu. coa>-

mt ... on JOM', miotllr.o ....t .... di. U'ldidoul flguu of ,,6,<#.)
nadia fo< lb<
diswlco to the moon _ ... iIIIp<>nOIIt fX<Ot •
.. a. PIfuy l . l .. d SoHn •• 'l. 'jo 5<robo <=<dI lb< dh'lIIoas pe.. by Pliny
.. Ibooc of 1'aIIdoniw.
.. Compar$ M..... ""'· occotmO of Spoin (6'1"J» widt PIlny'. (J. (\.8, ,6-,1, ...
lI>'¡O) ond Sollnui ('J. '-9) •
.. Dicui1, <he fIn< Fnnkisll geog'&ph". ,."".. • """"Y of die 'O'OtId (u.
...hid> depeods "1"'" Solin.. ....t PIiI>y ond sino "" Infotmstion oborn: B.. trio
..,d Suony. Se. Di&tJi/1 U/nr J. """"". ",bU urr.., od. G. Potthoy, PI' 4N1.
 GEOMETRY '37
ser the foan and content of world geognphy (oc ova a thoU3llJld
Y" • .
Pliny'. place narncs along the mainland come in helte.r-skdter profu_
ruon. To aUeviate the tedium of readen he shows inrere.t and 9O[IIe-
times emotion when writing grtat rivert lil«: the Po and Danuhe
OC about places with litcnry or mythologica1 mociatioRS; fmm time
lO time he n:tnccs rus coursc to rcmark about off$hon: isIands, iu-
cluding tiny ones, in sorne dcta.il: and he delighu in occasionaUy in_
serting in inctedib!e tlIle about sorne place. These divertissements hsd
a bettcr manee of survi",r in Pliny's SUC<:eSOOI'S th<lll had bis !ists of
place ""melI. $olinus concentrlted on pk:Icing out Pliny's mcredjbiJkI
and place. with amusing M.rti2nUll surrunarizcs
festures, lauded by the poets." os fot lt:aly (41) : thc town of ScyI_
Jaeum:" thc Cr:ouis Rivcr,. mother ni Scylll: che whirpool of CIwyb-
di/;; thc rose gardens ni Paestum:.. che clifú ni the Sinn.: Campania',
glades: the Pltlegnean Ficlds; lUId Tarracina, dweUing place of arce.
By che sewoth ceorury thcrc W2S uot IIlUch ldt nf Pliny but the diva_
tissements. lsidore sw«ps over emire eootinents, droppiog • few names
.1ong the ""y, but he gives the liny island of Thanet I wbole para-
graph in tus chapter no the islands ni che world bccoose oi Solinos'
arresting ObsuvatioRS chat there lte no snakt& 00 m e island tud tllat
ean:h tlIkcn from ir to any pon of che world kills sna)¡es."
Once post lealy, Mattianus pieks up speed. Berween Tta1y and lIIyo-
cum thcre lre many pcoples, haY'> cities, meno monntains, and bar-
ü

bamos races" {6$0) ..... glib way nf acconnting for fifty wptcl'S in
Pliny (3. 101-SO). NttiollS are lumped together 00 me shadowy =ro
borden oi the uorthem half of the world-Getae, Dacians, Sannatians,
Wagon-Dwellcrs, AJan!, Ge.rnuns. Then the Danube
mouth, tite Dnieper and Bug Rivers. Beyond ore che Gelon!, Agathyr-
si, Man_Eatcu, Arimospi, md the fabulous Rhipaean Mountains. Across
thcse are the Hypcrboreans, living in blis, aud in l trice \Ve on the

"Cf. HOIDeJ: 0J,U'1 n. '!S .

.. Cf. u,;.¡. "4: Ooid M_pbOUf 'J. '-W-
.. r .....d IN" thrit twXe-bI<I01tñng "-" Cf. vorgil O_¡i<;s ... "9\ PnIportiuo
... s· J'l; MutW E,;v#mI lO. )1.).
oo Cf. kidon 1+ 6. J; Solhroon.'. ¡, <krind {ron> .... G_k m-
__ [""""'l.
," TRE

$llores of thc Northcm Ocean. Le" thau • hundted words u( requlred

ca rweep post Gennany. BriWn, tite is1a in itI minity, .nd G.nl,..,d
ro = ro Gibnltar (666). Martianus did not llave Pliny's stantint
and wu cxhonstcd by che time he IUched Spain. PUror g<lvc aJmosc as
much Ittcmion ro western Spain and Lusiunit oro bis hO\tlCWllrd COUl\iO
<4- ',o-JO) as he liad ro cast«n Spain on me ""y out (). 6-.8).
Tbe soulhem perngtm follows itnmediatcly, written in me same
scyle, altbough for this survcy Mutianus was depending more he:avily
upon Solinus than upon PUny. Solirlm, purveyor of uD soories, wu.
matebless figure ro follow in rec<lrding tbe wonders of me dark con·
tillen! and India. He, Pliny. and Marcianu' were Jugdy rc:sponsible
for me perperuation nf reports of grotesquc monstcrs down to the
time of San/ey and Uvingstonc. Rudolf Wittkowu has written I
dclightful and wcU-documentcd essay in which he statcS Ilis ...
fo! beJicving mal an cady iIlustn>red Solin... aisted and mal il ¡,¡ noe
wilikcly chot ManW!w roo was illusttated at an. early date." We meet
• coLlcction nf Pliny's African monsttd on lhe way ro India (s. 4'1·,,6)
.00 mother 00 the WIIy hect (6. 1<,»'95)' Solinus ernbdlished Pliny'•
• C«Iuna by dI1Iwing from Mela as wdl as fmm other books nf Pliny
and OCC2SionoUy fmm • souree unlmown even ro Mornmsen." Mo.....
tianas grutly rod_ dtcir coJJections (63'14). He me At-
Ianl(S, who neve! dream; the Troglodyoos, who dwdl in own, leed
on oerpents, and lUss rathu dtan speok; tite heodless Blemmy.... who
have mouth Ind eyes in th.ir chesl:!l: and the Strap-Feet, who crawl
be<:ause thcir fea are 1Mimed.
MartianllS takes gre:o.ter care in c:xcerpting fmm Pliny in tite .ection
00 Numidi:a (669-70). probahly bccausc it wu tus homcland. This
ICCOWIt coomim tus own rema:rk ol!out Canhage, whiclt, 1IJ we saw
above, used in srning • tmllinus lIIrte t¡UmI for !lis book. He repeou
th. current ootion, whicll Pijny got from King Joba's book on Lihya.
u "Muoth al the Eut." JWCI. V (194'). '$9"97. Seo..,. "!he P\wnW Tn-
dition," pp. '1' 11. Wiako .. a tnC<I hsIian m;nian".. w.....
tr'lÓnJ Solio.. '" •• iztb_ or .. , .. otb-<""""Y orclteIype-Seo ..... K.... W ........ "'"
A...,1<nt a""k 1'& Jw#oll Mus., pp. JI, It" o. j7.
.. SoIimu lO. , - ll. 6 (e<l. Mon." ..... pp. ')<I-J7) , Meb', """"""'" of Mricad
_ _ .... oometimoo fnller tboo PIloy'.. ro< • eomporioon al ..... oo. D.
DetIeúcn, Dh Gt<Jzr<f!bk AfriU, M 1'," ." unJ M<I."",¡ ¡bu QtuIIno (BcrIio,
"106), PI'- lS ......
 GEOMETkY 'l9
m.t tite Nile originate$ in a Iake in Maurctania." Palmru, between
Srm and PartlUa, ís (68 ,), Tite city had been destl'Oyed by
tite Romans A.J), '73; bue thís Ms no bearing upon Solinus' Of Mar-
tianus' dores, becousc: tite irem COlmS fmm PUny. It j, pointless tO
det:ail aU of Manianus' místakcs and gorbling in rus
redllCtions oí Pliny
and Solinus. Tho paraUel P"""'gcs are noted in tite .ppanrus of
At one point tite rdendcssly sharp Hugo Grotius, by col_
lating SoIinw' reading, <XIn«teJ Manianus' mistake of putting Ly_
CIIorna in the uominan"" ca.. (6S6). Bur, as Kopp wryly :asb in a noee
on thís p'" ge io his ed.inon, is ie olOr iotennon ro COrrect Martimus
Of the manusctipts?"
Soon we come ro India (694-9Ó), a Iand tllar c.lI. fOI a fulJ treae_
menr, ond Ccylon (696-98),. sort of Ultima Tllule of tite East. India
1m Hve th.ousand dties and is tltought tO be one tllird of rhe world
Kings rule Ilere, .nd ellere is on abundanee of armic::s and elephants.
Indians beauofy tltemselves by dyeing ebeir hair, some witll bluish.,
oth.ers wirh yeUowi,h, dy ..; ehey .dom mermel".. with jewels .nd
consider it a di,tincoou ro ride un elephomts. Ceylon is gigautic iu
siZC-7,ooo sradio iu length and 5,000 in breadeh-tnd also in its con-
eents, ekphaM' and pe>rls are brger diere !han in india, and elle meo
are larger tIan burnans . nywhetc. A molO who di .. s r die Ige of one
hundrcd dies promaNretr. Aceording eo Martianus, ehe Cerlon...
have no 0 ...1 dealings widl outside p"'pleo bur employ tbe metbad of
dumb huuTat a livn bonk fOI exch.uging wares. \Vhae Pliny acruony
oaid (<l. 88) W3S t!ur thís W3S a OUnese =m, reponed by Ceylune,e
ambusodors. " ie :ooy wonder m.e M.rtianus was :00 e,eeelmd pg_
"phe! in tite Middle Ag.:..?
As mighr be expecteJ, die homew;¡rd swing around Afric;¡ ís even
swifter m.n t he circumrutvig:otion of norrhem ,hore¡;. Skirting rhe
southern coast of Afria was no problem ro Pliny; ie w.. •
matter of opinion, the Istand of Cerne lies off Ethiopi •• according ro

.. On <he ""'""" of !he 'ioins blm -'" _ of Mt. AtI#, .. e n.o",.

"""- P!'-7<"7',
.. Dicl< om;", """'y 5oI.in... puoIlcls, bu, """'" of <hcoc C&Il be 'OCOh,«I by
ti>< 1....... in eil jÓOrt of Solirws.
.. l.eoOU<li ou¡gens .."". <In"", ¡roen Rotbe<" gIoooeo. 101' tIIc
<en of Book VI; ... "11."""" e l.bnImo Capolls.." pp. 11HI9.
'4" TIIE QUADlI.lViUM
Ephorus; but Polybius states thJ.t it lics 011 tm edge oí Maurerania,
opp<>$ite Me. AtW (6. 19f1..w) . So it is with MaltÍ2.mls (701). In oo •
.. nte:nce wc lIt in che puchcd interior of Ethiopia, in the nat 00 che
Gorgades b.lands and me Istes of me Blc:osed, across from Maurttania.
W . can =pt: Gcometry'. conclnding st:atement (¡DJ) tllat slte (:(luid
[\(){ tarry on sud! a joumey. bu. we annot lec'pe !ter _k en:uK
that me places sbe has skimmed are iruigniftant (ignohiJU
The course of Itistory mJgln have bun radX:aUy altere<!
if Gcornetry lwI deignod ro giv. m lUl aC«lnnt oí her Afriean tnvds.
Evm the place lWIIes of MarW.n1lS., te<lious ... iliey are when chey
OCC\IT in cJostUS, liad an influen« upon medieval canognlphy." Four
uf me ten known rnanuscripts uf che Ubtr f/Qridus of iAmbe.rt of Sto
Omcr (JI. " 10) contain a tn4fJfJtl_nd;. Richard Uhdcn made .. C01"<"
fuI eumination of the ""'p in me Wolftnbüttd manuscript of me
LibrT lUId ascettained" tIlat ir was nOl re!.ate<! ro Lambcrt'. work, mar
instead 011. of tIle legend& on me map ascribes it to Mattianus, and
tiloe vuious other kgrods, includiog che one foc che antipodcs, !lear
unmistabbk similHititS ro d>e tul: of Martianus. UMen found titat
57 ptt cent of the names on !:he map OCCUr in M.rtianus. AROmer
cardol srudy oí maps ond accompanying glosses wu mad. by Leo-
nudi, who bdiev.. tIlat che two cortogr:aphU:: dnlwings found ;n Coda
Sm Mll"CO '9<> 11ft tht o!dest Wt are tNCe:r.ble;o t Mutianus codex,"
At ilie l>eginning che eod of h.is pckgero Martian!J$ gives thc
ovcr.... U dUntnsions of ten" cognit4 (Ó09"" "S, 703)' From Pliny he gol:
tht C<lruct figure for Eratosthcnes' metSUCcment of tht earth's ciwmt·
f=nce-3 '.500 mil.." "Dd he dso gives che conect fJgUN for Poole--
• lnclutling ti>< «kbnced Hereford M_po s.. B<uIey. H' .
., "o;. Wdtbno des MM1:W:> ... Copoll .. M_'7"<, 111 (o9l6), w·"+ Koa-
roó Millu, D1I Vu_ Wtk......,., 111. so. _ chio _p ..... bucd otO
... OUÜ<J' pr«<><ype <hu "' .. Lunbett'. _rk. MiUtr'. tnI>OCribcd eopy oí !he
Wolleobüttel ""i'f>O .......di • imocunte. ro< • deu f·""';ma· oí tbo ""'P le<
V"....".., Iúmol. MD",.,,.,,,,. Afriul .. m, m .
• "IlI...,...;."u • gi""" la UD codico di Mutllno Copdlo.." BodUtthJo dtII'b-
ji"".,.•. ,..,... ..... Vok. u...u. pt..
<M.i<J
.. n...e ore "f Ilomoa poceo in _ adiuoI ll'Iiny
mM ¡,..;m. j>OI=-i; 'f>,<lOO rm<!ia := l'.SO" Romo" mi1eo
1..,). ' '(PIld,r"
' ' P""'" in. Ro ......
"47) ' D. Ro
Dio'" (ed.) . HlpfMT'hw' Q"".. f..",,,,as (Loado", .960), PI'- .... .,..., ' so-
l'. poir>a out dre diff'.:uItieo, i/ noc tho impood>iity. oí obainIng rn .."".....
..hre fu< dre ... dium.
 GEOMETIlY
rny's estimatt ia both stadia (180,000)
'.'
and Roman miles (u ,5oo)' We
may be sur<: Iha. M:u1ian... got Ptolemy's fIgll«' fr!>m some RDnw>
inttrmediory and nDl from Ptolcmy'. Gtoguph), (l . 11 . 1), as h2s
beca comnllmly stIpp<>SCd."
Thc kmgitudiml distancc from che eastem cnrcmity of India t<.>
Cídiz is 8.578 miles (611-11), aceording to Ártcmid!>nlS. Mmi' nn.
golt the figure and from Pliny (,. , ..,). Tbc figures of
Pliay, as given in che IlWlUSCript!, are in R DIlIII!I numcNIs, which are
fr«¡uendy inconectly copied by scribes. Mamanus' quamitics are
wrimn OUt in brin, alld. since !le WllS using older mll!lU5CTipu of
Pliny "ud SoUno. tlun those wc p"" • ir is obvino. 1M. Martimus'
ten must be included in any con.tion of n13nuscripts for Pliny'. gco-
graphicil books."
Martimus then .tates (6 1,) tlul! rhe distancc as cecorded by lsidore"
is 9.8'8 miles, tnei, in anempting to reconcile the discrepant
!le points OUt thar Arcemidorus mean! to add to !ús (igure the distancc
.0
from Cldiz Cope Finistcrre, 99' mil ... l'hi$ too wu obuined from

.. """"....,. Mat<xUInus i> <he only LIÓn ...rit« ..... 1 know ol bol.".. di.
ptriod of Anbio Whu:nc. ""'" .... ' oJly tead Ptolemy'. ÚMIlT'ph" IIDd be ....
• Symn Guek wbo ntb<.r surpri>U>¡ly cl>ooc ro wrlte la r..do. MutlonoJ ".,.
'\O'I>u. Iodic:otu lID iDdinoliOD ro pcru« • techoical W<Irl< bb Proiemy's. I..oomrdJ',
temUb _ disc...,. ...... , _ Ptolemy tod MutiIlDUl ("N.... iuuodutci ...•
pp. 'lt..,S) ......holly in.lennt. Manlo.u> ond Solinuo we<" no< wish
Prolomy <rSdicio .... Prol<my'. í.,.....
.vo.iIobl. ro Pliny in Vorro', writiogo.
onp....d 'Ori<b Posldo.!j'lI ..,d wu pt<Ibobly
L E. Dnbkin, ''Pnoid<Jnino ond <he
Qn;umf..."", of rbc Eartb," 1m, XXXIV ( 'lit}), 1"9'-"•
.. M.m.m.. (6,'¡ wriooo "'" di. q-tirr .. oigb. tItouutd fi.. ltortd=I tod
.. vtnty..... n. a..!dwn. oJitor ot <h. Loeb odition ot PIlny, wu an>wuo ot <h.
MmlonoII contOponJen<ea. Rackh>m rudo l.!;c18. ond tus í-.gum fo< me Iottr·
veniog d j......... do """ Jin " ",",Uct """'- J..,. &onj"", In me lIodé edkion ot
PLiny, n, '09I,...d> 000 hU figures fo< <h. d i v ...... do Ji....
<OtIl. IUckh..,,'. tdiriot> ;, motted by ""deo. miottbt, m.u..'¡OÓOlII,
tod mi<rtodingo ot me "".,,,,,,ipto. k is bopeJ "'" die Ion,......n.d Iludo! tdkloo
of PIlny. BooblII·VI, will >OOQ "1'1"'"'" k O"eh< '" clear "1' mIIIy ol ti>< f • • hy
,.tdiog> ot Pliny" 00 rbc problomo ollDln\Jlcript tronrm¡""- oí Pliny',
n""","'" seo BeaujOll. pp. '44"f6.
p Joidou of Cho.ru. Ollt ot .._ wotb 00 .... rl""d TIu r.tM.too
S,m.", (c. UI. ' I¡, Iw ..,,,,I...d. n.o G_k <ni _ cdittd.od tuIIIl...d,...;m
rommenruy, by Wilhcd H. Scldoff O'hiIaddpbia. '9'.,) '
141 TIIE QUAD1I.IVIUM
Pliny. Gcomrtry's own esómatc: of thc dist:l.nce by Jand md sea, coc_
roOOrucd by Artemidorm, U 8,6B1 miles."
Martim... give:. the Jatitudinal distancc, íroro tbe shoIes of the
Ethiopim Octan ro the mouth oí the Don River, 15 5",6> miles." That
estima« is reduced by 678 miles, if made over the scas." Acoording
{o ArrcmidonlS <he mouth oí the Don marked <he uppc1" limit of gco-
graphical knowledge, but lsidorc colcnlottd anodter 1,>50 miles-the
distance ro UlIirn2 Thult--an ururublc conjtcture, in Mmianui opin--
ion (6t6). Tbis figure of '.250 miles, itl auribution ro Isidore, ll1d
the skeprlcal attitude come ftoJO Pliuy, but Pliny had good reasons
fOI bcing skepticaL Martimw pmers "" absurd uplanation, perM.po
rus own, thu the caro. wu earlk.r shown ro be tpbcricaJ ,00 it u im-
possible fOI a 'l'here tu M.VC unoqual sides.
Ac this poim Geomeny is a pitiful ';ght, winded {rom che aertiom
of her long reOtation. Venus hu bttn frowning through it aU; this i:s
nOl her idea of. wedding cdebntion. Desirc, une ol Venus' .ttend.
ants, la5hes OUt It tlIe nWden unmercifully, alling hu senseless .00
boorish, beI limbs 00 rougltened by tn.ipsing over mmtntoms, stnits,
ami highwsys, and her 'ppe.",nce so shaggy that she could be token
fot a mau. Ne«ttheless me is directed to get on with her WscoIll!iC
on gcomeuy, md tO be brief about it (7"'1-5) .
Gemnctry', ten-pagc digest of Eudidcan clements is, for i13 time
and place, a remarbblc treatment of <he subject. TI is also. docu01Cnc
of JOme ';guificance among me seant vcstigc. of Euclid in che Loan
world of me =Iy MiddJc Ages..... It m :mbles a Grcek systematic
" Martiolmo (6'1) writto"... <he U>CIl in latiD. PIJoy (l. IM-4'!) si"-
disto"..... botwceo inrervaLing satiom, ... imp«ooi... 1m, es¡-<.,)ly siI>OC ""-
dimnces o.re ginnlo hall mil ... lnIt tbe r¡guro. adoptod by RKkham md IIeoujeu
do 00< .dd up lO the toWo, ond Pllny'• ...w. in botb odltio.-. ... diffonm ftom
Martiamu'. On Plioy'• ...-oro _ Millor, VI, llJ+
.. Apin Mortim... ...me. <>lit the toW d#unoe ond upcoco PIiny'. lbt oi
Imenoning "'óom, lnIt he doeo 00< gi•• tbe dinso«o botw..., sruiono. n..
f1gal .. adopcod by lIeoojou md Rsddwn diHor, ond ... ithor oddo "p '" Plli>y'.
( •. '.1) toW ....hlob is <h. _ .. Ahnim ....
.. MOttisnoo ....... "'" tIlO quoatity. a.:.,,¡.......do 7'1 mita; iU<khu> omils.

'-
.. M.m.m.. is Ji-! >OfDt oI.ip< weight in quesrions oi tho """..ricny oi
E1IClid.. «no Seo TIH Tbirt_ ,,,,,A:t
01 lW<!¡ot, I!:' .......,,,....d. Sil ..-..o-
H..th.l6,. 'fl7
 GF.OMETRY '41
handbook," aJullitiug a rtUOno.ble tense of order, and containing
defmitions and <livi5ions ni me subjecr. We may s.fdy """"me, from
our knowledge of rhe habits of Mnoanus, rhar he <lid not make
rus own compilioon of enncts fron, a brger Eucfidean work but ap-
propnated sorne aln::ody prepued digest, enmples of which Ire di ...
cussed by Tannery," Hearh, lO Gnld:>.t," and UIlman," and reIts of
which are found in Tannery," Bubnov," rhe Friedl. in edioon of
Boethius' mamematicol writings." me Corpus Gnldat's
e<lioon of a twolftb-century versinn of rhe Ekmrnts
Nation.de, Fonds Iatin lO,'H)" and Geymorut's .<lition of tbe Vero,,"
MartilInus includes m.ny of me r,..ditio"..1 rudimenu
found in medieval digem and extraCts nf che EInn<'1lIP. rhe definitions,
postulates, 100 firn mtu txiom5 ol Boo!< 1; classifiadons of angle$
and of plane l nd solid figuus; . nd 1 few definitiGn. {"'m Boob V,
" Se< .00-. .. "'lbc W ork," n. .
.. MM of I'>ul Tuoery·' writingo on geomotry in th< Lotin We", luve beet>
colJe=d PI hit Sd", ... =te", ....,.... /r,I , .d. J. L. H .."bug. ..d .,.., rtiIl
W<lrm porull&!. Su "lA. Géomkñe on XI' oi!de," PI'- 79""', esp. PI' 91""'" lUId
OUt J. pseudo--¡¡iométrie d. Bob, PI' al ,_,B.
.. Su h.Ir «Imoo o/ Enclid"J El""""" Vol 1, lmrodncÓOtl ood cht.p. viii.
.. TI><- &<1, T .../irknu f,,,,/i¡J'. El<:moo .. diocnas m. geom<lr)"
iq th< Corpus •• ,h,.....,_ (pp. )'-J9) .ud m. outhonhip o/ m. "Boethi&n"
nrsIon< of E""Ud (PI' ,.-,9).
""triu " .mbm<tk... BQm; in fi"" boob.
Gol"",
0I00 • .wyu. <he contmIJ o/ rbc ti.,1M-

" Ullimo. P. ditcusoeo lIoIbuo' EzpomiD " ,4& ."" ' ... fOmt4n6>< (,d
......h <he Cc>da Ao:eriomu (Wolf..,bilncl), whiclt Tonnuy d ... d in <h •
.mi> '" oc.""'" e""'-1rie< bur lo..,... <b",d in rbe fillb ot sixtb (pp. z6¡"'I,): <b.
fWO g<ometties oscrib<d ro BoerhlI1O; ond m. ,¡.,.., fottbcotnlug Cleyzr>on>r M1óoo.
(now publiobed, ... n. obovc) o/ <he V. mm. frwgm<nl> (p. '7') . UlImJ.n alto
prnvid<o.., up-<O-d ... biblJosrapby .
.. "Un Nou ...n T.- <le tuiI& d'orpentage .. de gtorotule d'Epopl>.rodiau
.. de V"lIrIlviwo Rufu," in ScIm&"
.. In hit .dition o/ Gubut'.
.ut:t<, ""
O"". __.k., """ ...
1,., PI'- >9"'Ili.
PI'-
.. Se.: ,u,.,.c, ......
.. F. mamo. K. 1Aclunoon. A. Rudorff, . do. G.-Iel V...r .., DI< S.bt/f,m
di' r6m1s."", FtI4""" .. (r vob.. IXriin. '14I-'Sj'.1I eatl Thoilln, «l. e...,...
4' ¡"."""'...... ''''''''''''"''' «<litio.!
no< compIottd), Vol. I i.Lelptig, ' 9'¡) '
.. PI' S8 fl .
.. Se<..,.,.., n. ' J. L. W. JOM> b" b:luded oN><bu m<dievol ocupt. found
Ir>. """"""ripr o/ Q - iodonzo' /-.,.;...." in hio .......... tion of tbat work, ti"
l .....qdz,-do" 'q DiWw ..., H _ &..dmv. PI'- ,,60'9-
 TIfE QUADRIVIUld
'44
X, and XL Also included lre sorne mattUJ that are not found in
Eudid; and, u times, as we sIWI see. MartiaIlUS foUows thc definitions
of Heron of Alenndrill more closcly tban mosc nf Euclid. n.. mdi-
oons oí Euclid and Heron dominated medieval geometr)'. It is Iikcly
that me immediate antceedrnt of Martianus' Book VI presented ji CQlI-
fution ol both UlIditions, just as the antecedtnt ni Book VII probably
p_ted • conflaóon oí Euclidcan md NlCOmaehean trittunttic.
A suitllblc .pp.roach ro • trc:atise oí this son is to compare le with
che Art germurrilK, a compendiurn ...pposcdIy translatcd fMm Euclid
2IId falscly attributed ro Boetllius, "'lUd\, as UJhnan las ucaldy
shown, tuC115 up with great frequenq;n <XIp;es or c:nnClli in medienl
mmuy coUecri<J... ni GIl geometry and $UIVeyillg.- Bat ";!ICe
rherc are al.., indicatioru uf U.rome tradition in Mattitnlll'
I
it would be ",el! ro kcq> a copy oí Heron', It hand for
comparison.
Sorne opening rerrwb abont the derivlOon of linos from il1COr-
porcal pomtl arul of nnmbus fmm che indi...¡m,le morw:I (¡06-7) bear
• striking rcsemblance ro Maaobius' dicussion of corpormties lIIld
incorporealities.. md serve ro sIlow the cIose relationslUp betwo:n
Gxmtctry and her sist« Arit:hmetic. Then follows thc division of
figure!! inro plane (q,;pedi'm) .00 ",lid (muan), tbe former origi-
nating in. point (stmtion), [he tattet in. 1IIrN« Nen
.. tJllinan, pp. •.....", prd... to reprd tbo Art , __ =<leased, mItor
""'" l(III"ioIIo, Bocthlus. Tbe tu< ;. fOlllld iI> !he Fricdlein al lIoechiGo'
votb, pp. 11 .....1. Fricdl<in reprded tbo wruk .. opurious. whi<:b
1, tbo..t.w usualIy by histruisno oí motbolD!rics s.. H_', dhion of
tbo EI........-.u.. 1, 9'1 HeMh, Him><, o{ 0....1, 1, )!9-Ó<» The-n:
<:OIIUlns p<oo& of Book 1, &o¡.. [o), ..¡.-Jence, lIO:<>rdi!lg .., Hwh, thot <he
pooudo-llouhIuo b<d tbo .... oí • lAtiD <nnSIotion of l''''¡ld (Henh oí """""
"'"""''''''Y' of .. *- pon;.- of F""¡jd) MonIWI Oogett, 0... .1,
'j',
...
Sdenu ;" P. coUo <he ..... oltdm> • "Wncnrobl< te!>dorinfI:." s..
<he di-, ·on. of d>io e.. 1".. in Toanery, Sri_., eZlWt<s, PI'- 97-\l!I> ... -[s.

• Vol. IV oi Wdhob!l Schmid," <:riticll edicio .. oi H..-h ap,r., ed.. J L

"'_
Hoiberg.
lO MoaobNo C,;;_.k. I ,. j . J-); . . d for odtor porollels se< my.......a.don.
. ¡" ....,,.,. (od. Fti..n.;n 40).
.. a. MI [4->41 1 GdI ... [. [o. "" 0.001."".
,. 6 .•, Ioid= J. ti. "'1 J. n . l . lIhniuwo' f ......... oí GreeJ¡
 GEOMETRY '45
come the definitions from Book 1 oí Eoclid. Mlrtianul; Oefmi-
Do", '" 7, md ,,; the A,. gt011Ultriu gives. lairly lit=.! mnslotioo
01 aII rwemy-three deFmitions but invem tIIe ordcr 01 Euclid's 1) and
'4 (Mu1ianus does nol inven tbtm). Manianus mistranslates Defini-
tion 1; A polo1 is tIIn whosc pan is notbing," instead oI "A point is
tbat which hu no patt.'''' AfIle giving Euclid'. definitioo (.) ol a
line, Mudan". in=¡ooses definiMos oI me four kinds ol l¡nes
stnight., circular, 'pinJ-shaped, and curved-as does Heron (Defim-
';/'nIt s 3-7) ' The Ars gtom!triIM defers dclinirlons oI threc kinds oI
lineo--stnight., circular, and curved- to .later part oí tIIe book (Fried-
lein ed. 394- 1-'4)' Eoclid omits. cl>ssificatioo oI species oI lincs."
Marcianus amplifics Euclid'li deFmition oí I surface., Idding tbat il
bcks deptb, i t doe¡¡ color no. body, and tbat tite definition .pplics
ro both plane and curved Euclid defines onty . plane S<II'Úcc.
FoUowing rus trarulation of Defmition ,8 of Eoclid, Muo..nns inrer--
poses I cJ.ssjfiClltion and definitions of three kinds oí plane figures:
t/toso; conWned by &rWghe Iina ( ... 'bygr....""m), tbosc coulllined by

dtrougbou..... '1uodrioium boob doos "'" ....,......ay "'ppotI ....

"'"' he wu troruI.oa", lrom G<e<k ooun:a. Grc.k tbcluiieol ttnnS, oo.,...;m.,
...",litcmed. b.. b:t M1rtilo .. ......uy kcpl iD Greek clanct<n, ....... put 01 tbo
Lotin tndjdon al Gnel< In S-nI tbo r""mioD al Gred
do<S indi<:oI<: • biper lonI. al writing _ me truulit< ...tioo al the
.. HeodI (6",1/4, IjS), thinb "'"' Mutionoo' lII>y bo Illllqne.
H""",,,,",,, Goldu, P. ¡s... 108, paim>. out lMt O ..iod.,..,.' in psJ.
",h." (Migno, n, Vol. LXX, col. 6iV Jw .... ..",. foully dúmition. 11"'"
("""lid, "'), dUnb "'"' me oocurrc<>c< al oovenl Greok tumO in Mucisouo'
epirom< indic .... "'"' he wu ming. Greok Enc!jd .. n >OUt« ond 110>< "'''''y
have beco ro bWno fu< tbo 0ÚP:ru<!I1ioa. Mutioo .. prob4bly couJd tead G=k
w.u <Dough to have derived rus b<id d;g... ftom 00lI>O [odidetn primu, 10m &
""",h lDOt< h'hly .-n>pIion ;, _ he .... follo>ring & lAciB Enclideoo troditioo
whiclt tbo Gnoek .."'" ond ... hicl\ m-r ha ... origimted iD 80010: IV al
VottO'. Nin<
<loN to .... _
bo<D mou
lhaoinM1ltioJm&' .
Gnoek
.... i]oh!. ond al ¡¡reo"'" to _t>
of ,b, Disci/'IiMI. Vomo ¡" len"...,. fto<n "'" GtlJi\>& 'f"'X""
ond Gretlo: Enclidcoo prim<co W<JUld ha ...
iD Vomo'. Uy

.. lIc&1b a;;",,1/4, 1, '5"), IIY"_ he _ittM !he cWsificoóon """.'_ iI wu

".,. "'" "' 7 fo. hio par!"*- 00 cl:usif.,.tioc>t al lIoco l>y Heron ood _ _
pp .• w-6J.
14Ó THE QUAORIVIUM
curvcd linos and romp<.>SÍtO plme f¡gures, ron-
tained by both sttaigbt and CIIrvcd Iines (miluon)Y< EucIid does not
classify surfaces in general He dooo, of course, distinguish bcfWOCll
regular aO<l nonregular polygons and polyhedn.
Martianus piraphmes (?u) deflllitions oí reetilioeu fig-
ures (Defs. I9-U) and ucaa them u. classiflClltion of the eutbyPIlm-
mo. ¡pecica. He then procc:cds (71 J) ro me seeond specits, figures eon-
tained by curved linos, and divides thcm into circular and cUiptical
f;guu!¡ and ro the third Ol "miIed" type. repretentcd hcrc by tbc
semicircle. He llad previoosly defmed (711) the semicirclc as ". fIg_
ure thu is contlined by the diameter and tite circumfcrencc: which
dlamttcr cua off in tbc middle."" H is OWD addition of the
adjcctivo lhollJ to modify pnip/m'il may be relatcd 10 bU and
mts::¡..em Carol;ng;.n misapprehonsions du.t • diamctA:r is half a
cirde."
Martianus ncxt detls with me twO lrinds oi geometric pr<'>p<I$itiOJlS!
problems aOO mwrems. He fIm defines (7'5) !he Guek terms applicd
ro che ..ep' involvcd in consttucting figures: tmlmiJtiltol, "cutting
\ina ro ól pusuibcd lengtb"¡ stsm,i!t01, "joining given lina"¡ _
p.pho., "describing • figure upon a Iinc"¡ nlpapbos, "eJlclosing •
presc:ribed trimglc or sorne othec figure within a glven
f"I'pbol, "circumscribing • 'luadl:tle or sorne othcr fogmc about I
circle"; P4TtmDolikos, "inscribing • given trianglc within a givm
tctragon"¡ and prOStllTni!tOI. Hfiruling a linc du.t is tbc mean propor_
nonal bo=tween twO given lines." nus cl • ..¡rlClltion " .. ro be unique
in the en:om writings on pmctty.
Moving on. ro temllI Ipplying ro thconms, Morti'n''S pr: SCIltl <1.6)
these f"1VC: fornW. divisions of • propositioo.: fJl'lJUJis JenunclationJ, dio-
rnmos [dcfinitionl. /uttiktrd QpotÚimlproof1, and
sumpmu'I1fi1 1conclusionJ. He omia dtMns lsening OUt], included by

.. a. H.ron'l cb.osificrdott. (D.f. 74> imo Inoompoo&te :utd COOIpoolto or. opln.
imo rimpl< &/Id mied. Se< II• .,¡,,·, odirioo of the E l _.. l. '1"-
.. en fi""., _ dUmIm> .. pt>Iph..u .....u., _ H<lnIo.u....
_ , dt ;nto#. tommm... a . .4" (col. FriodJe¡" )?J. "" v' s...,¡..
tri f;p,. q_"'¡' ..... _ &-.". 14 'Pi"-
Ionulit.
" Se< oIoovc, lUJ. J' and l"
 GEOMETRY '47
Prodll5 in bis Cummmtl1ry I'm Eudid f¡" tnd dissoJutjQ (reduction ro
absurdity], included in die Adclard 111 version of Eudid."
Mutianll5 fecls dur a furthcr dis<.:ussion of angles is Meded (7'7).
Once agtin mere tre three kiuds: righe angles an tJways che ame and
t<¡uaJ¡ acure IIIglcs "od obtuse Ingles are alwo.ys "variable" (mQbílis)_
ony Ingle broader duo I right angle is obtusc¡ a narrowcr Ingle is
KUte. The compiler of thc A". fele • similar nccd ro dab-
unte bter un me three kind. of anglu.1t
Thcn fullow me defioitioru uf four eenns that used eo describe
proportional relaoonships, gublcd Uf reduced in dIe Latin tnnSmis-
sions uf Eudid. fsotls [equaliry): twu lint$ of t<¡u.llength are com-
pared with • thlrd that is of double or t<¡ual Iength. .. Homologo.
(com:sponding) : magnitudes compared are "in "S' nent" {coll.ú.
comemiu1Jf).O\ An%gos (proportionsl]: a line b.lf as long as onolMr
is twiee 0.510118 as I thlrd. Alogos [disptoportionalJ: Unes ucimer are
equal!lOr bear IOy Otllef noonal rclationship ro eKIt other."
Non Mlr(l..nu< defines and briefly comrn.ots un (7'8) cornmensur-
abl•• od incommensunble lines "ud lines commensurabJe "in powcr"
OI "in square," as H eath prden to tnrulllte me EucUdean tem\."
Then
foUows a list (po) of the thirreen lr.ind. uf ¡rnrio",l straigbt Unes, in
me order in wbich dtey are found in Euclid."
Martianus' discussion of solid figures is very brief (7' ,·n). He gives
EucUd'. definitioll': of a ,..,ijd ond iu ext(emioes," tnd points to me
generation uf I pyramid from a trianglc, a cone OI I cylinder from a

" Ed. G. Fritdldll II7¡), pp. 'OJ-+

.. AL a.g.u,"Klag Alfred..,.¡ .... Bl_. lA E.,clidt 1m, XLV (I9l,.:J,
'7'·,. Fri<dldo <d, J9J . " • JI>4- l. AL Fu"'"..on, D.u "n_lhelu l..bf/nl<b,
polnts <>Uf p.utlm _ it wu ..."dud proetioo lA t.bfl>u<b "od>ot< r_ ..........
• ify &nd dolinc ..,.¡ ..... '" oltbonto .
.. Le., ginn A",8, oither A+8::::C o. A::::8::::C jo rel.ÓO<dlllp of
equolity•
.. A reduocioo lA EIIclld ( E J _ , . Od. 11), .... lA whi<:h """
gr..., <>:>II>MC"nton diffictlky. Seo Headt',.dióon lA .... El........., Il, IJ+
.. O. Euclid El......... ,. De&.. '1, 11, 9-
.. O . Fndid lO. Def.. J, l. And_ Headt', ,dirion, 111, 11.
oo Euclid I•. Prop. " , .
.. O. E"did ". Del.. 1, ,.
", TU I! QDADRI\'IUM

circle, 11 cuhe from a quadr.te, 1t1d. spllere from 11 circlc. To dlese Ir•
• dded rhe "noble figures" (nobili4 fashioned from the othm:
rhe octahedron, dodecahedron, ami ic:<l$lhedron.-
Martianus' digest nf Eudidc.o.n element:o concludes with translations
of thc: five posrubtes and of the first dute of Euclid'. five txiolm for
Book 1. Heroo gives only Ouee uioms. Th. Arl geumetriae gives the
fir.;t foor and add:! ro the group Dc:finitiollS , and l of Book 11 of
Euclid."'
Hee [USOIIS in Euclidean principIes concluded lt1d accepted, Geom-
etty dn.ws 11 stt"tight Une 00 !ter aboc:u:s and osks oow onc gocs .bou.
constructing on "'Iu.ibtenl criangle upon 11 given straigllt lino Í7'4) .
n. plúlosopbe.... in th. imme&>tely recognize cbat sbe ¡,
prel"'ring tQ work Out the construetion (or .he ¡In< proposiaon oí
Eudid and rhey bre3k joto acclaUn oI Euclid. Geomeuy, pleoscd with
this 'pprobation oi her disciple, sn,uches fmm his Itmd rus preciOIlS
bookl-which undoubtedly contain me proof. oI all tite propositions
in the Ihineen boob oI the Elm1nIlJ*_ and gives dtem ro Jupiter ..
a tel[tbook for che flll'thcr instruction oI the heavenly eompany •

.. Primuy -dio¡ ti> Pbto Tm... ... H 1>-<:. And ....... ""'" iD ....
Cornford .dition.
" 00 tite qIItSIioo 01 tite UIbeoticlty of Euclid'. rnom. ... II"'¡". ediclo",
<S., ,,,.,, •
.. lo. 1m o<>ciqoky th< ""'" "pIW<>oopb«" w .. oppIiod m III<Q in 011 br>1ICbco
ol Iutning, indudiDg soo:h uebnicol fioldo .. otiDing eoglacuing. s.. 0Jrtiua,
p¡>. ,o¡,." .
• Whether • """,pi«< EI_,,....
ol!llt .,..;loN. in tb< W ...
die twdhb cenwry- tht baic quertion lar 011 in...,..;g.t<>n 01 r.;., geom-
=y-hss -)'t'I b<en t.IlOW=<I deci<ivdy. tu Mucboll ilig<tt ("Tho Mow.nl
Lt.tin Tru>oItcicmo Imm die Arobio oí tbe 8"="" 01 Eucli.d, 1m, XLIV ( '95 11 •
•6-'7) points inveotigaron hlv. beoo UDlbl. ro pto"o tII. """''"''OC of •
""",pi... EI-..". Ac<;o'diog t<I GoId.. (po )7), th< .nillIhIo .. j..Jc.v.. dooo "'"
indic... <hu thtn wo> • <»n>pIcn! tl'tJl>!odon of do. EItmMu inro Lotin befo«
<be Anl>lo: veniono t>e< ..... 1<1>0"", ro th< Wm ¡., tbt twcUth <eotury. A• ..,y
....." .. /o cuuiDly clear duo. lo< Mortiamto Eudid .... oltgeoduy f!pfc, 0<10 oí
"tbe (wmn, .,.,J,¡uIl. wbose ropuatilm owed IDOIO to tnditioo thao
t<I ¡eoohx "''''P'- or Oppt<dltioIL
 0" Arithmetic

O"CI Geometry has het discou,,",. wc anticipare die e n =

of Arithmttic, a sister of Geometry-in hct her cl<WSt.mer. A littIe
earlier (706-7) expaciated on the binding ties bccween me
twO, obscrving tb,at aI1 mcrtions aboue mattus wlUch progress tO in-
fimty are crpressed elther in numbcrs oc in limos. N umben are _p-
prchended by the inteJlect., lin •• by che sight. Numbm belong to
Arithmetic; linear figures, the provin<:e of Geomecry, are dcmon-
serabl. 00 hu ahacus. Lines Ole begotten ro and are
fAShloned ineo mmifold perceptible shapcs "that are even elevated ro
the The beginning. of ;tlC<)rporeal and Ire .hlpe<!
by both meeH. indivisible nJOll:ld Íl; rhe bcgcrur Di nurnbers, itsdf
not' nwnbcr, tnd iI not apprehensible. Tlle monad .Iso re¡>rtfiCn1! In
indivisible Eudidean point, which ¡, likcwisc not tpprebensiNe. N um-
he.. are unle.. they are applied ro objcctS. Thus when
Arithmttic is introduced, tIIe attendants are requestcd not ro remo""
Geometry's t.bKus.
Al she coten me celesWl Arithmetic is evon more striking in
'ppeanncc than \VaS Geometty with her dau1ing peplos aud celestial
globe. Arithmetie too wean; a robe, hers """"""Ung an "intrico.te
undtrgument tllat holds dnes to tIle OpeNOOns of universal ll:lture,'"
Arithm. tic'. mtcly bearing reflects !ter pristin. origin, 1UIt.c<bting th<l

, Geometty'. obocure umuk k lm.cnded to sbow dut _onomy b obo cloody

,CJ.ted ro gwmetry ond uitIunotio. When Geomeuy ..... fiNf introduecd {Jlk>-
8,), ........ wearing • peplo< oover<d with i<OII",u io figureo eh« rbo
porpooeo'" ,,," mu, Aotroo<HJly .. weJ.I." ti>< PI ........ ud F"dideut c,,",·
><:fU 01 G,...,k.....,,,.,,,.,;c.J tIIeory _ tho ucelI.... d¡.......¡oq ", E. J. Dijbtu_

h";" Tb. M ..b4tth.ui"" Qf <Iu w.mJ Pi"""". PI'- !t4.

• Huh» _tm muhif'li«m pIurit_ _ qgtHiu... om-..., q¡u>
«ni", """".. optt• .. ..."., oIxHJ<r4t (119) . Tho robe msy oymboliz< pure
oumben, ."d tho under¡.......... Ih<i< oppJO:ttioo ro <he pbyDcal ...."..w. At k>St
<hio lo tII, .. pl.norioo", 1WnlgiIIo"¡ 1<><. (<d.l.ut&, U. ,¡ti.
'S" THE QUAORlVIUM
binh of tbe Tllunder God himsdi.' Her he.d is m awesom. sigile.
A scam:ly perceptible whitioh ny emanates from ml' brow; thcn an-
otlter n.y. the projcction of. as ir were, comiog from che fim.
A third ray and a (ourtlupring out, and so on, up [o • n;mh and a tenth
""y-all radiating (rom hu brow in double and triple combimtions.
These proliferate in countkss numbers and in a moment are miracu-
lously retracttd mro che OM..' Tho . cum:n Di Remigius is (lor required
fO reí.r chis oymbolic descriptiOIl to the "",red Pythogon:on decad.'
n.. fir.;r n.y repr=nts che monad or che point, the source Di all
numben Or .n geomettie figures. Th. dcead eOC<lmpassts all nwnbers.
Ir.nd all numbers conftned within ir, "in double and triple combina-
clon<," were worshiped a. sacrcJ by Pythagoreans.'
Arithm.uc's fingel'll vibratc >Virh a op«d tIlat btun che vision. Shc j,
calculating,' lIld che sum sil. produces is 7'7. Ph.i\osophy tIlat
Aridu"roc, in chis compuution, is grttting Jupiccr by Iris ver)' own
nam. (7)9).' Thc countless rayo thot 'pring from Iter brow frighten
oome of m e e:mh-bom d.itics standing by. and, f.DCymg thn Arim-
mm.: i. "prouting l>eads Iike che Hydra, they look ro H ercules for
help. At th.is momeot Pythagom, who is the p;ltlon and authority of
thU 0001<, ;OS Euclid WU of thc Iut, aC<XImpanicl Aritlunerio:: ro me
aW.<:us and holds a torch above her head as .he procceds ro her di...
room. The book on arithmet:ic: tbat foUows originated in twO works
, 1'1. luitltm<cic 11 ..... prior '" nOlllbm. Jnpitu io latet..ud by Atitba>etlc
'" ocl<I>o ...ledg<: htt .. hlo """"" (¡¡'-JI) . Jopitu lo ldtmifltd wi<h die "",,,,,<1,
.... m"",. of .JI numbets (,J') ' Soc obo ... po '44-
• N_ p/mo. f"""" """ "'1 .... ¡""IUtlbUl .-.11<> U q<iO Ittm
01, ... <nImf><N qwüm ". jIriMQ Iñu:. D.b/m _ ti q _
"""'_ .1Imt """'" d«wjM.v:;qw primw /xmorfIm ,..,.,......"""l'" .,.,.,"'''''''
dupils ,,;pI#qru writ.mb ... ";"<lllHb ..... Sed h _.¡,;ji ,odl<>. multitvJint po_
ruutpI"''' ........ d....." . _ . mir# quil" '"'" <ltfea/lnu «>1ItTlblbot (¡oS).
• RemiJius od 1<><. (od. v.... 11, ,"J.
• N",......,bw (<r. D"Oog<), pp. 8I-.orJ, "" .... d<esd ond .... <1.tions 0Dd

..
oaribnt<t of .... rnIJIIbuos wi<hiD lI.
I Oa whot ir? Ia>own obout r"""._.....
konlng lo tilo ....Iom world seo D. '"

• Pubol" .... b<ot uplaootioA of the IoIencifIC>ciott of thll onunbor wi<b Japi='•
.,..,.. ¡, off... d by Romlgi<>o -.1 lo<; (<<1. L..... 11, (79): Jupiter '" ti>< Greeks ......
lDlown .. H A. P X H IThe 1le¡inniI>¡1. n. nlllllOric:oJ ni.... of the Gredt: Jettu.
...., H=Ii; k:.; P= .oo; X=-. H=tl l<I0II:=7'7.
 A R IT II M E TlC .S'
that MortWIUS did not consult dircctly: thc 11llroduction 10 Arith-
mltie by Nicornach ... of (c. A.D. 100);' and Boob VII_IX of
Eucijd's ElemmtJ, the books dcating wm.. aritlunetic (see . bove,
pp.
T he Greeb recognized two divisions of tite subjcct of arithrnetic,
botlt bcing induded in Aritbrnetic'. presentation: arithmology llIld
arithmetic proper. Arithmology, a srudy oí thc mystical propcrtie. of
tite numbcn in rhe decad, de. lr with the attributes, epithets, and rDlIgi-
ca! o( tbese numbcrs, which ir identified with the gods and
witlt I variety of animare and inanirnate obj= Arithmetic proper
was a rigid rnathtm1tical di<ciplinc, u!ating ro the properties and
rheary of numbcrs, .00 involving proofs." N aturilly treatiscs on the
rntgical properties ha<! wider circulatiou duo those on rhe rntthe-
marical properti(S of numbers. Many of the writers on number deak
oolr witlt .nthmology." It is ro me credit of MarrianUl that he givCl

• ADyone mth< """""" md deruopmo'" 01 Greek orithmetlcobould

consul. tb • • II:Glem imrodoctO<)' <:bol"=' oruI commemuy by F. E. Robhim in
<he vol .. "", CODtalniog !he O·Oog.: tru.h,ion a{ """lcomoch .... l. ¡, d .... tIut
M>tti2».. ..... ",ins SOIItCU, !><'Upo Apulelon' Ion tnnslotlo .. 01
!he 1-.4",,_ Arltbmerk ¡", hlo t.rithn:I<tio, """" lIkeIy •
lo,. digco< al this '" oome odI<r LatiD <nn<IsóotL FOl bis Euclid ..... lrithm«X:
he ... d """," LuiD d'S , " w< sltolI ....
" Robb\lu (NI_hut. tr. O"Ooge, 1'. , 1) distiol"isheo bttwten ...<horitleo
Iike Eudid, wIIo offe. proofo, oruI wriIe" lil<c Nie.",..cb ... wbo do
DO<. Seo H-t., Hino" , 0¡8, ",,!he diffen..,.. benvun. m... metbodo.
" Robbi .. (}lic_hut, tt. O"Ooge, PI'" 1"'"9') 1..... thlrtoen OCCOUDI> af arúh_
mology, iDduding _ boo'" devoK<! wholly ro !he sul>j«', tlu. • ......rr.d
¡., mote .". k .. formo N".:omochos· I-w.U&tioN '" Aritb.....ir dw.
only with orithmedc pI"Op<1". ne """'f'OS<J ...por ... ,...,,-k 011 oritJunolosy,..,-
tidcd Tlmño., -",.. .n,""""c.., tbo """"""" of ...1ti<:b .,.. known fO ". fmm o
dig= owI. by the ByunriDe ocboW Pborios (JI. ' .Do 87<» ood !rom 00 _D_
rn-s .....w. witb <he .. "'" tille. tboupt ro hu. bten derlv.J lugely /<ODl
Ni(:omodu..' ....... ood co.........,Jy oruibno:J ro UmbIicltu<. Robbim (Ni&o-
....cm.., n. O·Dog<. p. S. ) conriden!he .tttibution o liWyone; <h. lotest eWtos-
01 tbo ODOoymotIS T Im>I....... m Irit""'ttk.. ' 9») , V. de FoIeo. deo-
;¡¡.,........ autbur .. poeudo-lurbllcltUJ. Seo N/eoNIum... tr. O'Oogo, PI' 8'41.
fo< ... oceOl'''' of Nicornachos' loa n.,,¡opmmiL Hoom, Hin<Wl. l, <ti, <epn!o
tite .nonymous <r<a';'" .. . <»<>fWion, ollly purioRy du iwd {mm N"lCO""'clu.. '
loa ....., ise.
'5' TIIE QUADRIVIUM
much greatl'r to arithmetic (7H-SO') than to uithmo1ogy
(1)l-.fl).
\Ve rUld ir hwl ro undernand why sckntists in me anciem world
8""" ••rioU\l thought to arirhmology. TIte SIUt1t can of coune b. said
abonr astrology. Treatiscs on Ihe,. subjects strike 111 as curiositics, and
tlle recital in Un mor<: pages oi tbe epichas, anributcs, aud pow... of
ten nurnbus beCOnl"S fOI U$ tedio'" teIlding. A digen of MutianuJ'
whole tre:otment oi arithmology will nDt serve our as weU ""
t prtsencacron in d.taiI of Arithmct:ic'. pWse of one number, """"n,
u. specimen." Tbis numba receivcs m e full • .., account in om.r ex-
talle rwotiscs ,ud off... tilo bese oppommity ro comptre Manianus'
ueonnet1t with that oí oth« writen. Gellius happell.'l ro pmervo
Varro', clulptcr on me nnmber fmm • lose work, .nd Macrobi\l1l de-
VoteS ro !leVen che Jongest empter in his Co¡¡¡",mr..".."
Arithmetic .skl! why tbe beptad is vene ... ted and stnigh[Way pto-
vide. answers in obuncb.ncc. Ir is me ''virgin'' numbee 2nd is called
Minerva because ir shapcs the works oi nature withollt 3ny procreadv.
conT2tt. Tt is rile only number tlJal begrn no number and is begotttn
by no number withln the Bcing the sum oi rrnlc I nd femaJe
numbers thrce and lour, ir is namcd fOI thc mannish Ad=a.

.. ¡, perlupo DO ..,bj<ct in !be lirut""'e of 'ncim. compikn in whic:h

verb>cim copy;n¡ ood ...,.. boJrowin¡ "'" IlIOn in orlderu: ....... iD tbe _ _
arithmologio<. Fo<. dpt oí tloe _ .. oí. typietI oritIunoJogy ... NWJ.
__bus. tt. D·Ooge. PI' '<>+-7.
" W . H. Rooche<, OH Se/"';# ... n lIer Sid<n '''1, ...........
.. lnIdy oí thlt ",,,,,bet in oritbmoIogi.::ollitetotue. !10th fIorl., (ibid.
ond lI,btJ<l>'Wl"'¡,""" 11.. vI..w,cIm> PblI.,.pby smd A .... ILoipr's. '906)) .. d
Robbins C"Tho TnditioIu oí Gre<k Arirhmol"B)'," CE', XVI ['9"],91' '')., .nd
"Pooidon'... _no:! tloe Soutcts oí ArithmoIogy," Cl', xv ['910], _
u) olfe< par>Ild wlUob cloK 1>o<,0.;''iI """ 01>: Insano< oí';'
psg<s oí vorberim copyio¡, Itobblm. 1,N1e_""" tt. D'Ooge. P. ,<lIS} ¡j.......
..".. fo ..... oí "'" n.m"", _ in " ' - ......... On the ucbaie,
oeernIn¡Iy cIum<= 01 "'" doctrioe of tbe bobdomod< seo C. J.
de Vosd,1'1'''-'' Mil &m, p,lbqor<...mn, PI' ,,¡t.¡ ..
" 1.. , lt lo the only p<imo lI1U!Ib<r _ lo JtOt _ loc<oc 01 ODotIter numbet
withio the d..... d Accordint '" G_k onytho!ogy Athem. wu <be ..up.. ¡oddu!
ond spnng in full ptDO]>Iy rrom "'" brow of Zeus. TIlo .pitbels oí "'" nllll>bu
_ ond .... ¡ 'M' ro.- thom ... gfvt.o by Maoroblut Co • ""'''1 '.6. ti; for
puoIlW in tht oritbmological ......."' ....... Ommunur" te. Sahl, PI' ID"'.
 ARITHMETIC 'S!
Seven rden ttI celestial phcnomena. TIte", are seven pJwes of me
moon, =ent, haIf (fim: wuing gibbous, full, waning gil>-
bous, haIf (1m: quarter). and = t ." A lunar cycle is 18 days long,"
ond ,8 is the ron. nf " " J, f, S. Ó, 7. There are aloo senn celestial
circlcs," ""ven ploner:.," ""ven ""ys in a weel<," and ""ven tnIl\Smuta-
nons of r.he clernenl:<: fnnnles:'! matter inttl frre, fire into air, air inttl
water, water into earth, carth into water, water into air, ond air into
fire." Fire is not transInuted into imperceptible rnatter. (n8)
Lasdy, s<;ven control, man and his dC"elopm«lt. Senn-mnnm p;:or-
turitions ore !;he f'rrst to produce living offspring." Mm has seven
opcnings in r.hc hcad, which provide him with hU senses." Hit first
teeth appear in infancy in the scventh monlh," hU second in the
sevtnth rear." Tho sccond hebdomad of rearo
brings puberty and r.hc
powet ro produce nff"l"'ng;" me third covers bis cheeb with a
beard;" the fOllrtb maro tite end of hU mc",ose in starur'e;" in me
fifth he Teache, me peak of his physieal powers."

" Cf. Mocrobñu l. 6. Si-s<!.

" Cf. M>CtObiao l . 6. Pl GdIius j . • 0. Th.io 'ppro';OII," figuro mi«d !be
6.
Hidunolog;e.l doctrines. low (86¡) he _ more ..::cur.tdy t<c<>t<!" •
sidu<:t! """"" .. '7'/. oh)"""¡. oy<>o>di< """,di" >9'/. d.ys.
" Se .... is DO' rommonIy ....,.,ined wid> tILo oeIeniol ""'Ie<, wbi<h ore ....i·
oudy counred u oighr. nin<, "o, or elono. The eomple .. Lioo: l>UIIlb<ro elov=
fin ponIlcls oí lotirude, .... o col.,..., !be edipric, !be rodioe, the homon, ond
tbc Milky W.y. MortW!.. bere ""'" be <;<IUnriog die oeIeniol pudlols ..........
.. Va"o dOd. oc.:ordlng.., GcUi", j . [O. l .
.. O. M.ot<>blrn! •. 6. 47; Gclli.. J. >o, , .
" Thio..xistion roo is LULOOOLmOO ¡" e'o,,;,1 oLridLmologi«. TIL< _oo-doy
.......k did DO< beco .... offLCifJ in !be Roow:! Empire WIIil Conmnri"" .dopted
tILo OLrinioII,.,..k fo< thc R"",,,,, el_U col""dor •
• a . Mocrobiou 1.6. )'_)), )6 .
.. a. Mocrobius l. 6. '4; Ge\lim j . , •. 1; Cicero o. _ . d<"."", ,. 6j>, ond
"".. in p...., .<litio...
•
.. O. [. 6. Ó\I: GeIlIoo j . ", n_
.. O . M><:r<>b; .. 1,6. ¡o; Ge\lim). ". " •
.. CE. Aúcrobias 1.6.7"
.. How <»flttivÑ thi< schomo of bobdomodo io is indk... d by tILo [oce duo
..".,. .... ;" • c.f:. I igü tILo boord tu di< 00C0Dd.
.. M>CtObius (l. 6. 7') oddJ u.c.-.... in b.«dtb .
.. O. Ah<:robiuI. •• 6. 1"
 ·S< TOE QUADRIVIUM

Thoscfamili2r mm aritlunologic;J1 creatises will wondtt why Mar-

Wnus hc:re OmKs me sinh ami hebdoJl'tl.ds of yeara, regular
fearurcs in other accounl:5. Leonardi .ppeus ro provide me answu:
hidore of Seville (Dt mnntril !S8c-d), who is copying froro chis pos-
• of Mutianus, includes a sixth hebdomad, marking deurioration,
and a sevcnth, marlting che heginning of old age. Leonardi bclieves
tila! th= wa.¡ a lacuna here in me arclletype of the extult manuscripts
oE Martianus hut no( in me nunuso:npc u,ed by Isidore....
Man's vital orgm¡ also number ¡oven: tongue, beart, tung, 'f'lecn,
livor, and two kidneyJ." And tite memlxrs of rus body ore:¡even: head
(including ncck), chest, hoUr, two hands, and twO f ••t." FOl full
mcasurc Arithmetic add. tltn mere are "ven .t:ars at che edenial
pole." (139)
By Martianus' time .rithmetic lwI aken precedence over gco:metry
in me curriculum of the IAtin schools." From the tIle
Rornms were intcrested onIy in the puctieal applications o( matbe-
matics.w1 ",el<: nevor.ttr:octed to Greek nulhematiallheory. They
Iooked ro georneay for;es ad>ptability ro surveying. and ro arithmetic
as an.id ro computlltion. White geomctry wu becorning • cechnical
spedalty, the IttfllcOons oC arithmc:tic we.., steadily be;ng enhanooj
by sev .... l devdopmenes. Under the Romm emperon the Lacin world
shlred in the revival of Pythogoreanísm, with its number symboLism;
.nd thc Iut pogan school <:>f philosophy, Neoplatonism, WI5 intimauly
Jinked with Neopythagorcanism." Thc O>ristim alter me
Chorch's viCfOry ovu poganism, p1a«d .rithmctic in che f1nt position

.. o.l 'LIbor de ,..",....u,'" 1'" "7. 5<. abon, PI'- 19"60-

.. Mu:robi<Jo 77'
MI>::1000. h. 6. io) .t- "'" dM... che tnUlk but ;"01""'" "'" -.1,,,,,,
ti
rirlU.., bring tbe ",,,nber.., fe\'eII. Anothet .... iter. AnnolioJo, ..... E; .... tb<
=>.
.. ProbUlr "'" briah. ..... otUno Mojor, "'" dimmoso: ol whio:b ¡, 01 tbird
magoitl>de. V""o (GdI .... ). ,'''.) td...ed tIto.....-..,tito ..... in bodo. U....
Mojor ond Uno Minor•
.. l'erhoJII ch. bM Izulications of <hU oro tb< .,....,ñoo fO orithmetic ond tbe
neglect of P""'''f lo ti>. ...-ltirop 01 Moniuuo, c...iodonJs, toidon, ... d Bedo.
.. f",. ...c.... DCeS 0Jl dUo suhject ... "'" o.rdclo lo TI><
Or{Of"d Chslle. F",. Noopyth.gor.....", iq Vano\ writine> ...
Leonudo F=ero, Ss ..... dtI "uqor/Jm., PI'- JI ....;+
 ARITHMETIC
' ss
among quadrivium I:tUdies in me curriculum," fiOOing its pnletieal
.ppijcation in eomputing the dttes of Euter and other feasa.
Computus tabla l OO tteatiscs tum up wilh frequener in medie-
val C<K!ie<:s of Jcienlnie lilen.rur .." The mysrical side of arithmene
..... ritlunology-cspedaUy intrigued lite Fathors and writers lilee Gmio-
durus, whu Slw fit ro relate che nurobers of che decad tu Ihe Bible and
IttlICIted spedal numerologieal significance 10 lhe two lestaments, the
H oly TrinitJ, .... d the f;ve book! uf Moses." Sud\ writers were re-
sponsible fOf generating in .mdieval Ouistian littruure much involve-
mem wilh che mystery of numben.
Not ro be uverlooked as I faelnr in tite dominance lhat arithmetic
W3S gsining over che other qmdrivium $ttldies is !he adoption of a new
5chool monua.l. The prcominenl position long held by Euclid'.Ekmrntl
in Gr«k matbcmatical srudies W85 taken over by IlftTo-
duct;t}fI in ",hal meage! attention was dC"oted 10 mathematics in the
L.tin schools. Nieomachus' book had uoused imrnediate interesl when
it .pptartd and within a few deades had bcen uarulated mm Latin
by Apulcius. Marrou attributeS the shift in intucst from geometry to
uithmetic ro this book."
• Cusiodoruo lI1Id Isidon mnn<d tht onditioral (Von-o>DÍuI) ",du, tnd ploeed
oridunrtie oh..., of p>m«ry. Friedmu K6"" ..... -.1 toeh·
b&1"", ;" 4 .. Anrih, PI" S....,." ditcUJOCS ch. ordot ond m."g<mettt of qu><Im-
iom .. dtey wue trnted t.r dMsicd ond .umor..
.. Se. r - d i , " ' codici" «960», Ind.. , e_, _ . FOl' • bibliog.
Rphr <>ti ''''''/M'''''' Lo Th<tmcliu, "ConlputUS." SfH<uNm, XXIX ('91tl, "'-
)8, """ ro, <nmpI<o of <GhOp"'''' _ (lo8=> Gud S&i.m<" pp. ,6,..s¡-. n.. im-
potttJlCe of ... ....me. ;. olio Cl'ide", [mm <he manr mcmorohIe a.urch
"",<uo"d.. .,., ... ,¡,. cott«:t date lo. &W' 00/1. <he Sy"od o/ WItitby, c.tled
by K"" o...." ;., 66J. A< <me time Orwy ..... fucioS fo< Le", wblk tht q<>etn
wu f=tiog lo< ,¡,. R.eoot=rion. Tbe COfItI'OY<nics in II<de', dar ..,d die ..,tire
NDg< oí rompums llierm<u't bove boen thorooghly stUdie<! by e W. Jones in bis
.dition of B«ú< Ot>«_ d. umporibr.
., c...lodrum , _... 8. O. bid"", , .... '_J. And [o<.., el:obor1te dioc..,ioo of
n_t oya>bolism ;., oecuUr 0Dd <llristWt literatllr< in the Mlddl. Aseo ...
Cuttiu<, pp. 5'>1-90 Fot otI>et .ppll ......... of oridunetic oo. fODr2lne, 1, )+i....¡ .
f o",""," (i, ..... i.<ido<e .. <be ron.d" o/ <be arithmolop:.! orr in <be

"'""
....
• 11. l. MutO<>, IIII"","r 01 &J1U1IriMI no 1I..,;q..¡"" p. On <be Infl.....,.
of N'<eomo<huo' I_odwdot> oo. dup. X of <he 0'00¡e, Robbin<, utd lWpiIuki
 ,,6 T"E QUAORIVIUM
A second translation of cbc work, by Boethius, go"" I:he srudy of
arirhmetic impcC\l';. The openiog argumenn af Nicomacbus' book
appear ro havo shoped Bo«hius' catttr. Niromachus giv.. fervmt
npres:.ion to che Pytlugoreau attitudc, flnt foon<! in Plato'. Rqublic,
th.tt tlle path ro plliJosophical truth Jies in the mastery of che four
I\1I.memnieal sciences, and he ro argoe tIlot arithmetie is me
00
found •• ion of .JI mathemaOcal smdies. Boet!Uus, probllbly not y(t
cwenty ye= oí Ig<' le tite time, besan bis career of philosophkal
study and writing by tnnslating Nicomach... ' l'f1fToducfion, befo", he
proett<:led (O the C<lmposition of ruS omer marnemacieal man ...1!i and
ro lhe srudy of philosophy. Boethius' transbtion of NiCOl1UChus'
tmltJ'(s mirboda; [four rnetlt<xbJ as quminwium (sic) is Ihe carlien
Imown instan.e of me use of the urrn."
Martimul>' extended section 00 .rithmetic, forty-six pagts long in
th. Dick edition, is one of tlle most importam Lttin apositions of
G,.ek arithmctic from tite early Middle Ages." Although bis ultimatc
NLCOlIIaChus .ud Euclid, it is .videnl from a comporison
oí the thru works thu Minian",' immediatc source wa5 sorne compi-
lacion (or compilations) 01 tlle Nicomachean Il1d Euclidml tnditions,
quite drasrially revise<! during the intcrvening centuri .... Martianus
presen", tlle definitions from Book VII of Euclid, with nwnerical
eumplcs, .nd che enunchtions of of lile tltitty-si:< propn-
sitions of Boolr IX ... d of the sm.pler ones fmm Book VIIl, arnnging

.. N¡eo"adu", l . + '""5. M""'.dOl (I.ioonlly,'" _y únot") ""'.". "puno.lir 01

knowIedg.:" Ol"mod< 01 ¡'''Illiry," "pbD." or "JyP=I." Qwdrvmm< (Se) ""'"'"
". fÜ« ... JIu< ¡<rO, toado '" .....)'3 ""'..."
• RobbiN CNio_ks. tr. D'Oogt. pp. 1)8-.¡.rl p.t 1 "". detalkd compuiooa
01 .... 1Rt""-" 8i_ to !be oobj",", by MutIamIa, Cusiodotua, ond hido«,
..,;", r.bttiao .. os .... b.... 01 """'... b.i< tr. .<m<nr ¡, tito fllll ....
Robbin< ..... /oJ: his compuDoo _ Wdou!be cltoptcn 011 uitIun<tio:: In lIool:
IU of m. 1!',...mo,. s, o_looking tito more t=nded treitIIIeItt, &rlved fwm
Mutiarros. ID Jsidou', Libn d. For • comporiso<I 01 !be Ultn wirb
Martian .. _ Ltonudi. "10'0"'0 al 'LIbe.r de """""",'" PI'- '0)-)' . BoIpr rnr.
CJosric41 H ....4p, P. ",l , .. io b.i< _ molleo .., on<1ting olKetotrioo butvffcn
no doc:um<n<mion: "!be complIo< 01 thof ¡lb .. iU _ 1 I ... JUch ... d to be ....
tributed ro hido<e, bu< ¡, ....... uprded .. 01.- cutainly 01 ltish origin .•."
Tbc book ...... io lInolio', Iln 01 kidou', ...... 1<0, lu>w<ver. F"""'ine, 1,
...... tlx wor\ .. md remarb "' length "" "'oo.'" bo<rowing from
MutIon.., bis principal :oour<:<.
 AR I TIIMETIC '57
thcrn in 11 o«le •. Wheras Eu<:\icl alwa)'ll offe .. klgial proaf..,
devoloped grom«rócally, Manian"" giv", arithmctial illustnnons.
Mortianus' Nicomaclloan aúd"".tio;.i"..!ud., _ Euclidcan macerial
not founcl in Nicornachus." MHtÍUlu, tak., up lM5C of d>e copies
of Nicomochean l ricllmctic bu.: dcvÍl ... frorn Niaxllad",.' Illder
ICVCCfal times.
n.e srction on ari. hmetic open' in thc convcllliooal wo.y. with 11
deftnition of n"""ber <1 ..,) : " A nllmlltr iI • colk:ction of monads o. a
multirude prormlins from a l'I'IONd ancI rcrurning m i•." . ¡\hfti,onus
meo c).a;:ifoes nvmbm inro rOW' l)'p<I: evm tima ....... odd Ume:.
..... u, ...,." o4d, tnd odcl times odd." Na. faUows a discwsion
ar prime nvmbc: .. (7+4), d.flne<! .... n.....bers ,hac COI be: divided by
no o"""ber (not divisible: by ,he manad bu. comp""'" ar it).MH They
ote callcd prime; buause chey .rise rl'Olll no nwnber &nd are not
divisible inro twO t<tUlI pan:s. Arisiag ill thcmselv .. tbey bcgct OI:bc:r
dllmben frorn chelJlS(lves¡ fOl/' evel1 numbers are btgott= from odd
1IUJtJbc.... buc I n odd numbet """""" be begottcn rrom ...... Rumbe ...
H e corv:ludes his ....... rks en prime RUmbe.. by urms that they m....
be cGruidered beautiful (7+4) ."
Non c:omes tile uran¡emene of numben mm .. riel (wrms): fV'St
oerie .. '''9; occ:oncl, '0-9<'; third, 'OCH}OOi fourel\, Sorne
writers, he notes, i"..lurk '0,000." In lile first series, clle monad ;. noC

" Sto Nk_.b"" fr. 0'00&<. IIn. 00 pp. " _.

.. a.
, . l. On "'. _ _
7. DoI .• ; Nleom&eh .. l. 7. "Boubiuo ...... .11_.
sI- by o-k oaIhors ... 101k,,,,-,,,,,, ....
pp. "." j'Ewlld. tr. 1I.. th, 11. ,!Jo,
.. E.uclio! 7. DofL .. ,,, .. miar odd w- Nicodto<:h .. {t. 1. ,J «Ibdi"¡'¡'"
eTC • •"m . . . . ooJy. iDoo "e<! """" ,_." odd .............. ..,.¡,._,;",.. odd, ..
_ "Th«oo:! (ed. HiIIor), p. ' S' On ..... l<oooUloo<>:H> of numb..,. _ Hoatb,
1I1mw,. l, 7<'"7+1 Karpicoold In NI<. _ht, Ir. O'Oogo, PI'- ..
.. E.uclio! Dof. 11 dofi_ o primo üW t . "tnto"--ed by .....;,
.. .• a.
" 11. •. On dio dof'onldono 01. pt .... üambuo .. ¡m.. by Gnot
wrUn ... Nk_ht. tr. 0·00t<. PI'- 001"; EwJ;4, 11". Hcoo:b, n, ' ...., .
.. Gruk .,ir l,... ,ir ; _ _
• ¡;iIho.... "'!Km'
1, , .. 76-
, ..u;., ..... "1_,,- _
_ riel dw, ',.. o( dio p'oc:dc. 01. Ji....
"prrf-." s... Hcodo, H_7,
.. Pbllo 1-<' .. Dt JIJ____ N ... ,a. a..buo PItio ' " • ..,. tbo
... , '" ,.1. ,o. ..... _ ,_ ..._11'" le..,....·, p ' oJ, ........ al wbd M...•
" " "' _ _ ir. In........ NiooonoolM dooo _ roo__ • "--1 .....'x, ;
,,8 TIfE QuAORIVHlM
a numbe'" (to Gcometry ir is an indivisible point [746])." The dy.d
is an evcn numbe.; (he triad is prime, Mjn botb Drder and
tbc teerad bclongs ro even times evcn¡ the pencod is prime; me hend,
bcing odd times .ven OI .ven tilDC!l odd, is called perfect; me heptad
is prime; the octad is times even; the amead is odd times odd;
and!he dead;1 even times odd. Ü4s)
Ari.hmerlc re:ltUrb that tite onIy numbers dut find favor willl hu
are tho!c counte<l on me fingers of both hands; beyond tht!le digits
coocomd of the arms are requircd ro eneomptss numben
represented by thc Jine. and figures dealt with earlier by he • .siner
Geometry." FOI Arithm. tic che bcginning of die fllSt series is tlle
nIOrtitd., fOI Geornctry ir is thc poin.; nmnbers in the second series,
bcginning wjth me decad, lile extended liJ<e a Iinc¡ quadratc numbers
(bere representing 5lIrfaces) begin wim '00, che fllSt number of m e
third sme.<l; cubos (here representing solid figures) begin wim ' ,000,
thc first Rumber of me fooM series. Arith01etiC'1 repnsenution of
tbc decad AS I line, {he hecatonud U a "'Iu re, and me rnilli2d .. a
cube is no. in accrudancc with t:he doctrines of G = k arithmeticians"
and may be llnique. This mar be one of Martianus' own interpolations,
signalcd by • rtminde. of tlle presen<:e of Arithrnetic." A Olomen.

bu. "" .......... (, . ,6. J) "'" uoW. l....w.rity witfI "'" loor oerito. 00 "'-
O<rios _ F. E. Rol>bia<, "Aridunt<io la PbiIo Jodotno, ep, XXVI h9jll, l49"!"-
"a, Mocrobi.. Ca", M''''' •.•. !I. On tito momd .. "'ol>oginniDg of num·
b<n...d 1>0<. numbo< incJf _ Nw-lnu, .... D"Oogt, PI' ,,6-'1•
.. N_,cb.. (, . 1. l.ll 0100 _ tho onoIo¡y I><tm:en tII. S""" lClcoI paiox
."d tito mooad .
.. 'Tho 001. """""rrt ol mcioor Ilo_ rmgor =knning irr r-.d lo cl.op. I of
!lede', D< ..."po""" Thi< OCCOUnt ¡, freq ..ndy fouod .. , .. pon..
tnctato Lo mod.i<n1 m.noK1ipa. PO<"' bibllognphy "" .ocie", r"'B"" =koniDg
«< B.d.. OfJtr6 tU Imf11DribKl, ed.. Jones, PI' l'?"lo,...d lo. ,!in ol illwrrirr.oood
_ripor _ing tho pooióo"" ol .... boDds ond body ... J",..., ooL, B.4M
P. S40 s.. obo MMT<HI, Hin""., f:Ju.:.w.., PI' 'S1. _ "
.. Wlth N"""""'..... b . 1' J) lir>oar mItIIbus bofILo wltIr.., pbJr. ltIIInben wkb
l (nniuo oí. 1I'IongIo), ..,.¡ (1, '1. 8) oolld onunbets (pyumid ,..;,¡, o:riongnW
buc) with + s.. Hcoth, HInM,. 76-s., Nk......,lnu• .... D'Oog<, pp.
'49"!' ,
.. As 1IOtt<I obo •• (PI' P-J), )1), it wuaIly 112pptns, whm M U. modo . mee
oí • brideamId .. tito rpcol<er, th<t M........... irnr<Hl1lc .. mol"" ..... fonnd lo
COflnodorW. J...u!boo"'.
 ARITHMETIC '59
l.ta (147) shc spcaks oí 4 as the firse oqual'll numbor .nd 9 :as the
second, .nd sil. poinl3 Out tlat each succusive odd numbcr in a scl'Íes
progressing fmm the monad mUS{ produce a "'luOfe numbcr_ process
that extends tO infuli<y,"
Alter chis interpoladon M.ro.nus ro his d·"ific.tion of odd
Ind C"cn numben. giving Eoclid', ddinition of .n evcn number <7,
Dd. 6) U one tlat is divisible into I:WO qual parts,lIld the fU"St part
oi Euclid', ddinition of an <><Id numb<r (Dd. 7) as one tlat cannot
be dividcd inro l:Wo quil pam.1O H. then obscr¡ts tltat sorne odd
numben ate uneveo, lik. J, $, 7; while others (9, 'S, ") ue
Uso multiples oi odd numbers; the Greeks d"'ify thc: lmor as <><Id
times odd. M.rtionU6 gives the correet Greek forffiS for me ttlmll evcn
times even dpuoo.;). odd times even ... ptto .... ),
lIld even times odd (dpu....:¡,; ""pt<Joo6<;), adding to the general im·
prcssion mat by his time the Nicomachtan handbook tradidon had
not detuiorattd :as greatly as Md the Eudidean tradition.
Nen, and in proper order, come, thc das.meatioo, wim dennitions,
oí numben imo (,) prime and incomposite, e,)
composirc in retation
ro themsclves, () in relacion ro one 1UlOther, and (4) eompositt
in rebrion ro one momero Tñc iirst .nd $IIlJllest mearure oi.1l num·
bers is me urut. Numbers ue susceptible of other measure., such as
duplicacion or triplicatiOll. Sorne numbers Mve {heir sole me .. ure in
me Wlit; om.,.., like 4.nd \lo can be dividcd inro om.r numbers; aOO
,ti11 othen, Like 8, MVe more mm 0[[(; measu.re. Oí uumbers tMt are
cousidered individu.Uy, those tMt have no measure but the unit .re
called prime ond incompositt;" mase that con Uso be meosured by
sorne other callcd composite in rel.tion ro them,dves." Of
l:Wo or more numben tahn togethet, those,like .I . ud i, that Mve no
cornmon measure a...,p! rhe ullÍt are caUed prime ro one another;..

lO loe., [+J+ l" -+(20_') ==n'. a. N"tooDW:bus l. 9- l' 00 >qUU< numbc.n In

iOn.",,¡ ... Huth. mltory, 71""79-
.. n.o ...ond pon el Eucll.r. deñl\ition is _",. 01>< m.t diffen by • onit fmm
lllIeven nwnber."
.. a. ElIdid 7. Del, Mutisnu< lo bere d"'jng...w. nn< IWJII.
• a ""
....... [J .
.. a. iIIId. n.
160 TRE QUADRIYIUM
and thoK, Iike 9 and n, dut llave sorne odie. eommoll mcasure be-
,.¡dt:¡ the wtic, au ca!"d composiu ro onc anodIcr." (750-5')
StiU auother doss;rtation divides numben meo
rhc perfect, the
supenbundan.c, and rhc deficicnt-the bttu two bcing in Greck 1;Cr'
minology (bypmtkWi) ....d "underperfcct" (bypb-
ttkim) ." A pufccc number is oue dut is equal lO the som of iq parts,
like 6 ud , 8; a supcn.bun.w.t nu",bu is onc me sum oi whosc para
is greater WII the numbu itself, Iikc "; a dcficicllt number, Iikc 16,
is oue the sum 01 wOOsc pam is les. than the whole. (7H)
Continuing ro foUow the acyle of a systematic tcaclñog manual-that
is. setting up his divisious of tcrnlS, dcfining them, and men .Iobo·
n.ting'"_MlltiaD.us nen takes up plane ""d solid numben. He lind.
rhat "the Grecia!" can • numbe. plan. if it is tIIe produce oi two
numbcn." Th.. f:actofl of a plane numbu are upresenred lIS amngcd
&long two sid.. of a rigbt angle, resemblio.g a nomu [carpenter'.
"'loare):" if one.w. is accnded lO a lcngth of" .... d thc odie. ro J,
thc product is n, repmenccd by thc muslormcd. Aecord·
ing ro me Grecks, he continues, • aolid numbu is one which is me
product oí thre<: numbcfl." lf ..oove • sum ee repmellting l2, yoo
place all ¡denti",,] '1uadrangular surfacc, • solid is produccd, rcp-
" a. ibid. 'f' MMtiuuu lono.n EoclId hor<. Nloomaclmo (,. u¡ Wosil"...
odd IIumben ooIy, di-riding <bern iDIo (,) prime ond iDa-tttpo';"'. W --"'Y
.ruI rompo" '" ond <J) .bsol....,. coonposi<e but ru.c;..cly ptúnc. See Nlo<>'
_bus, D'Oogt, P. 201 •
tr.
.. Euclid (/. Del. u) dú..... ooly o peñec, numbu. N">COtDOC!tuo (J. '4- jI " .
, .,) ..,d Thooo (ed. HiIlor, p. .,), del'mo ...pcnbuodo"'..,d defidedt muuben
.. wdI. See E",,!I4, er. Hooth. U, '!'l"9+-
• Se< >boYe, PI'-¡8-J9-
• Ir oh<roId be poina<! out htae that N"""""¡"" ond 'ThoolI "'''' • ""Y dif·
fcrcm ....y al nguding pWIc ond "¡¡d ........... ¡«ni> that of F»cl!d For F"djd
m. wtir ;, "'pi • ""d by • I.itte of gi...... te<>gtb. """ uy t;"eu ......,.,.. lo <he<>
'<p<<><nted by m. opl-'opriort """ of unir Iongtho.A pWIc nottb<r ;, «pi ucd
by • te<:ttnglc ",!too< oides <:<Irt<SpOOd IX) duo tw<> lactor> ol <h. nwI .... , >lid 00
on. N"1<OtIlOcl1 ... orul ThOOtl duo wtir no< . . . tia. al gi_1eogtb but ..

,-
• point. A !iDe..

C!
lo duo """ of po1na urutgcd ¡., <>DO t\imcDIion; ond 00
..... ros: futhct diocwoion al lhiI y;.",. 01 numbon, ... &'¡id, er. Hcath. PI'-

Thc G<e<k""""¡ 1", die inouua>a>t ;, 1""_& So< IIcotb. Hitftw1.1, ¡L

.. Mottitmu;'.,.¡" fo!l<twin¡¡ Eudi<! !)d. '7, \Rrt tite cumpl .. !lo sms oc.
b.is own or !hose el bis immcdiote 1OIltU.
 ARITHMETlC .6.
resenting 14, Plane figures Come from numbers arnnged 00 a flac
SUrflce; is produced when numbets are liso arnlllged one
lhove another. (754)
Marrillous' discussion of ¡udaces is firse Niconuc!lem <7H}, chen
Euclidcan." <756) The sud.ce tus "Un>erous and varied fonns, "
illuscraced by che f'S'JRS wruch rcp""'''c numbers. The firse is a liD.;
che tlÚngle comes nur afcer che line." 5orf.ces with four angle,
ci!her are square or ru.vc twO sirles dac are longec than che smollet
sidc:s by oru: unir." Polygons may be ohown with sirles of varying
length. Among numbe", tru.c ate eleva,ed ro solidity, ,he cubo is s«n
ro be pcrfection. To rea.pitulate, che smallest oumber dat can be
represented by • t"¡'II1glc is 3, by a sqoare 4- Th. """llest oumber
repr=nted by a polygonal figure wich an numbet of sides"
i, n. smollese number ""p..... nted by an oblong, with side. of UD-
equ.tl length, is 6." The smaUcsc so[id "umber, repn:senting a cube,
is 8. (m)
Pbne oumhen; ond ¡olid numbe", ore similar if chcir sida are pro-
portlonal." The plane numbers 6 ond 600 are similar, sine.: foc 6 one
side is :, ch. ocher 3, ond fOI 600 ooe side ;. 10, the other JO." Thc
."lid numhers ,+ ond 96 are similar, ooe having side, of 4 and 3,
malcing aplane sudace uf n and. ""lid of '4; che omer having sid..

.. Sto: .hove, o. 60.

.. a . N>«omt<huo " 1, l·
.. Th< Gr<:ek term /0<: tbc obIoo.¡ f'S"'" io bt,_mi"', [beo:roa><clcl. a.
Nicomachus l . [1. [. Mucianus' o:<pt";"Q I<>t huuomed. f.,..... jo d-.. <UlO"
!hu ... d by Boelhluo IDo ¡,,,t/'um,,.,
ribmm" l. >6; Fri",U'in od. " j .
.Jur. pon. km¡j..., •
.. Petmg<>CAI fi¡uf<o. a. iMd. •• ,o, OI>dooe Ni<o"",,""', tt, D'Oogt, pp.
'il ' t+
n On obI<><>g olUllbu< lee H ..", Hin.r¡, 1, .'4+
.. Now /oUowio¡ [, .. lid 0./. >J.
.. lc d.id no< <>«:ur ((1 MmlDllS ((1 poi'" out eh .. 600 jo o.ho • ooli<I ttnIIIbo.
C>X¡X,ool, if .............. of!he h el. Olck........:led th< .... hue mol, in..,
do"", correct<d M.......... mimo .. ood ",It
eh ...... nuocripa. wtUch 'ud 0::"""
cee. Tlut Mutiamu. ond no< tIr. ootibo .oh<> copltd .........hetype. WK re-
'PO"''''' rOl <h. miml<e lo ..idom: from , _ b<lo", (7<\,) in wlUch
Mucianuo "Y' oIrt, 1 ond Jo. .,.... th< ...pordimidins ntio ro .... d "" .. Olck lo
doiog m. WDO <I>ins hue oIrt, Kopp chlded Groti"" /ot doPo( in ........iu
(oec obove, 1'- 96).
16l TRE QUADRIVIUM

oí 8 and 6, • pune surnu of 4' ami a tolid oí 9(1. (156) In bot:h

illustraOons Martiarous is merely superimposing ono pbnc SIIrfacc upon
anodler (eff<'>Ctivdy as though there werc an altirude oi ,) and is noC
dealiag with solid numben in fnll ami traditional wo.y. R.emigius.
who undeuunds the subject beaer tllan MartiaD .... poina Out the
limite<! chancter of Iris ueaonent.'"
Mutiaous next discusses rclative number aOO tbe n005 oi numben
(757), defining me terms which are written in Greek: cltol"llCUn.
Every number is • pan oi a Iarg« numbet; tite larger oumber is
p.-oduad titile. by simple multiplieatioo" or by a n.tio oi n,emben"
or of pan:s," or by a combinatioo oi both multiplic:ation.ud by n.tio
of memher$ or oi para. o,m·crsely. smallcr number is 'Muced from
a larger nurnber by simple division" or by a rotio of memben" or oi
pam." or by a combinacion of mes.. These and the compound l1.ames
ior the will be uplainoed by MartiaDus in a momento (759)
Then comc::s che rclation tllat one number bears to another-that oi
C<jUJliey,;I$ in the = oi "', 3'3. or of. perfca number ro the sum
of ¡lO para; or rhe rclation ni diJferc.nee, wben one number is grurcr,

" Itetniflus In. al"'" ca JI+- '0 (ed. L"", ,06), Onmb a"';,w" ...".,.¡"'"
oJios buiw .lis .ru&toR, _ Iubn m medio quOd ""'" .",IrilJr"
1«•• ,. ............ ji< ",o _ _ _ M<r#_ JJibIl b.blj inttdus ud
_ .... ",p .. ,,,,,... Fo< tbe "'"1 01 tteadn¡ oolid non>ben iD fogu«>
... Nlcom.chu. , . 17. 6 (.... O'Oop. PI" ,¡6-J1).
" Tho 1u¡cr "umbet lo tbto coIIed • ·"""tiplo" (pnJ'/¡Jik_). O . Niw-
mochw. l. ,8. 1 ( .... trOo,e. P.".v .
.. R.tit> .... "'..., ..... "Tbe Iotger nwnber k dIcn coIIed by hiaDrWu DI _
motioo .....pupsttieulor.". "'"" gr. ... currmcy by Boethius, iD bis tnmlorioD oi
N"JCOJD2Chus. 1, co""'¡'" widWr. ll: <he 1DIAIIe:r numbe.r &nd ORO ftc<Ot DI i< in .,¡.
dkioJI. .. 9 compucd lO 6. CJ. Nlcomadros 1. '9- 1 (a. D'Oo¡c. pp. "1 ff-l •
.. Rmo l-M',hmo. "Tbe BoedIIu = lo< <he nnmber is .....peqooniem..
dof..... tI><...na "..tia. bdow (7)91' "000 nwnber .... 1 " ll!IOdru
numbu by • ntio of pon> if <he Iotger _ • ..,..,.;". wIddn kooIf bo<b <he
anotle:r rnomber .nd ..",.,. pon or pom of k, .. ,.;m 7 """ +. O. Nlcoma<:hwr
l ..... I (.... O·COge. pp. ,.., fI.l .
" TIte anoIlet aumbo. 1: <>lIcd by Boorbitu o.
N">COJDOclI ... 5. ,,-., lIotdWo D. ;",,;tutiotJ< .m_tic. l. 'J.
O> TIte l!DOlIe:r _ jo coIIed .• O. Nloomaob.. l. 19- ';
1Ioe!:hi... ,. ".
" TIte omoIkr n!ll5lbot ;. ..ned "suboupuponicm" CJ. P. ..,. ¡,
Boed>iur ,. ,l.
 ARITIlMETIC '6,
the omer ,maUer. The bmr rel.otioo occurs with. a oumlxr tNt tJ¡-
ceed. anomer io a ratio nf members or nf por"" nr Ú acceded by rhe
otl,,:r." Numbers which. beor the relatiou of equality ne preferable
ro orhers, "fOl what coo be better thao 00 eqUJ1?·' Tltough the differ_
cnce h.ctw<len two numbe"" greoter aod smaller, is the wne, che ntio
betwun tltOiSC oumbers is contTal)". There is the .. me diiference be·
ru'eto J ood 4 as between 4 and 3, but the NOO between t!tose numo
be", i. ooC cm sorne." (758) TIIk \Vill be explained brt!, he soys, bur
the promise iJ; noe kepe.
Following tbe cuscomary procedor. oi lu.ndbook aothnrs, Martianus
no'" el.oborateS on hi, cI.os&ificatioo of the ratio, of oumben: multiple.
(759-60), ntios of memh<:rs (759, 16'), and raoos of parts <76.-63). lo
multiples rhere are the noos of doublc, triple, quadropk, beyond¡
• nllIIlh<r iJ; divided through the .. me ""ps, in reven;e order: 4 is brger
than , by tite doubk ratio and , is srnaller Ihoo 4 by tite ..",e. In
NOOS oi members vorious I\3JDCS are givcn; wheo o brgcr oumber
uceeds • smoller by h.olf of tlle srntller (11:6), ir be.", tlle 1"2Iio of
suptrdimWtu lo tbe mWJer¡ by a third, superlorlM
(hlrpttoo:;); by • qUOIrrer, ruperqu.rrtlls (tKlritopW;); by a futho super-
qumtus; by • sinh, tupt1'w:ttu; .ud so 00. Tbe reciproco.! of
dmaJius is called wbdimidius oi th.e suptrttrtiu$, sub-
rertius (Ó'tÓTP'W;); ond of the suporquartus, subquM'tus (ltbotStop-
t<><;)i and SO 00."
Thc: renuindcr of Book Vil iJ; given over brgdy ro numerical
eu""ples. Reoo.ders should no! suppose thlt Martianus' absorptioo in
simple arithmetic, at a levd of tite lowtcr primary sebool gndes, iJ;
otee ....ily char:octeristic of • medie:>'i1 scienru.c mind. The same
simple eumple, an: fouOO in Nicorulchus; and Augustine, a precursor

n t<:kooacluu lo '1. ,., uI<a up <he ffiWoo. 01 equllty but do.. not diocwI
diffe=<. Mntian...... in "';"<1 wh ..... by me WOM< "multiple of"
ond ·'(,etot 01:·
,. o.. tilo diffetencco I><ing tilo ..".. bm di< raóoo 1><1"8 diffemu: ef. N"ICO-
machl><'. '). ,.
" Udd<H ond Soon'. A a,uk-E..,Usb (Odoro. '!>t") ci= _1'''0:;
.. found la M.nI."u> Mly,..,d d!ey ",.y 1>< ""'"
forms, bi< ".."...tioo of di< '"""" bacI! iDro G=k. P. TIUIOUY, "Ad M. Ülp<llu
Iibrom VII," R....., d. pbiloI.¡j., XVI (,Sopl, 'J]. sug .... that!bey 1>< omended
ro tite «guIor fomu ""d lntcmUiMj><O'l.
,.,. THE QI1ADRIVIUM
of che Middl. Ap bue lurely o(lt himsclf medieval, shows a simibr
ahsorption in me clemcnt:ary arithmctic he derive.:! frorn Varro."
Simple ewnptes are ofiero:! ro .how that the ntio of pam is dos«
ro the in cerr.tin munben ;md ro supcrquartus in
others. Wben a luge, nwnber (!OnWns a smiller number tild sorne
third ptns of ir, che ncio is like cht superurtius: Or if quuter
paru of ir., lik. me fIlp<rquutus. FOl' eumple, 5 exC«ds). COfla>ining
lt and two third part!i of le: 7 C<lnWns 40 and emee pam of it.
Bu. then: is no ratio oí ¡mts IDat is <he sup=tdintidius; for if •
number cont:ains another numbee lJld a hill pan oí ir, le is a sup«-
dimidius, as;o che case of 6 and 4. (762)
N.u MarWnus g;ves numencal cxo.mple, ro ¡Umtrate che ase of
largcr numbers heing produeed by • C<lmbi""tion of multiplicaOon
aOO a ratio oí membus or oí p:ms. Tau 4:md "': [O is produ«d by
(he double and che superdimidiuJ. O r tak. 4 and '4: '4 is produced by
the triple alld che supetdimidiU$. In me elI'.
of J and 7, ? is produccd
by the double and che supertertius. O. with 3 .ud 'J, ') is produccd by
the qnadruple and the suptmm .... And SO 00, with several more cases
and enmplcs." bó¡)
Multiplicacion begins with me smaUcst n.tio (double) and procccds
ro and largcr anos (triple, quadruple, et<:.), one uceeding an-
other by ratio of rncmber:s of of pans. But the ratio of rncmbers begins
with che superdimidius and proceeds to eh<' supertertius, 5Uperqll2.rtus,
aOO tu evcn smaller ntíos. In che ntíos, rerrns tMt =
minimal are
caBed /l11hmttltl [root-forms )" by the Gr<:eks. The mittinW turnS
of eh<' superdimidius are • and J, of eh<' supereertios J and 40 of eh<'
Sllperquartus 4 and 5. (764-66)
Al this poim Martiao.us inuoduccs au atuactive little digression
(767)-dte soun:e js nnlmown, but cm obsuvotion is obviously noe his
mm_on t1Ie scquence of che discoverics of ehe ntias, Multíples_r<:

.. De rir.iuu Dn l. 101 ,1, 'J. Reoden moy wioh ro skip ou:r tII. knIlIndu oi

--
Mani&nu!' 0IlC0unr, wbi<b moIr:a duU roHing bu< "' iocluded b«e for tbo .. ke

.. O. N;c.m...huo l . .. . ¡..so
• a. ilnJ. l. '9.6-, l. >l. M.tnWtuo' <en", eorrup< here. Tmnety. "Ad M,c
librum pp. 1¡7-¡1, oil... ni 'W"".
"",,,;,ubot, whl<b Diek .ro.. "'" ...... ¡" hlo .ppuo.....
 AI!.ITHMETIC ,6,
pfobably discovered fjm, then nao. of mcmbcrs, titen puts. The
nao. oí double, trjple, quadruple, and SO on, pre.. nted no complai.
tieso Ir is 1llIrur:a.l ro supposc ehllT the superdimidim; procceded fwm tbc
doubJe ntio, the supertertius fwm che triple, and the superquutus
from the quadruple. FOT a person comprchending the doubJe is be.
ginning ro comprehend the dinudius (as " is the donbl. oi " SO , is
che half, or dimidius, of ,,) . Thc superdimidius W2S disco ... ered by
adding, again ro ... the swn of, and ,. Tlle number 6 W2$ thcn ¡;ccn
to rcsult fmm tbc tripliog oi ,¡ in 2dding , more, the ntio of
mpenettius W2$ d.iscovercd. Finilly, when nwnbers arose chal did nOC
fir jnto tite rtgu\ar ratial, qucstions narur:a.lly wc .. posed about how
many para oi O!le number werc found in anothte-"in oroer thu. to
esabtish sorne rcJationship of one number ro anoth.er."

Rltios of nwnben concluded, Martianus now retums lo numbers

ptT U, discus:oang .... en.:and odd, firsc. An even numbee, in any mul-
tiple oí ¡tsclf, rernairu e ...en: J, i, 8, 16 (doobling); 1," f, 16, Óf, '56
(quadrupling). BU! an odd number muJtiplied by an even numbor
rcvert5 to an oven number." An odd numbor mu\tiplied by an odd
number remains odd." The aplanation is chat, whether therc is an
even or an odd numbe! ni <veo numbers ro be added, che sum i5
even." Ror an odd number 01 odd numben lO be added only an
odd 5U1I1.." tf e,'eno are .dded [o evens, me sum is eveo." If odds are
addcd lo odds, the sum is also even. Jf a number oi eilher cWs (odd
or eveo) is SUbtnlCled fmm 111 even numbor. a number of thae closs
rclllllins;" bU[ che oppo';[e is true of an odd number: if an even

.. n.. Pythtg<mon riew o/ ti>< DlODad .. botb oven ..d odd was wI.wy
>d<>p«d by popular ,....;Ieh. o. M.. t<>bius l. ó. 7: n""... od.. Hm.... po ]J; CaI_
cid ... Ji. And ... li...... Ni.."", l. 7" ro. ¡>OOSib1o ..pJanonlona. MllfIluuo bao
iD miod oqUM< (pi • .,.) nnmben orisinoti<>g fMm tbe DlODad (. poi<ul ,
.. From ber< w tbe cnd of !be book Mortitnuo folle.... Euclid·. propo<irions.
bu, DO[ hU proo/L Euclid dovdol'" hio proot, by lineo; ill---. by
DumI>en. el. Euclid 9- II!.
.. O . ;¡'IJ. J9-
.. el. 1614. u-u .
.. a'·"
.""'. 'J .
.. O . lhIJ.
.j.
JI •
.. eI.1hIJ.
 ,66 THE Q UADRIVIUM
number i$ .. ken fmm in odd numbc:r, rhe remainder is odd;· if an
odd number is t2ken from an odd, me renuindcr is cven." (768-7<»
Any numbcr that has an e\"cn half is In .ven M'es .ven numbcr;
likewisc any number chat is doubled, beginning with " OI any number
that is produced by quadrupling, ocrupling, Ind Nch bcloogs to die
clus of .ven times .ven." Any number that has tn odd hall is tvcO
times odd." If any number arise5 from I by doubling oor tw;
a half trutt is odd, it bclongs ro tIle .ven times .ven class, but j{
originares in the dass of oven times odd." Considu tite nunmor !l.
It mithe. arises by dollbling froro two ROl has an odd hilf; bm it
arises by duplicaonn, from 6, • numbu that bclongs ro the evm limes
<><Id cW:s. (111)
Mattianu:¡ has airead)' classifiGd numbees into prime OI coml""'ite.
He II(IW mborates on rhes<: d· ..... '00 provides numerical =mples
of ""ch. All prime and incomposite numbers are odd and havo nO
factor bm the urur." (773) Even numben ue composit<: in rd. tian ro
rbemsdv ... whether rhey come from .vem OI odds. Odd numbers tTU.y
liso be composite in Id.tion to thernsclves, if che)' are me product of
odd numbcH. (771) No two .ven numbers 1 . . prime ro 011. another,
beco .... ,hey luve so¡ne cornmon O1t2S1lre (in duplication) . If a num-
ber du" i. prime .00 incomposice is token with anocher numher tita,
;. compoolte in rd.tion ro itSt;lf, tbe rwo oue found ro be prime tO uoe
anomer ti] 1, docs no' matter ir one number ;. nlt2S1lred by some
o,her pan: dun the llIlit if this is not tIlle of tbe othe! (77,.). Or take
rwo or mOre nwnh«s thQt are compnsite in relation ro dw:mselves ,nd
.150 in relacien ro each orher: thc .ddition of an incomposice number ro
thc group cause:¡ thtm ro hecome prime ro One annther () inclndtd
with 4. 6, and 8). Two nwnh«s du,t ore compnsite in rebtion ro
themselves (9.nd 'S. or 8 and 9), can, when brought rogether, be
.. Ci./bid.'l.
" Cf. <bid. ,<1-
• a··". ,""'o J"
.. Cl. iblJ. JJ .
N Cf. ibid. l+-
.. Ci. Eltdid 7. Dd:. "; N .........hus lo ti . '. n.. o\lll>bu • ..n.r... Euclid'.
o.finltion oí. primo numboor ond i< «gtrded .. prime by t.risoode, bllt in N"ICO-
",..hu<' ..... tm<nt .ti primo numl>.on I><l00, ro the claso of odd nwrt.en. Su
N".,bomochus, tI". 0·00ge. po •• r. n. l.
 All l THMET I C ,,)
prime in rdation ro eoeh. other. (77S) In <=t2ln casa odds ,00 evens,
like 9 and !l, are composite co ..eh ocher, sinee boch ""se from
triplicotion. Noteworth.y is the faec tha, no even number from cvens,
only cveos from odds, can be eomposit<: with an odd Dumber (776):
9 is Dot composicc with 4, 8, 16, but is eomposicc with 11, 14- Not
cvery odd numh<:r that is composite in relation to itsdf can be eom·
posite with cvery Rumber that comes from odds, bttausc: the cwo
numbers may not be divisible by the same measure. Thu:s 9 and So
.re no. composite, bec:>use So does not arise: fmm triplicacion (777).
Theo follows the upid cnunciation of many propositions from
.Euelid's Ekm.,lI>. (718.801) The runsbted st:aCemenCS are wordicr
than che original and aTe not in Euc1id'! order. In place of Euclid's
pl'OOf1, M.m.nus offers numericaI illustr;>tions.
If either oí cwo numben; mat ue prime to ..eh. ocher is composite
in rclation to i"",If, a mcasur. of !hac number is not composite wich
the other Dumber (Euclid. 7. 13). If two Dumbers are prime 00 each
o!lttt and onc of thcm multiplies ir,df, thc p.-oduct ",ill he composite
with the other If two numben!hat ore prime to each other
multiply Ihemsclvcs, the producrs will be prime co ..eh other (7.27).
And if twO numben are prime lO • .eh other and Ofl(; of them mul.
dplies jadf, .ud if that numher muh:iplies the produce og:o.in. the re-
5Ulting numh<:r wil\ not be composite with!hac ocher number (¡. 27) '
If two nwnbe", are prime ro each ome. and if each onc multiplies
ir¡df, and multiplies the product ogain. the rcsulting numbe" wiU
also he prime co each other (7. 27) . If two numbe",!hat are prime 00
each other ue added, the !Um of the tWO numhers cannot be com·
posite with cithu of the former Dumben <7. ,a). lf two numhers ue
cogeeh.er with a mird and . n are prime tO one anocher, the
product of the tWO nwnben etnnot be composice with the third
number (7. 24) . If numbers do not contain !IOIJle pan- of 2 numbcr,
lbey cannO! be composite with it <7. '9)' If three numben joined
together" are the lout of those which nave !he .:une ntio wieh tltem,
any CWO of mese added together are not eomposite with the third
.. TIla <tU<lI\ent uf M.rtiaooi a .., <mmcou> of E"did 1- 's
("If twO nllll>ben .... primo '" 011< .POther. m< ptodact uf """ uf Ihem inro irseU
will ¡,., primo '" mo «",",nln¡¡ "",,").
" Le. in ""ntinuod p<oporrion.
.68 THE QUAllRIVIUM
(9- (5). If an odd number is noe compogte with another Rumber, ir
wilJ not be comJ>O$itc with tite double of chat Dumbe. (9.13) . Given
tWO p;oirs of numben in which neither manber of m e fine pair is
composite with eitlle. member of the second, me product of me first
pait anuot be composite with eithtr Rumber of the second poi< (7- 16).
Th least numbers of those whiclt Mve the oame ratio wirb mem ore
prime ro ead> other ( j. "J. Any nwnber" either prime and incom-
posite or, if it is composite in rclation ro itself, is measured by some
prime number (¡. )'.)1),"
Nen cornes (¡85--<Jó) ch. staterncnt of sorne problems from Bao\:
VII of tbc E/mlnlfS. Tbe are uplained Tf
twO numbef!" a grealtt and a smallcr, ate composite ",ith each othcr,
find their brg<:st and thcit smtllen common (Euclid 7.•). Of
thrce numbers wlUch ore oomposite witl! one anomer, fmd cheir
largest and thti. smallest c(lIIunM measures (7- ). Given twO Dum-
ben, fmd me smallest numberwru.:h chey measute (7- 34). Given three
numbers, find the $!TIlllest nun,ber which they measure (7- )6).
Martianus conclud.. me scction on uithmetic with statem.""" uf
".riOD' Euclidean propositions, with an aeessive use uf numuical
eIamplcs. (79,,80') Given twt.> pairs of oumbers, largor and SIIt3Uer,
oí rueh son thac tltue is tite same ",tio between me Wgcr and smaller
pain, as oleen as ,be Iarger meamres the larger, tite smaller will rutaS-
ure tite SlNU... (7- 10)," If the unit measures tny number as many
times as anodler numbee mtasutt!! • fourtb number, ie will happen
dtat, as many cimes u tite unit meuures tite fu-sc number ol tite =nd
pair, che nurnher which had les measurc in tite unit w ill measun: tite
!.:as, number of the second pair (7. '5).'" If two numbers are multiplied
and sorne prime tnd inc<Impositc numher meuures che product, le
mllst also rneasure both ol tite originol numhers..'" Lec os many num-
bers as you wish be placed in increasing order;o. e<>ntinued propor_

ti no. pongropb lo • """""'Y 01 the _ o s of Mottiamoa 771-11 .

.. Le, if .n<! • ....., .:=b"..
lOO Le.,if "=1:s,!boa ''1==
... End.id (1. lO)")'1"'" of tbo oripW nombm. Mution.....)'I boo:h;_
the """,buo he lISOS '" i1J ....... (. _ .0) boo:h h> ... . =-<r< in l . Bu ...... 7
_ u; o:wo moasuus "'e prodnct (s.,) but doto nno: ","mire 1. Howntr, k doto
_ " '< boo:h of <wo otIIet bcton (6 _ '-V oí ....
 ARITIIM.,TIC
""
tion; if che firse numw measures ti«: last, ie mcasurc.s ehe "'OOIld as
wdl, Ind all che othen following it; ir ir meosures che 5eCOnd, it .1so
mta.wrts che Iast Ind che inurvening ones; if rmaUy ir measures any
om:, ir mu,rum- 011 (8. 7) . U IS mOrly numbers os you pleue, beginning
with che unir, are in 1 cominued proportion, os m:my prime numbers
l. measure che la!lt number will mcasure che number which is nen
,.j.
ro the unie (9. If as ITIllny numben os yoo pleue, beginning wirh
che unir, are in a continued proportion, che smollor a1ways me:twreS
ehe brger by sorne one of che orher numben lhar are in che same
proponían (9.' 'l . If os many numbers os you pleue, begimting witb
che unir, are in a continued. prQportiQn, ,."d che numbCT nen 00 tlle
unie Íl; prim<, ehe greatest number will RQe be measured by any
tIwse tllOe are in rhe sarne proportion (9. [ ) . l f two prime numben
measure che ie2se number, RQ other prime number, will rneasure ir
(9- '4)' If 1 sqnart number measures aO<lcher sqllllre number, tbe side
oí rhe rU"St ""uore wiU .Iso be rhe measure of che side of ti«: orller
(8. [4); Ind if a square oumber does nOt mcasure a square nurnw, che
llide of ooe will RQe melSUre ehe!lide of che other (8. [6). Tf. cube
number measutes anorher cube number, che ,!de of ch. fim: cube will
.Iso m..sure che ido Qf che omer (8. '5); and if one cube numbCT doe,
noe measure another cube number, che sido of che firn willoor meas-
ure rhe side of che orher (8. '7) ' Any number chae is m=sured by In_
other number gets che name of the measure from che .. me number
elue ",.kes che mOO$ure (7.37). If 1 number ha, a pan, it will be
measured by a number tllllt h.. the same IWDe OS che pare (7. ¡8).
Arirhmc:tic brinl:' her discuuro. to an end abrupdy wich • short
poem and apologius. os did che OchCT bridesmaids, for being tedio""
and proLill:
T ime warns me ro brin!!" my discoune ro 1 closc.
Should ooredorn .tcal upoo rhe heavooly mrong
1, old "Number-keeper," would be dri"cn fmm elle sky •..
Her 'ugsMon tlur 1 more e=de<! treatment of me subjece ''would
hefit Attie .. g.l" confirm, ch. impr=ion 10ft by me whole nf AUr-
tianus' presentation oí rhe tllae he appropriated. here, or
heavily llpon, sorne Lann arS thJt he di<! not
use Greek SOOrceJ.
170 TRI! (JUAD R I VI U M

As Arithmelic seats herself, I =enti.al silence comes nve. rhc

IUgust company of gods o>nd philosophcn. Pythagoru, witb al! rus
, ud Pato, the whilc ""pcmuding tsOterÍc doctrines from
Tmu.e«s,'" veoCr.ltc rhc lady witb mystical words of pnlise, Mercury
is • puticularly pathetic figure as he sits in n pt admintion of Mim-
m.tic', pcrformmcc, Sbc is 10 ltim me most erudico o>nd cloquent of
. U the brid<Sl11.OÍds. (80J) AU cl!c spirit aOO subtltty of rhc Mercury
of Plautus o>nd Lucian nave o>nd he is shordy tO get the sorr
of mate he dese ...e! ..... d",b pet1lonification of OIlltiquc handhook
lcanting, an insipid eabbage t!uc me Romm satirist Juvenal (e, LU,
110) h.ad alrtldy found warrntd over by tite n,aste .. of tite rhetorical
schools of JU¡ doy.'"

,.. For .. lc<>¡ .. locin ociet>oe ..... ..,1< ro maimtin. I""'irioo. of rupe<' in
W<=rn Europe. tite T""",w , ..u iD bibJe (ou abo .... P. U¡, (The T;.m,,,,, ¡,
me I>ook in Pi>!<>', Iwtd ¡., Ropbs<!'. po.inring ol me .ncion, pIúlo>oopb<n. "Th<
School of A,hens.") Arino<elion "'"... ue widely <llio<minatcd ¡., Larin eoomo-
!!""p!tio: tn.diriot>s of !he fino au;m." millcnniom, bu, the bao", ",,,..,,,,,,, ..,d
,,(,,><,pMn. of c-""l!ropt.y ¡., Ihio petiod _ .,.".. dw> Ariorotellin
clt:anc«ristics,,, De"'. defmiriv, .dirion af Cakidins by J, H, Wmink oppeated
in '9'1'; Wuzink pbc<o Calciditu u: me el.,.. ol <he _ CtnNI)'- w1<I>out
muc.b Previomly "" _ gener.tly p"ced io the f;<n holf ol "'" founb
"""", .
... Juvenal SIlIir.. 7, 'Jo-J+
 On Astronomy
TUI! SlLEN<;E following!he acclarnation for Aritbmetic'. discoursc is
brol<en by a 5C<:ne of rowdy brawling. a trave,ty of che rcfin.d
imogery 2nd precious bonter in a seco. by Vergil which may have
inspired !bis on• .' Sil.nus, rus veins swollen wim an overdraugbt of
wine, Iw been snoriog through Ar;rhmetic'. l<:cture. Suddenly he
cmiCl a thund.rous belchoTh. enoro party is convulsed witb Iaughtcr.
and pandemonium erupl!;, T hc 3nendool!; of Venus and Bacchus cake
over .00 che wine flo""". &lucy Cupid runs up lO 5jlenus . nd gives
ruS ruddy bald head a mounding clop of che p.lm. Th. besJtccd old
mon 510wly aw.k<:ns and, peeriog Ihrough blood,hot oyes, ,caggers to
hU; feer. He sway' 3nd rcel. abone. che" olumps ro che Ooor. &itrr,
on oro"," from Bacchus, h."ve. Silenus to rus ,houlders and drapes
rus bl03ted body. a wincskin, aboo! tus neck.
At rhis mornent Marcillft... is .barplr reprimanded by Sarire io!
introducing a b!':l.wl inlo an angust.enate of the god.s when Astronomy
is abour ro discou ... 00 "tht lWIowed plancu," Herdsman
Botites," "brilliant Canopus, "the b1azing boros of the .ver-changing
moon," and "tlle slmting belt of Ihc wdiac," .11 pbinly visible from
the gods' notage in the canopy of the heavens. Mamanus responds to
Satin', abuse ",ith . questiom "Am I tu esch_w tU erutor", of me
inugination and not nJi_ve tbe boredom of my readen ",itb !!ODle
minh and droIlecyl Come to your senscs, Satire, ka... off your tngic
... ming, and mke a hint from tbe youDg Pdignian poet: Young
tgJ,:e my advice and omilc."· Apoll<l steps OUt to usher in the nut
bridesmaid:
B,I..... thcir eyes . ... ion oppetted,. bollo ... boJl el be.venly Ii¡rbr, fdlcd with
,¡;;""'_ 6. '4·,6-
• n.o T<1'IO ¡, quotcd /rom MutW <Epivom> , • • ,), wh<> ploinIy _ in me
non line dut be thinb the Pel;gn¡... po« (0.>:1) ofler<d mio odvicc. Mutianu,,·
...:ribing me qooa.tioo ro the ".,Iiu """'" _ ."pp<uslng <be intetn'l<diory',
"..,... io lo kcepln¡ wirh the g<......t pnctice al bte Latin and "",di,nI writt:n.
17! THE QI1ADRIVII1M
file. gelltly fOtUing, .<Id ."cl"""jf • ""¡deJ\ wid'>1a, SeYonI pllOUU)'
deiciel, omino", O< propiti<tIu. were bm<d '" ¡,. gl ..... "'" mym<y of thoi< be-
"".ior tnd orbito rt..-J<d. EYen d>o fobric of rbe u!esóal .pb<re """'" fonh
'" rile fWhin¡ light. u-, doidos, etberesl, tcr=nW, morino, &nd _ " .. ,,41,
wue .. rounded .. tbe mirKalo.. oight ... ood off.... d tilo _;den. ocsr of honor.
Dcchd wirh g<IDI &nd decorou5Iy UfOyed ........ pped fortb. nlmbIy from tbe
.ph.re. Hu brow wu ...rlih and her locb tptrkl<d. n.. plumagt Od het
wingo "'.. cry>Ulline, 0Dd .. obe lilded t1u0"8fl dle . ky k toOk "" • goIden 1Iue.
[o ooe haod "" hoId • (""Ud "' ........ in tbo otbet • book COIUWIlng coladai<>no
of <he oroa of tbo plU!d:J &nd thdt for.nrd ood rtcrngrtJc motioo<. These
-n ... dellnated ¡" ".....¡, of ..no... oolors [., ... " 1,
Astronomy, like her mttr Geomeoy, is t peregrinator of the universo.
She has traverse<J tU d.e heaveos ond ..,.0
reveal the constellatioll5
lying benetth I;he cdtstio.l anurctic cirde. There no reason ro sup-
pose here thal Mart:ianus, OS a N orth African, wu more funiliar with
soulhern sities tIlan dassical ostronomers ond ge<>gHphen. He wu
strio:tly a handbool< compiler, llSiog data p... :d down fmm cla&!ical
and Hdlcnistic Greck SOIIrces. Morcover, Canhoge, the city of which
he calls himself a fosterling, is acm.lIy oIightly ro the north of Rhodes,
Ihe horne of Posidonius, the Hcllenistic Gr«l< who figored rnosl
prominently in the popular mditions of Latin comtography,>
Astronorny tdls us that 5he is also famiijOT with lhe occult lore of
Egyption priests, Imowledge hoarded in their sanct\Inl.'I; .be: kepl her-
•• lf in $1'('1"';0" in Egypr fo. o=ly foft)' thousond yea1$, not wishing
ro divulge th .... secret!;. She is aI.o familiar with antediluviao Atheo,.'
She lrnows rhal ,he might have ncused hersdi from dis<:oomng al
cM time by referring rhe wedding guesl5 10 the astronomical boob
of Eralosthenes, Prolemy, and lIipparchm; but .he f«1s a seose of
• SI I lDil:k 4'9- J-V: <"I'bItJ.... fw_ _ _.....--prob<bly not to be

*.
tnnd>t«I .. o tod, o eubiI ¡,. longtb. b:ille MOle <PI" 79. 'j). UIIIfo
loen, it .. beru: insaumoD . . . . ...hich ....... ¡,. mo..uriOS <be oIóntd. 01 <rllS,"
liad ¡,. miDd d>o inwl"e ...... to <t<bltaJ.... by m<dic:.t.l iUustnton ond
ptll\lt<l. Ren!:lgiuo SI""'" both ..,J1tu (te< .hove, p. " j ) &nd _ _ ... .,¡,.,.
ie""u"koJ;, (<<l. L ..... ')<1, • .¡!I) •
• Seo StshI, - . . sa...e., <:hop. IV.
I Tho otory of Athons befare doo nood--on tu1ior flood eb.., _ of Deuct.llon.
>=><di., to Produs--o>meo /""" I'bto', Tmu ..... 'Je. 00 <be oojourno
01 A'''ooo,''Y &nd othu &nd on <he renontioo of <he Iibonl "'"
:0(..., <be fIood.. oee Um. "'Rtwigiui Ideos on <he o . of rile s.v.., Libert.l
A ...." PI'- J-t")9.
 ASTRONOMY '71
obligation «rwwd Mercury, and sincc bis brido Philology ilio wants
ro hear her, .he wiU bcgin.
Finr it mould be out tllat Astronomy's rderence ro
major G=k astronomers was a doception pr:octiced by noarly ..u the
Latin handbook aumorities of me Empire and oarly Middle Ages.
Link was known aOOut meso:
G=k writen beyond the awesomcotss
of thcit repuuti<>n. Hipparchus' g=test discovery. mor of me p=-
sioo of me equinoxcs, is not eveu mcntioned by the Latin writen.
Er.>tost:hencs' brilliout mcthod al coleubtiog !be circornference of the
globo, and the figu« he obained ('5',000 stadia), was lcnown in the
Wesr on/y as an isobted dantm. Ptnlemy's was read ond
me<! rn gond dfcet by Ammianll'l Marcellioll'l in bis H;UOt-;tl, but
Arnmianll'l was t Syrian Greek. not Latin. That Boetltius
sorne Ptolemaic "'ork 00 astTonnmy seems likely from contemponry
and loter U:Srimonics ro soch a ttansLtrinn and a cicle De «ft,ologilJ. The
ttansLttiun, if it wn made, wu oot nf the Alm4g<Jf, but nf a sbomr
nunw.1 by Prolemy nr a hartdhook io the PtolemJic tndition.. The
solutioo tn chis vaing quemoo appt1U'5 to a\nit any Ichobr who will
avail himself of. discovery made by Profes5Qr Ullrmn shordy befnre
tus dam.' the fnuduleoce of ¡\hrtiaOll'l' citations

• Fin, 1... 111 re ....... <he eridenu fur • BoedUon ttmslation ro • 0001< on ...
"""""'y by Ptoluny. Boet/úus 91" Jobo hnmt."., 111 th< Prehc< ro hiJ r.m
"",,1<, D. oÑtlmt,,/t•• '" w""",* ....a... on.<Oto oi tbt dio<jpljne.
No", "'. hove 'Q ambiguouo tnd fbm:ring k<ter (1'..... ,. tS). odd"""'¡ by c...
<ÍodonI< ao 'l'Modo,ic'. nom<) '" BoeIhiu<, ,......, Boedti......._ .... oty.
oon» )'Ul'I 01 oge, tnd ...1iDg Iho, me mosici1n. "",1=y tbt ...
"""""'er. N""'-ch.. tIIe uithmcticion, E-.cli<I obe PI..., "'"
theolotian. luistode tilo !cro;.n. ond """ luchln>tdoo m. rnecloonicion lwI
•...a.bIe ¡" I.orin. "'"""" '" Boothlou. Thio ku<. 00< indic • .." .. hao
«>m<rim<. be<n .. ppoo«!. dio< Doetbitu trmd-.! ProI<mf. Almogtn ond "'"
m<dwtical lrOoti= el An:himedeo. Cuoiodo .... ' " ' 00.-;""'1, implUO<d wi<h
Ik><thio:.s' <>J ..... ond '"' <:<>nf""ing •• p<=ed ¡"tun/ono,.w, ......,¡ ...",mplid>-
......... Ludy <here ... tIO'O le ...... ro Getbert (Noo.' ond 'Jo [Mignr, PL, a.XIII.
colo. '0), '!JI), ¡" tbt r"", he uf... ro. Bobbio IfWlUICl'ipt WJltlining.Jstn-
boob oi Bocthiuo De 4ItroI0fÚ' ¡" tb. """,0<1, be .. loo • monl< .. Dobl>lo '" mol«
oopi .. ro M. M...w.. D. mrolo¡/to. Victoorimoo D •• bo,,,/<,,ond De" ..· I· ....
M...u .. "" i""enlJy b.." Id_ir...... Monliuo lIoetbi<II, ood jo
'" ..ken by • =om tf'ON!<tO<' (I!uri« Pnn Lottin, Tbe Lmn. <>f a"bm. l'
'69), but R. EUio (o'¡" Ntm" M 11;. . . . (Orlord, '8911. PI'- "9')0) ond h . E.
 '14 T H I: QU AD R IV IUM

scholars ro credit them, Qod OUt schob.r recendy mok che

troIlbJe ro point OUt che disc:Rptncies hetween Martianus 21\d
Prolemy.'
Astrooomy's discourse, wroch occupies only thirty-niM pages in
tite T elllmer ediclon by Dick, is • fragment that brcab off abrupdy.
TIte awtt portion ukcs up aU the C<lovcntimul copies of an JlN
IIStr01Wmwt, "ud tho missing portian probably conNined linle more
titan a closing seuing scene, such as is fouod in 011 me omer discipline
boob. As Book VIII stands, it is lile shorttst book in the entire work..
le is liso che bcst of Manio.nus' qU1drivium books and, considuing its
smaH compass, che best_proportioned:md mo<t ..tisfactory tn::ltisc 00
lStrooorny in che ert:ant Latin litenrorc befor. che Greco_Arabie
revival. W. can undenarwl in em;lImce amoug manuIIs of the mathe-
maticol disciplinet if w.
note dlat astronomy wu me most highly
dcvtloped !1f ch. Gr«k sciences' md if >Ve accept the sunniR, sug-

1 1 _ (<<l. M. M"'¡¡¡¡ ..... 1ib<T primru, pp. hill,lxI<ii) id<llIify bim

.. M. niIi..., 'Ut"'" of tho " .... (r• • A '5), • potnt 011 """""rY; ."d
H. W . Gurod (NI., Mmi/jj M"' .....me... libe< 11, PI' [i:I..w) iRclinOI '" 08="
Lconudi r'Nuov< Y<>ci poeó<be," PI' 'ó'-óJ), d>inb thst di. W<lrk "" uuoIogy
r<Íor .. d '" ¡" Gerb..... Luoer 11 W2S by M. niIius ond ,Iw Ge,ben: miKook it [.,.
• """,k by !loe","", Mm', I'<CUIdy B. L . UDRWI (" '78) fouod .11 tIt= _,b
ufe<nd ... in l....., 'JO lisnd """" m¡.dy in ,ho ... 8obbio ootolope
(&.:kot. No. p) ond be tht mo.nuscr;p< 00"";";"11 tilo utrOl>Omical
work omibu,"" fO Ilo<thius. H< Iow>d 11>.. obout o",,"fifdo of tbo tIWloscrip< is
dev<>ttd ro .0 Ir, ,,,,,,,,,,,.jo<••"",1><, flftk ... If""""rlc O=<p<S. and almoa hill
'" ""..mJ. Thio """""",ip< ho "",k ro be tbo copy '<qIIdI<d by
;., I..eue< 'Jo. ond • COf'Y of <h< _""""';p< o/ 80ethius D. """Dio... in
<;,hr boob, deoo:rib<d by Gerhen: in L_ r 8. Tho ,<I<rme. ro <i¡'" boob ha
olwayo puukd .. bol .... ",d Jod oome ro """",Iu<lo th .. 110<11<...• worl< _ •
long o..... bu, Ullmon poi ..... OlIO: tIut th, ..., 6t''''''17iM 010 .. 00<:<'1"" fiv. boob.
Uufornu>oteJy Prole""" UIhnon ,ido" ,ud no< la.... an opportUJ<ky or did no<
_ lit ro uamine tht portiou of tbe lIWlDOCrip< ro <Iornmin< tht
M..ilian, BoetIúon, or ProlwWc n.
of 000""'.
'1'.
's.. abon,,, o. Jo.
, Dcnk J. <lo Solb Price, Sri<JU:e SiTu:e B'¡',w... PI' 6-Jl. "'¡p. múquc im-
portO",," ... Gte<\ mat/oom"in<l pJaue<ary moory .od _yo that "in .U tbe

_."
Imncb .. uf ",ionc. in all tbo o<ba cultures tbe", ¡, no<hi"ll '" _ tIUo ""'1
.,ti..1 01 • rdinod ond od<onced cotp<U 01 eotito::Jy motbeInoticoJ .xplllUtion uf
 ASTltONOMY '75
gesteO =lier,' ,hat the profCMional charactcr of Martianw' ue.cisc
rdJecn. sound .nd weU·pr..erved G=k tradition w hich lI\3y "cm
from • Varroni.n handbook derivcd froro Posidoruus.
Morcover, Book VIII \VIS the most popular of Martianw;' quadriv.
iuro books in che Middle Age'" IJld estabIishcd ;ts ,uthor as one of
the leadiug authorities on astronomy. Martnnus' principal rivals, C.l.
cidi"" ,nd Macrobius, ",ere populor Iargely beco_ chey expounded
Neoplatonic cosmognphy. Calcidius' lSUonorny wu too abstruse to
be appn:ciated bdorc tbe Jate Middle Ages. H¡" Itngthy section on
anronomy in his commentary on Pbto', Tm..n.s ¡" • o:ecltnkal treot·
mene im'oJving mathenurici m..t wouJd no{ have comptehenslble
to Mutiaous; {(Ir, U T. H. Martín discovered in ,s.w," ;, ;" actually
• largdy free, occuionally literil, tnnslotion of put of • TimIleus
C<lmmenlltry compiled by Thcon (lf Smyrm." The cosmognphlal
"etioo of Macrobius' C_tntD"y, like Martianus' Book VIIl, was
circw..tcd 's I "F"'te trtarise (In astrOnomy. la popw..rity nuy be
lIlCJ"ibcd to in .unplicity and darity oí upo>irion and to ia overton..
of Neoplatonic fervor.
It is !lOe $Urprising ,hat Rook VIII h.. becn of greateSl inlereSl to
historian<; of scieoce. As we shall se .. their inrertst has beco stirnulatcd
by Copernicus, who singles out Mattianus to besoow LlVish prai$e upon
hin! for propoundin¡ a cheory oí heliocentric orbits lor Veous and
Mereury- though Copernicus w.. a....... re, as he soys. !.hat (lcher Lstin
writers heJd che same new." The theory, on good .uthority ascribed
eo Henclid.. of Pont\l1l (c. ¡.¡o I.C.), beame a regulu feaNre oí
popular harulboob in aOOquity, Copernicus could have refc:rrcd eo •
fuller aecoum oí Heraclides' meory. In fa"l he wu.1w .wore !ha!
Arístorchw; of $amoo (c . ,60 • .c.) went. ""p furcru::r than Heracijdes

• s.. libo.... PI' s'-p.

" s.. oh,m:. 1" 7'.
" TIHoIlh s...,nIOtI PUf"";':; Ijbrr d. od. T. H . Mlt<ÍI> (Por;"
'1!.J9), p. ,i.
"E. lIiIJ .., "De Adru!i l'l;cip.t<boi in PloroniI T"""nrn COmm<1lt1rÍo." Rbri-
"j,e/m Mu"um. ........., XXVI (,g.¡, ), ¡8'.119. "'l! .... di.. Colcidluo
tnndalM {rom Adr-ss<Ju' colGlllOlUU}', no< "TheoD',. Il l1il1,,', ugumtm" is volid
_ mot< ocboWs tcC<p< it-Tbeon b<comes • .me. ;. 00 d_
to c.JoidiuJ'.
"Copernioa DI ttwlUlh>1dbw <otl..,1um 1.'0.
 '1 6 THE QUADRlVIUM

ro propound Ileliocentric oroits for aU me plancts, including die W'tll,

Ind I11IIke me moon a SlteWtc oi thc =th."
Astronomy c:oncinues he. gnndiloqucnt ezordium: Th. nruVer5e is
'phcria.l in .hape. compos«! oí fDur, and onlr foor, clernents (tz
isdrm IOtis) . n..
earth is sutionary, at me eenter
and bottom of thc univene.." The sofmess nf rareficd bodics is sur_
rounded by its condensado",," inw ccrt:ain set patlu aud inttr-
vals oi circlcs (mbrilium ,mptWUm tmerirudinem suU ,oJaibus cit-
cumdQ!4m;" qulUchm rtew ...... tr drt:Ukmnn Thc
natures of {hese bodi ... cookscing by their own surglngs, are diffnscd
che mm "'"y round in globular bdts and circlu ('#ir fhlcribus IUJ·
b4m1lus nlltlmu UJldiqulJecus gloi><ltl1 Itmbim qrbibusque diffundf)
... l i every bdt oí thc encomp'ssing substances;. fmmd ro be horno-
geneous, no cirdes can from cheir edlereal traces (ti 19itur wi

" Thio "PJ'<SfO '" IIovo b«:n ..wa< .. idy .. pp"..d by Coperniouo. A f""""""
in !he ochoIorly Thorn odióon, wbidl di _ _ =terwy 01
Copornlcus' birtb (NkI>IG C<>f'<"Iki Tb ...... JLU D•• ...bámo ."..
It"i.." UItrl ,VI ITbom, ,"')1, p. ¡.¡;J, 1:<l ., 1'" • _ _ ddeted by Copa-
e.,m, _bJJit_ . . ,tttSin"
nlca f.om tito f""¡ dnf. ot hit

So",;,.,. /<NmJ m. _ /<lb,. _

Cn4ibIU ... bim dJnl ¡hqw
_d ,.;.-. Aril/IlJ'<b_

q_.
.... Then la <he ded.i<st<>ry Preface, la whio::h
b • .aJs ol hil oean:h dtrooglt !be cl"ricol lirIontuu ro< pr<cunory ......" ..... oí
btllocentricism. ko P' S" Ir"", !¡.eodo- l PIlItttdl oboot tilo ......... oi
H""",1ideo ud Ecpbon<uo b"Of oaúa <O lDtIItIoa the cltor - - . • fe,., pog<S
..ru.r abo", .... be1h : , '0'" Y","" of Aria:ardu>o. Soe Heath, Arin"",""'. P.
0\1'
JO'. who eT«lill Go.npen wldt poimiag tilo fooaKa in the n..... odlóoa;
ond MgI» Annitop. TbI f"""¡" qf MI>krn Aw........., (Loodon,
'9)3), PI' RndoU...", Etbotd< ond Erib y.". &bud-:.skbold (1m, XXXIII
Itl't'l, uped .he olmott C«t&in ""'10. ;0 ...... oí Capomlcus wi::h
ArclJimedes' A"'... ;.." the ,.,otk "'" ron .. ;o ..... 111"" wthoritadv< ond beot
=<>1II>'L oi Arinan:hus' <beoty. On the del,i"a by Copornicm oí di. !*'OS<
Ilbout Arioutch ..... T. W. /úrica, "Coptrni.... Rduioa to Arltt>tch", o.nd
I'ytbo¡ara, Islt. LO (00)6.), 406-7.
"Ic'nr oinoe Arinode {O. J , 't"otl ... fanh ü duw.... ud prooú oí
"'" """"" pl.a«o of m. foor el...,..- Knh, boiaJ tite he..ie<t al the lo... elo.
oh. bortom of oh. uniftroe, ud objOClS folling
......... jo O"< r"""
tU diteaio..
upon tilo ......'. Rltboo fol! toIfO'Ud "'" cootU-<he nodoa tUt .... ""'" .......
m. (= !>ottom) of the ual.-ene beco"",. <;oIDILlO1lfIIocc in com><>ppbN:
a. PIiay l. "; Oeomeda J. "1 Mocr<>bius C." ......,.., ,. n . , .
.. Tbo ""","in¡¡ pra¡ <O ,.,.,1Ibar by oh. TU.
 ASTRONOMY '77
,imi/;s tmtniJ ,¡mbjlU¡ "14m pos-
_ I..,;",m circuli wri.:re). \Vhen w. wc the word
"cireles," we do not intcnd ro convcy a nonon oí corpore:al denurea-
tions of a fluid mbstancc; we are mereJy iUustnting the ri.<ings and
setrings oí pbneelly bodies as they appcar ro \1$ (nos igifUl" circuWs
"On ¡'D dicmms, ut liqumtil Mlur4t di¡crimi"" corpulent4 fi"g.mous,
sed Uf ,sctmUS desummquc tJd ""$ CrTimlÍllm dmwmtremus [8'4-
'5]) .
Asuonomy is piqued by mere mottals who try rO thc
celestial uis and po:>les on .... armiIlary sphere." Th. po:>ks, ¡h. ex_
pWns. protrud. írorn the hollows oí the perfol"llted outer "PMro, and
openings and pivots have ro be irnagined--romethíog mae you may be
",re could noe happen in nrefied and suprnnundane aonoepbere
(cum fWli wlul perforQu, uurimis ,pbller'C cwemis "";". Il1II, el
bi4tm quid¡zm c"dimsqt« fmg.mnn, quod ufÍq/U subrilibus utbrrns_
que «cidrre """ potuisse eumprrtum). Her referenoe tO am, poles,
.nd ""l..rid circles muU: be undem:ood in • th.oreo","l .. rue, u di._
linctions applied nol ro tnnsirory conditioos oí 1M b.. vens hUI ro
calculaoons of inlervals (.icubi igitur imdligem"e edi""Tt.mdU¡Ue
propOJiw vel ufflI .,eI polos "el eitculos ¡m-hit>eflo, ide.rli quadlfl1l
ptudent", "O" diversil4u e.e/; dUCTet4, sed spafÍ()YWI/ TW(J1lil>us [8, 5-
'61) .
Such is thc fbmboyant jargon of Martianll5' bridesma.ids, of sorne
interese ro philoiogist:s but of none ro histoIÍ3ns of seicn«. The
audien« duly awed, Mortianus is now ready t<J preunt 50beT hand-
book materuls. The opcning is • convencional one, listing and defming
celestial paullels and cirdes." Thero are in all ten great circles, five of
them ClIU.d or by Latin writers, "equidistants." Firn he
defines the panllels, whícb gird the oky latitudilllll1Yl then thc: colures,
which are longirodillll1l then the obUque circles (zodiac and Milky
Way) ; and Iastly tite borizon. (8'7-16)

" Vot.., p<>imo 10 lOJ>Otbo.r limiation in tho """ 01 onnilluy . phueo in. po<-
..,. q""",d by A ...... a-m.. (Ame NI,m. ¡. ,o. ¡l. n..r. lo nrMl oimiIori<y
bU<,."d oid>er V...... or Gelli .. U>spited Morcio<mi thougbt.
" O . The<Jn (ed. Hmo.r), PI' '>9"j); Ooomod .. l • •. "-U; GeminIa " Col_
cidius 65-68, Moerobius C.-nuM1 l. '5. u _,I, ¡lIdor. ¡ . 44-.jÓ.
'7 8 TOE QUADRlV I UM
His ddinitions of me ptnillds ",.., ones:" Th ponllcls
have tite same poJ.. the universo. Tho Ircric circk, 2t ir< low<:,(
point, jllSt gnzcs the northcm horizon, che comtcllations witrun ir
always being visible; the antarctic circlc, aC il:!! highest poine, grazes
rhe Wllthem horizon, the C<lnstellatioM within ir always ¡nvisíbk. OuT
rcosoning powcn indicate ir ro he of the $lime CXtent the trctic
cirde. Tht twO rtopies mark me northem md SlJuthem limllS reacmd
by me sun ar rhe summer md winrer solscices. The cclestio¡ eq"'tor,
equidisw!t be.,..".,o ,be tropies, rrwb Ih. qua! !ength of day and
night. (817-»)
Th. two .01= are longitudinal celestial circlcs, passing dtroogh
the polea ar lig"t anglos ro each other and cutting the ginb of the
univene ioto (ool qua] scgmCDts. Some allthoritia p."fu ro U'aC<:
[hcm by heginning ar the notUl or south polc. MarUanus says he
pruers ro toUow th. autlmrity of Hipparchus, who troces (hcm fmm
the equ;ooccial and solstitial points ;n the ecliptic, precis<ly al the
eighth d<g= of Aries tnd OIlU':"," (8'3-'4)
Of che two obliqw: circlcs tite zodW: is tlngCDt ro me ceLesri.]
tropics of Canee< aOO Capricom¡ ir bisects me equaror, but
the oí inr«SeCtion llCe no. C<Jual. Ir is mllCked off mro twelvo
segments .nd fumishcs • paro fo. me SIIll, the moon, the C.ve
pbnets." (8.S) Rtg.rding the Milky W.y M.rtilnnt tt1ively remarks
mat it plainly has. muc:h greater girth. tha.n the other ceJesri.1 cirdes,
since ir riscs on me borders of me areric circle and sct!l on .he hOrlwn
of {he antarctic circlo:, . nd 'ppeors ro tr.verse near!y the entire "tles-
ti.! sphere. H e scorns thme writtrs who reroS/: tO ¡ncludc: ir among

" n-.. corr<sp>oden<:.. witb Ge...m... (j. '-9) ate el"",. a . Theon (ed. HiI\orl,
pp. "9-l"", o.""",,¡ .. ,. l. " ' ''; C."OOk·""'" ,. 'jo 'l .
.. Cf. Go""" .. S. _ Tbeon (od. HiIler), p. 'J', SOY' <hu oa:ordint 10..,.,..
wtiten tbe rneridiaD iacall.d. colo, .. M"",obius {t. 'jo ' 41 hu tbe 001 ..... imu·
seo, lit ,be nonh poi. ood Out the oodioo .. ,ht. oobtitial ."d oquinoccial pom..,
bur "" do<$ no< bdieve "'"" tIIey enend 10 "'" oouth poi •. TI>< rnditioD .,.¡gnlng
tu HiPl"rclu" tbe Ioe";"n of tbe nnW poi", or Aries" moy \leen 0 =
Ono Ncu¡¡doaI¡or, n . &... Scient:< .... p. ,18, po .... out <hu tbe
.... of Afies S' .. tbe .<mlI point .ppett.d ... G ....,. lboo., tbe time of Hip-
puch ... ElIdo.... "'" tatliet ... rituo -..ed Arics 'j',
" O. Getninw. l . 1' "! Jl Theon (ed lIiller), P. 'lO; a""modes J. '4- JI¡ M ..
crob ... COlO"' .."'.' l. 'S. g.".
me cdesWl circlcs," TI>t. horizon, me demuation of the
."
upper and lower worlds, concludes Martianus' list oí cclc:stW cin:lcs."
(8,6)
Astronorny n!ates th.at me heneIf Iw; dnown rhe celestial cirdes in
me sky with her COffipa ' El, She has set a brilWnr sta! at me
pole and obout it has drawn the an:tic citcle, tracing it ftom the head
oi Onco through the right foot of Hucules, the of the brCiSt
oi QpI>eus, die (tont p2ws of Ursa Malor, and back to Oraco's Ilead,N
(8'7) The [I...ocal G=k astronomers unclerstood th.at the locatioo
of the arcric circlc: would vary with d.e latitude of tite observer;
Gemioo' poims out tIlat a arele tflIced tluough me front paW5 of
Ursa Mojor .pplie:s to ot.;erve.. on the islmd of Rhodes,"
Again sen:ing I compass point on me polc:st.r .he Iw traced the
.ulTIme! tropic tbrough rhe cighth dcgree of Cancer, me cllest and
bc:lly oí Leo, the .houlden oí Serpentllrius, the IIe:Id of Cygnus, the
hoofs of Equus, rhe right h.nd oí Andromeda, die left .hin and Jeft
.houlder of Perseus, the knees of Auriga, the head of Gemini and
bid: tu me cighth degn:e of Cancel." (h8)
The cdcsrial eqoatol', equidistant from me pule:!, is tr2CCd from the
eighm deg= of Ams, ro {he mracced IIoof of Tauros, tbence ro tite
helr of Orioo, through cM dented coil of Hydra, tllrough Cnter and
Corvus ro me eigllth do:g= of Libn; rilen it puses ro me lmces of

.. •• do "'" a¡;«< ;. lbek lliu of cdatisl ci,clos.. Somo coum

ti.",," ... ..",.., _ "nJ ..".". r..... Ibao ..... Theoll. ""d O<Oml!d.. omlt
th< Milky W.y. G<<ninus (S, u) iadlldto it,..w.., it tho ""Iy .isibIo cItcle. <he
odtus boio¡¡ tIteotOtUl. M..,.<>biuo (1, ' j i '''1) Si... tho Milky W.y <he " -
c1,boru< """!III<IlI bec .._ "' io the meeting ploct ¡., heo .... for deoerri<>g ""....
¡., Th. 0, ..,,,, 01 Scipit>. M.ru..... omits <he meridioB 100m hiolitt.
.. a. n.:O!I (.d. HUl.r), p. Ijl, Gtmi!>us (1'. S6) _ n lbe
tIteotOtUl O(ld .;.;tII. """"' .... MactObluo (C"'" .."'.... " '5, '1",8) incpdy;"-
dudes !be ri<iblt horizoa ¡., h.is Iiot of ""1 ..... 1 cirdoo oruI omiIs <he d>oorcti<:ol

.. Moco: b,od"""••"""'" Jo no< tneO ttoe ...1",;'1 cirdeo dvongh <he con-
itelbriooo. Howevu, Antlll' Pl:.=" ...... tho bibI< of populu --.mr. doeo
,taco tbo tw<> ttopic> md tbo ",,1"';.\ equ=r iIIlhio woy .
.. Ganinua S. J. G<mimu ond hio =cbu Pooidoniu< lived in
• Moní", ...' <ncing of <he Tropie of G'''''''' io m. _ .. _ found ¡.,
""""_.
180 THI': QUADRIVIUM
Scrpenlarius, through AquiJa ro me hcad oi Pegasus, and bttk ro me
eighfh dogree of Aria,"
TIte wmr aopic begins at tite eiglltb degree of O>pricom. P"O:s
through me f_ of Aqwrius _nd thc cod of me tUI of C«us, tlIeno:
ro Lepus aud the front paws of Canis M.jor; it goes tltrough Argo
ond me bacl< of Centauros to thc sting of Scorpio, tlIen through me
cnrcrnity of Sogictarius' OOw, and bttle tO the eighth degree of C.pri-
com." Beyond thc wintec tropic is thc cdesrid totamic
Asaonomy ay¡ she CIlIO tr1Io: this tItrough iIs constdb.tions, too, for
no pan of thc h""vens" unfamiliar ro her; howcver, shc: pIden nut
ro disclote phcnotnCRl dLat are not vcrifl.ble by observ= in me
hcmi5phcre.. (BJC>-JI)
Tracing tite colure. through thc constdlotion. is 1... common, be-
couse they ¡ws beneath the horizoo in che lOuthero llemisphere, The
equinoccial colure begins at tite equinoctial poior, 11.. dghm degree
of Anes, grazcs che far ongle of Trungulurn, rouches Ihe tup of
Perseos' head aud his right arm, . nd cuts through rus hand; crossing
the arctic cirele ro che north pole, ir then puses througb lhe
tUlof Onco ro me Idr side of BoOce., no ro Arcrurus, lo lhe rigbt
and lefl fcer of Virgo, ro me eighth degree of Libro; nen it goe:s tu
me right baod of CentaUl'U!, and, not far fmm me place where it
oouches che Idt hoof of Centauros, it disappean from sight, ro Clmrge
agalo bdow Cetus; ir then puses through rus body and heo.d and
reRln\! tu me eighm degn:e of An ...." (8,.)
The aopical colore originates a' die eigh,h deg= of Caneer, po ....!
ro me !di: frout paw of Ursa Major, tItrougb rus cbesc .nd neck, and
crosses the celestial oorth pole; from here ir goes througb me hind
part!l of Ursa Minor, no through Dnco ond tite leh wjug ond necle of
Cygnus. ro loocb tite tip of Sllgittll and me beale of Aqui.lo; from thls
point it deK:eUds ro ,he cigbm deg= of Caprkom and shordy
fmm view; it rlses aij2in below AlBo, CUfS tbrough tite rudder

" MucioQlIO' <ncing 01 tbc ed...w "'1"""" gtoenlly conf"""" wido dw: of
Hypru.. (Am"""JJJ,: . . . J) ..,d 01_ .,...dy ""'.'"1"'.....
ro dw: of Antus
p""""""",, j1l_'" Anrus, bowever, ..". thu the circle_"bM no sbue in Aqnil.,"
.. TI.. tHcing hu< ' " tbs. of Annu jO'-6 lnd HygInus ....
.. ManiIlos (AmoMmk. 1, 6oJ-17) Wo trt<:cs the col""" bu< ...... Jkdo =-
rupoadc_ '" Moniooui tr1cinQ:,
 ASTROIi'OMY ,',
OIld upright $lem, IIIld = 10 rhe eighlh deg= of Cmcer." (8)])
The cwo circles hove b=dt:h. The wdlac is • belt ,,"
wide." LongirudinaUy ir" dividtd mIO cwdve "gmcnts (signs), t<lch
JO" in mento Of tite plmots!he.run (mI) ,. tite only (rol..,) body ro
be borne in a coursc: along me middle line (edipdc) of trus belt."
Twdve very conspicuous coostellatiOll.'l Jie within rhe zodiaco The
other circle, che Milky Way, is apprehensibJc by rhe eye 15
weUa. by the reuon. 1.. brw:lm in ""ny place< diminishes below tite
noma! .... idth, bur litis 1= ,. compcnsartd by rbe grear exp'"'" m
lhe stretch between Ca.WopeLa and the mng oí Scorpio." The Iast
cirde. rhe horízon, connor be tractd through che constclladons, be-
COl1'lC ir always changco with me rotation of the celestial sphere."
(8H-)6)
Apparently fuU oí pride ae her 2ccomplishmeut of dnwing rhe
celestial circl.:s, Astronomy now underukes rO fUI: the locadon oí me
five celestiol pa ... UeIs. Her bornhast makes rhe matter-simple 15 ir is
when treated by other handhook . urnors--o.lmost
dista"".
N_ it jo .pproptUt< '" expWn .. Ita< inteNol oí
mItttd benoeen !he ceI...w circleo by ..,..,....
"..,Ii _",,,.Jo _.m j"., ....;:).
(quid_,,;$ . .
ot sptee bu booa od-

Bo;. " tite orctic cirde, whi<b 1 bn. cut

1

m.
bock in <igItt '1" ..... ..,.¡ JUIIIIDU ttopic, there ¡, .. _ diffotenee in """"
.. betweon i ..,d 6. Sinill.,. ioterjlOCCll[ orcu ore C<If>Ilolned in liInibt 0Jl0C<0 fkkm
immterw ,pmi/< ¡W1buJ _ J ; tbuo it /dJ.,.... dut out lid¡ jo lu¡er ""'"
tite _ by _ aod. tbW tima. ADoIhet d;....... , be<w<ooa the
_ ttOpOc ",d tbo O'J.,,"tot. jo _ 1 [ . . m", m. bek obove it .. "' tbe mo
<>f + to Ó. The irIt<rnk of circloo ore "'.....d in m. ",.d>c...,. h<mispbore ltl/I.
What ¡he is trying ro soy is rhot if • m.ridian circlc is cut inro 71
iruervsls...or a hslf circle, fmm north pole ro 50mh pole, into ¡6-the
arctic circle ¡" locate<! 8 inrervals fmm the pole, the Tropic of Cancer
.. Agoh> tbore", Ilul. <:<>t,espotIdeac:o to thc <nclng oí , . 6''')0-
.. Tbe occepn:d modero flguu k ,6' ,
.. In pite;..., ",¡ o.nd ,4/w wg<1Itor, Mortianuo ;, umming OD etymOIo¡icoJ
cont>Oetion. Vorro ID< ¡;"p /4om. j, li8) aod Ci<loro ID< ......... <1_ l. 6i)
derive wJ /rom sol",; aod /0< 0Iber d ·al portIlcIo te< the ""'" In thc re ...
«Iitioo ol acero', WOitL
.. Geminu <,. 69J "Y' .... , k W'OI beco"· of thc YUiotIou In buodtb .....
",*"y utfO>IOlfIe/'O do """ iDclud. tbil circlo ot> their celootW globes.
.. Gem.in... O' 6J), ¡., remukio¡ upon thlo difftcUhy, _ . a tbat thc botI>4a
can be "'1'" .. ,.,.¡ by thc cond ",hio:h "'1'1"'"" • JIobe.
,8, THl': QUADR I VIUM
oS interVaJs bclow that, 2nd the cquator i inttrvals bdow the rropic,
wilh corrcsponding int«vals IIII.rking tbe Iocation uf tbe wrrc:sponding
parillels in che southem Ilemisphen."
Ir oow time for AstrOtlomy ro ca!llJoguc of the con-
stellations. Th= famili", in addition to muldng the location
QÍ tIle cde:;tW cin:lcs, serve as reí.unce point:s fOI ubsaving plane-
tary motions. According to cusrom, Marcianu. divides me constdL>_
tions ¡neo the zodiacal con.ru:llatioll5 and those Iying to me non" or
$Outh of me zodiaco H. does uot se. fit ro Iist the sigo< uf the zodiac
--me.e Ire too ",en
Imown ro need enumention-but he don say mat
altllough mere are twdvc tqU41 zodiacal divisions, OI sigm, tbere are
only eleven zodiac:tI constelbtioru. Scorpio occupies ir. own space
witl! ¡", body ""d the opace of Libra with jo. claws. The sign mat
the Rornans can "Libr:a" (!.he Bahncc) Greek wmers refer ro lIS ''the
Oaws". (839) (Aitrooomy's IISt .a,ccment H Jargdy bUI not Ilcogethtr
(:()r=")
¡\.brtianus Cflunts '9 consttlbtions nonh of the zodigc: Ursa MajO!',
Ur.. Minor, DuC<), BoOtes, Corona Ariadnes, Hercule., Lyu, Cygnus,
Cepb • ..., C=io¡>W, Perscus, Triangulum, Aurig2. Androrncda, Pcgo.-
NS, Serpentarius, Ddphinus, Aquila, 2nd Sogita. The .. are che con-

.. A m'It, wlddy odopted..,heme, "'. "" . ... d by I'J_, ..... ... igned 60
inurnls ro u.. <n<ridWI, or JO to • hill circle. TIto ....., ..... di.ided .. foil"",,;
6 intetnl> from tbe poi. ro!he....:tic cirde; S ..........1< ro tbe....- trOpio; 4
......... ro <h. oq.. roq ond COltdpoOOiDg imunIo fo< tbe circl .. In _""
hemiophore. .. j . 4S-..6, Theoa (ed. '0
PI'- ,,, ••¡; 5<nbo j . 7'
AclIilI .. Toci .. ¡¡"O,. in .4... _ J • • 6; MIUlil... J. f<S6-6o>' ; Mocrobi.. c.",..
_ftT, l. 6. .-<1.
"n.o Gree' wri..,... .oow • morltod pmOUD<e lo< tbe JWT\e eb.u; ¡!he
0..... ). Af>ttI> .... thio neme tht<:>ughou<. .., dooo Hipporch .... witto tIIe =op-
cioo of """ rú",.,... U.. Ar<1tl" Ewdozl Pb ............ '"'hU'" ,oriI lo l. j) ro
SJ'!O, ¡!he Prok:my """ (hnJ. bnt lo also fotand uing (Tm __
¡,;¡,Jo'.¡.4). Geminn< (,. t) ...... Serrius, in • CO[TUnm[ <ypi<oI of •
"k#ne.r' Lotin compilu, purpon> ro trO<:e (..J G <orvC4 l . n) "'" disereponcy
in'Y"""'" ro tb. o<;g¡.oI 0IItIt0riria0. Ho _ ro !he tbt sys=o
of. rwelve sigm, ro <he 0l0I<10.,.. thu of. e1e_ According ro s.rn", !he ChaI_
deo", toolo Soorpi<> ond Libra ro be """ Iign. 00< _king equlity of . - . . lo.
o.lI !he . . bnt haviog reprd iot tho Iodmdual ronps of. "'" siga<. voryinj:
fmm '0' ro +'1' in ClItc"t, ",hile tite Ji.&ypti>.. ptefern:d ro """Mer .u .. belng
JO' Ia .. te;tt.
 "STROSOMY

stellatiOl\$ rc<:<>gnized by Auros, che clossic authority in chis field. '"

Hyginus' lis, (Anronomi" . l. 1) is .mubr ro Marti:rnus' ami the ordcr
i:s almost the samc." Morcian... disapproves of che practicc of counring
2.Sterisrns, tilOSO groups of stars 1 small aninuls or objects
held or supported by che constitutiog the major constellations.
Sueh sta/" c1uscen as Capt"ll Gollt), which rcst!l upon Awiga (che
o,.rinceer), ,md Hoedi (me Kids), which he holds in his mn, or
Serpens, ",hieh Setptntuius grasps, 01 Panthcra, which Centauros
carríes, ought ro be considered as )l<lrts of che more promi.ncnt con-
stdJations." H ow.ver, consisttlley is not. virtue of Marcianus: ha,·jng
stated earUer t1ut l5 eon¡;telbtions lie north or south of the wdW:,
he now lisn 14 souchern constelbtions, giving s tot:I.l of H. Bis
cm consttlbtions are Hydra, iliter, Corvos, Procyon, Orion, Canis
M'jor, Lepus. Eridanus, Ceros, CentalU"US, Argo, Piscis Australis.
Caelulum, and Ar:l. He .dds t1ut Aqm, which flowo: from the cup of
Aquuius, ami Canopus,.1so ... noo ProlCtnl.eus, are more appropmtely
considered .. puts of che eonstelbtions Aqulriuo aod Endonu"- Bur
these two, ooe of thom a single St:ll", mllSt be eounted as con.«ellations
ro give • COrrtCt rocal." (8)8)
Marrianus' elIpressed ineent of excluding ucerisms from his lis! of

" n.. ..... "'" compored in ;" '"',......... ,.¡;q,,;ot, .d. E.

M ..... PI'- ""'¡¡¡=h: .
.. Uniformitr in "'" .,..,ion, lilu of """""Iluk>....... JI« '" bo upect<d. Tbo
ct.tsIogu<s of """" .... ,;"'ro, Vitruvin< (Do .,.cm,,,,,,... ....s), ...., .. ronf.wog
,he .... der.-equ.ir<o o eh ..... JUCh .. originally accomponied '"
nndusbnd ;r. (kmi""" (J.8) ..,.",.. " POrthUtt =-u.no ..... odding w dIO
uo.dirio¡W Iist s., P<" ldd In th< htnd of S<.pentHi<a. C>mo. Bu,nicrs, ..,d
Eqrnd< ... di< 1... on ,be aurho'ity of Hippucb.... Ptolemy (iIJm.gm 7. sl, tlso
followillg Hipporchus, ""'""" u, omining Comt. &roniees .. "" "unrorm<d"
....M=. GrminllS (j.,,) iocllld<s!be Col"" 000 Htedi ,,",pported by

..at.t.",.. TIlo ><ticl. "CoMlclJ""",' in tloo .¡".,_

•• It\OJIg m. corupicllOlU ........... Ugm whlch h. odds w bis Ji« oC 0011_
tJicio.> of ,h. ¡;"",rlo-
p.uJio B,¡,nmk. presrnn o <kt.ikd hÍOWt;.,.¡ >cooun, of <owopos of di<
con.wboon>.
.. Aruuo lisa " ..",rh<rD c<HI ..... lI. riom. <»IIin:iDf: Coelutom ""d Prooyon on
MMtWmi lis<. PtoIemy liJO 'j, omitring Coeluturn""" odding L"f"'I ond Corona
"' usrrolis, no< u-d by .\hrti.., ... GcmímIJt h" ,s, iocludinz 4 _ r""nd In
Moni",," &t: "'qu, Corona "'usualk, Lup<», 000 "I1tynD.I-U""'" Itb,...,.,..
¡."S,bol) In <he lwtd of Ceo .........
'" TitE QUADRIVlllM

=llatio,," is in keeping wim bis original avawal ro be brief in

me disciplines. Thus he ilio choosu ro omi! me nut tapie
ol writcn on tstrollOlDy-the aseignmeot oí the conmUatioru ot parts
of constellatiom 00 the fiv. z.ones of ¡he .ky-beause he col16idm me
subject too c:omptieattd. Forthtm1ore,!le observes, ¡he funbs of several
of the rnythological figuus in me sky are motilattd by ¡he celestill
cireles. The kit hand nf BotI«s, for e:wnpk. is assigned ro ¡he uctic
zanc, while me rest oí his body is in che north {empente zone. Such

,.."
details ore disagreeable ond dcpr ing and are bcttu!efe in obscurity.

f[" fcigned squcamishness .bout mutilated figures dUappears in rhe

ne:D: as h. ukes up me subjecf oí ",/tich constdlotiOR< or pores
oí constellations are r¡"¡ng al ..tting as cach of che twdve sigru oí
tIIe zodi1e is rising. This precise information carne clown ro Mal'titnus'
rime in • Greoo-Roman tradirion, with Iittle change, from Anrus'
(c. -H p,c.), popular poem 00 the which wu
dcsigned to help rcaders understand utro\lomical .UlISÍons in poctry.··
AJthoogh ¡. contained no mathematics and ovoide<! technicalitics. tbe
poem poed lor its aumor a Itpuution as • great authority, evtn in
G reccc;" and in me Latin world Anl;\lS wu as wdl Irnown ro pupils
in astronorny as Euctid W2S in gwmetry." Martwms retains ncarly

.. n.o o:oacopo<!<len<a benvun J'H"'ge< in ArtNs (s69-7p) ..,d M....wnu

"" ... in ontten of dea.iL ore cl"",.
" Th. only .....iring _k 01 "ipp",,:hus, !be grurut of rhe Greek lI<tOn-
"""'" iI his "" !be "'.., ........ "Id it ...,. boro fw An..... «pa.•
... ion, w< W<lIlld hove no .......k oí il lppuclNo., .n.
St. Pul', qUO<2Uon fmm
iDYOCOrion in Acto '7:>8;' fureher evid= oí MoM «pure .
.. F_ Laón vusioos of!be I'b....... " ............ive in part, rbat of Cicen> (610
lin<s), of Germ.nic .. c...... (8J7 llnoo) . of Am"",," (, ..,8 U- of
ood of Vuro of A,. . (<rnIy "" ..... f...,.,...,,. p««tV<d by Sozrius in hU COJDo
"'<I"'ry 00 Ve7JiI', a_ried. Thore ou olso four ....... in
G«ek, by BiPP*'c,,",,"- GenWu.o, },chm.., I.Od u onlÍUs. TIlo "..".. of """"'Y'
>eftIl commtnCUO" .... known. Aunu hoJ o 0Ir0lI/I Iofloenu 0p"" Lncreriu<
""d vor¡a, tnd O ,id 04-", l. 'J. ,6) prtAicw! rbat h.is f ..... W<lOld 1.....
long .. tbe "'" ."d !be mooa. Oa !be popuJ.ori<y of ..."...,.. in Greek tnd Roman
oohooIo ... Muroo, Hm.'1 ., EJ",.,¡q", pp. ,as, ,8,_ iJ+ Oa tilo .... Ibodo of
<=Wng utronomy, OD !be.\IIhon....,¡ in !be ocbooIs, ..,.¡ "" rho pron:IÍ>It>IC<
of ................ oulhoriry ... H ... WoinhoJd, Di< A,..",.."..¡" d .. -;m
S,buI.,
 ASTROSOMY .8S
aU me observational datJ of Ar:Im¡. Thosc pertaining ro the rising ot
01«' sign will ¡;uffi"" os on cumple of !:he dar,: for In !;\lId..e:
w¡,.., LIbu ÍI <he pattiono el Ptguus .<><1 CyJmIs. tbo hoM el
luldromod .. <he mOlllden of Cephtus, CmJs, ond die ......,ders 111 tII. ri .... fu
<bmts .... oetcinlJ. Al ,he ..,... timo tul! el 0 -.... <he right loo< el lIucul ...
Ik><it<o, 011 of Hydro =opt <he ond el tbo t>iI, tnd tho oq';"" pon el Ce ..........
.... rising liI4,l.
ne last set of obse..."rions, rel<tting ro Gemim's rising. wu rejected
by De:nys Ptuu OS 011 inept gloso; .."d Dick omits it from the ten of
rus edition," ir in fuU in Ar.rus' ten.
The sectiou that follo".. (844-45) comains 50ITIC "'ry interesting
asrronomic;>l data, a sc:h.me of lising times mae is qwec rare in IJlcienc
.,tronomic.lliterature. Surprisjngly for M31"1:4nUI, th. lising times are
correct for the latitude implkd hy o statement h. m.kes in the fonow-
ing =tion (846) : that th. long'" doy has ri hours, 'o of
daylight; .ud the .hom,r nighe. 9 hour.;, 50 minutes, of darkness..
Th..., obMrvarlons hold vu. for. latitud. north of Alcnodria (' 4
houl"$) ood "'uth of Rhodes ('4'" hours); !:hey do OOt rdu tO &by-
Ion, whose longese.uy was always reckoned u ' 4 hours, '4 minute,."
MartUnus chen explains wlty differen, amounl>; of time are required
for the ri<ing and setting uf zodiacal sign..

.. Seo po 44io oppontns. a. Amuo 7' .... )' •

.. I _ ind<Wd to Otto N..geboOtt lo< poizniOS .ru. out ", me. A. r"..
Prof<ooo' Neogebo= rhough. _ M.rDsmu rnlght )u'e =npotcd tito rIoing
timos hims<11 0< tII .. he ,d..i<d upon. "'" of oomo Nonio. Al ......
utro<>omu. Bu, <he role el.." ob<erv<. O!" inve¡cigoror ¡., tbo 01 OCCD_
r.ICy would be fo< Muti&noo. b .. DO incri,...,. lo< oc.:urocy or
consi>uncy. """ be """" have ,.,...., die ohQ lrom "'IDO handboolo; tnditioo.
Eloewh ... lit '1 ..... diocrtpu<' rogures (') truI ,,,/,) f,,, tbo ha"" of doyligh, ..
Memi "' tIte 1Umzr><t lOIstict, ud he giv .. <he ..,... """,be< el boon of doyligb'
loe Sy.". ud Alaorulria, dIoo¡b tII= i< <CtItlIIy • 01 Iulf on bour.
;'II<u¡cIuu<r now lhiok:s du. DO -..."""'" _ mTOlved ""'"
1!Id tlut the O!"iJlootor oí tl!is och ..... ob .. lned die rWnt: rimes by oridwetic<l
imerpol.oon. H. ch.....,teth.eo <he ...,heme ... bo<cbed-up Sy=m B ud W"''''''
me dial: the only odia .nmpl< of rhio .. heme el risinr tim<o bowo to him io
lowtd 111 c.tJop' Codkum Amolo;",.,." a..u-.., Vol. XII (1Inusili. 'Q¡dJ,
PI'- ")-'90 On Sy=m B xc Neugebo\l<r, PI'- ,¡8+>, LtomrdI"l <Odie!"
1z9S91. p• ..s,) poiDII "'" lbo. this I"'"'ag< tIM-4¡) wu """ el twO
VIII du.t ... ,,.. ">«<p<td 111 lif_""""""""Y <Odi_
f,,,,,, IIook
,86 TIfE QUA DI!.IVIUM
c.on.tlationt thu rio! tnmnndy .nd lCt outicolly b... rIrifur ritIngs thaa
omiDgs; C<HI .......ly. _ thu riso ,u,,;...Ur ond te< ' ....... .....,Iy sIower
riaingo lban sea;;ngs." 00",.,., ..... vorócdly ond seo ...n inclin><ioc>, ......
IhougIIIf t...""'r • sIigII< in Coprioorn. QoIV'<'< n... in "/u ha .........
... in ,"1" ha .... H= .... is mio;""! Leo ,;.." in .'1> houa ood ....
in .'1. bonrs. V""!" rioes in ,'l. h""", 0Dd .... iD "lo hours. Tbc ...... hol ... loo:
Libn. But Seorpio', ri8ng timo is loso Ith&n Vir¡o',l ood IDo duration oí ito_
tUog ¡, _tu; it riooI iD .'1. """"'" ond .... iD ,'l.
bonrs. So¡ittotiut rioes in .'1..
J\oDn ond .... in , UI. """" Ii+ll.

T his is (ollowed by me mmg and semng times of me signs mal rise

m,11SItersely .nd set TheK anomIIlies he u.ys, u pWn me
ioo¡uaJicies in the dunnon of dayJ llOd nighl¡. As th. sun move5 UttQ
Ihe signs chal risc sIowly, the day' grow long"; w!ten il enters me
.igns tlulr ri.<e quickly, che nigltt$ become Jongel.
Manianus notes chal rus re:aders ""'y w onder huw da)'" and nigbts
can nry in duntion wben aU zodiacal signs enend ove/' an eqoal
amoUBt oí space and whom, al all times, day aud night., mere are sU:
signs aboye che horizon. There is no ""cd fOI wonderrnent, he as:rurcs
USo T ite obseNatioos are canea, and the equali¡y nf <neot of me
zodlaCIIJ signs j, proved by measurementl requiring the use of ,,",oy
clepsydm." Akhough the signs consume Vll)'ing ttnOIlJltS of time
in thcir risings and setcings. the sum ;$ alwoys the same jf the lising
and the mcing of each of d>e signs _re added togerher." (146-47)
Alter rne.e reassurantts Martianuo is ready ro tackle anorher, more
perplering problem, _nd he speaks os if he WHe che fil"$t ro find •
solucion.- Once _g_in, if che signs occupy equd amonnt< of .pace
ond the sun moves ot • nnifonn velocity, how is ir thit thirry- two
doy. eJapsc during the sun', eourse;n Gentini ond twenty-eighr da)"

.. CI. Gcmimu 7. 'e.... '; a..,,,,,,deo ,. 6. J ,.

.. Macrob¡'" (Co,w."" ..., , . ... ,,..,) ¡" d-';¡ tite proc<dore of
........ru.g!hecum' 01 <he wdioeol oign> by n<ing cltp<ydn<. In Geminus (l. 4l

...
the di.-iHon 01 <he ."diac into rwdn eqml o<gmrnu wu demollSttsWl with •
dioptn. Monianus Utcr (&lo) me<Jtiom me "'" of clepsydros '" "'""""" phnetsry

" Geminuo 11. 9"") ulsoo tilo..",. <¡umloo I1Id obo polms to tite b.l ...."'s
01 "'" po;'" He """,""¡y ouribuus <h. diffetetlOO '" do. obIiqnl<y of <he eelipti< .
.. "TbiJ lo of me Lotio o::ompil<rs. O. Mocrobiu<' b.-.g¡r>n tone
_ be pt<t< ..... to uf.... Er_.oo Pooidonius (Co",,,,._, ,. ,o. '0)
'M Arinodc (ilñd. l. Ij_'6).
 ASTII.ONOM ...
in Sagitwius, ",itlt a varying duntioo of days in the othu signs? Here
h.is explanation is better, thouglt h.is boudul Imusing, if OOt
'"
ludierous. Up tiII now tU roen supposed, tho eanh bcing ot the
ceour oi the unlverse md the celestial spltere, tIlar it is ,Iso at the
cenrer of the 5110', oroit. This is obviously not trUe. T he earth is Mt
.r the center of the mn's orbit, bm is ecceomc ro it." Tite obli<¡ui'Y
of the ediptic causes ¡he sun, wlUch mOVeS along it, ro he depr=ed
0< elevat<od io altemation. depending upon lIS juxupositioo witl¡ tite
signs. Cancer 20d are elevated in the ... reg;ons of the
¡ky, aod &gittarius aod Capricom are depr=ed. QS they verge ,,,,ay.
(148-.w)
Marti.ous oow comes tO the planet:s and their motions; thi.!; mbject
i. umaU)' found Wt in tite handhooks .nd occtIpies h.im for the re--
mtinder of Book VIII. The planets, be tells lI.5, := seven in oumber.
ne)' requin specia1 attentioo broluse. whereas all huvenly bodj""
are .wept .long with the diunul roto.tion of die celestial sphote, tite
planea have jq .ddicion ti ..... owo motioo in a rev ..... direcciono 'ni.
suo aud the mOOo have been giv.n coundess names by the 11ICes of
mankind. TIte otbcr five planets are I<nown by their rnymol<>gical
names and by me descriptive Mmes giveo ro tltero by the Greeks:
&tum, the (Ph«...,.",); Jupiter. the "B1=:r" (PhJtrhon);
Mus, tbe "Fiery" one (Py,otis); VCDUS. the "Light-bringer" (POOI-
pborO/); md Mercury. me "Twiokler-" {StiJb(J7l) ." TItese planets re-
quin varying amounr.. of time ro nt2ke up tite disnoce tltat they are
carded I»ockward in a single diurnal roanon of rhe sky: the moon a
month; the 5110 • year; So. .... m, the out<oooO$t, thitty yeus; aod the
ino:ervening planee;; periods of rime proportioml ro tite distan= they
traverse in thbr omits. (85 '-51) AlIse""n planets are observe<! moving

" Gtrnimls (r. ¡ron) .nd T)ooon (od. AiUer. 1'1' "'-57) g/... tht ....,. OJI_
plmarion fo. me tnOtNIy.
" Moct"¡'im (Ca'''.'''' ......, '.6. ,,) ".d Ooo<no<ko Iz. j. ,, ¡) 'p"'k of m.
......<"ptr" a.c."", of ...... o iD GemiDi.
" TI>< de«rlptl ... n ....... orlJinm:d by m. G",.k " 'r<><><><n<n. <lid _ JO;"
I"'puIarity ... K\jboo,l<y. Puoohly. ond !mi (p. ')1) <>11_ The R.on»no dld
1100 '"""'pI: ro rn.ru.I.o .. tñe<t """'''. Oeero (fk ... ",.. ¡Jeorom l . ¡I_!)) . like
M"";"'", . ..... th< Gre<k fo.",,; lo< od>er oo;e1UI"<1I<" in cl..u.:.d litnotu,.. ...
m. 00"" in ,h. E'ao. «litio ... [L 5).-¡6.
,88 TIfE QUADRIVIUM

roward ,he =tem horizon, yet their reuogressions aU nol directly

coumer ro che direction of Ih. diunu.l Nuñon of ,!te cdestiol 'pbere.
"Iñis;5 (ort\UUft: ior lIS, (or thc uruvcrse could no! endure a conttary
mQtion of;es para. (Bp"H)
Ir is me PeriparetiC$, according ro Martian.... who nfuse to believ.
;n a countermotion of che planets; thcy believe tila! me planrn are
merdy outdiswlced. sorne g=tly, sorne ==Iy, by che swifdy
moving ceJesru.1 sph=. Th.y are mistaken, howevu, and Mattitnus
wiU refute tbem. Ir is nol a of swifmess or slowness Or of
motions over gUO! or ..,.U distanCtS. Thc motions of thc planets m\lSt
be considere.:! individuaUy; chey will then be = lo b. indcl"'ndcnt.
Tbey al! differ in tbe times .00 circnmstllnces Di their periods. Five
of thc: piaRen apen.nCt .tario"" and totrognd.tio .... bu, Ih. SUR and
,he moon are propelled in a ste;¡dy Cl)\lrse." Thcsc two IUrnill0U5
bodies eclipse ....cl\ orher in tum; che other five are never edpsed."
Tite thn:c superior plantts, along wilh me SUII and che moon, ha".
their oroi", about ch. eutb; Vcorn; and Mercury.llowever. go 200m
che sun. AU i!CVcn plaoets m.k< doily eh.oges io their posirio,," .nd
oro,ts; no piona rises from ,he SóU1l" position from which it rose on
me ptevious <by. The earth is =rric ro rhe orbits of all the pl1nets.
(Sn-55)
The sun, in movillg from me summer rropie to rhe winru tropic,
describes '83 cirdes acro" the uy; in moving back ro the summer
tropic ir courses ovor rhe sarue cird... Mars, morrover, describes twice
a. lI\3JIy. Jupircr twe!ve tim.. as many, Saturo twenty-eight times
as 1112ny, circ1es as the sun. 11lese cirdes are referred lo ,." paeaUeb....
lIere follQWS Martianus' unquivocol statemenr .bom the h:liooenmc

.. (n. ,?"-,,) ottrib .... "'" "" tbeory ro "muir pIWooopt.< ....""""
uf .... Í< by pointing om th .. !ho fiud ..... """'. in ponJItl .,....... ."d "'"
ptJl<tS. if !hoy ... t. IlJUcly boiog ootdisunecd. wouId ... y in ponlleI
loaeod tbe plU>«J movo obllqutlr """* "'" rodis<, !ho lIlOOD Ir'iof ocfOS& In
emir< .".,.,.w.. "Th< ...non. ""d u""S .. dmom oloomo plm<cl .,.. fllnller prooi
01 ¡rul<pendon, """""'-
.. 1, lo lIltpIisiDg tIut linJ. 0< no 0><I'Iti<m of m. occolrWoo oí pi ...... lo
f<>und ¡" <he populu Iwtdboo\ Iituuute. Aristod. (o.. "eID , . 19'V repon¡ an
<clip'" oí M", by .... tnOOI).
.. ,,¡ ...... <MI there.,.. ,8, oolor porolldo """"4 di. troplco.
 ASTItONOMY .S<¡
moooos of Venus.."d Mercury, for which Copcrnicus expn:ssed grae
adminrlon:<>
Venw."d M.rc""Y. ollhouglt <hoy 1>0« ohiIy rising< and .. ttlngt. do no< ....d
tbout ti\< euth lt oll, n.thor they .I>circle ti\< rnn in wer u.oInti=<. T he
".,..., of <htoit ""bU. ;. lO' in ti\< rDD. M • r«nI. they are """",times .bo ... m.
" " ' ; "",u of.... <bey ..., _ m ir, in • dos« .ppromn.tion ro m. nrth,..
Venus' g""'_ olongstioo [mm"'" rDD ;. <ID< lnd • holf oigm." Wben botb
pW>en. M...e. position abo ... "'" su'" Mer=ry ;' clooor ro <h ........, whe:n dtey
are b<low m. ...... V..,.., ;. d.,..... irwmuclt .. ir ..... 11'10«: "'""1'"
in¡:orbir [1j7 [."
Te il curiQUS that che anclene writers who repore Heradides' theory
of me hdiOCtntric Qrhits of V mus and Mercury gen=Uy "";gn a
f'lXed orde, ro {he planets, Iltbough a r",.d order irreconcilabl. wíth
gcoheliocemric motions. Sometimes they deal ",¡{h both in
succession, and occuionaUy they .."",rk ..oout the problems involved
in reconciling me two theori ... Calcidius attributcs the OIder rnoon,
Mercury, V enus, SUD, ro the Pythagouons¡ and ti«: oroer moon, sun.
Mercury. Venus, ro fu{o,tI«:nt:I. Lacer he cxpound. me H.ncIidcw
theory, ascribing it ro H.nelides by nam"," Vitnlvius gives ti«: ordet
as moon, M=ury, Venus, sun, and immediately thereafter vagudy
describes 1M motiOl1$ of Venus and Mercury as ''wre.med .OOut th.
ray' of tbe SUD, tl«:ir ceneer, as it were, memselves rnaking starions
and retrogracb.tiOl1s,· ... Macrobius discourses [eamedly and a{ length
.. Se< o. 'l abo ...
.. Mucury lnd Ven.. are hoIf of di< timo.boYe, bolf 01 m. timo bdow, tbc
rDD. On tbe _ >id. of "'" su", ...... plmeos ve """'" """ mi>
'ppeon ro 1>0 "'. <:tu>< of Mutioouo' con:fusioll. M.....",.. (C'''.''M ....Y ,. '9-1)
urnub "" <hio ncy ph.,.",...,.,...
n o. 45' . Loter (SS,) be ")'5 46'. Tbt teXt i> eotnlJ'f he<e. ond th= otI.y
ho ... b«ft. !OC..,. "'. oerib4J en"O<. 1, 11 unlib:ly <1>0< M"";..",. W<lIlId hove
...... gnihy of 00 Jfú"S'" error u ro .,..;g.. • INri"""" <loopcioo of 4( ro

tim ..gi_.
Mercury .. woll .. ro V""Ill," Dick'. tur (4jl . 'o,) uods. lo xctioD 180 M....
_<inrom oloof"'ÍO!l of ,, ' ro Met<:UI)'•
.. 00 Mortim..' and <>ther r<ponero.' .' '" """''' obom <bio th<ruy, ...hlch wu
attributed in oatiquiry ro Horodidts o/ Pomos, ... Hesth. An_."",. pp. 'J$-
Oi- Pitrn: OUbem mI, +1_'62) ..,. oh< iool""'"nce of _ in Imoping
btliocenoic ..;..,... .u... In m. MNIdlo ",.. and '""" the _ of d>o rbtol)' in
!he mediovd periodo
.. Calcidius 1'"7l, "'"
.. DI ."In..""". Q. ,. , ....
'9' THE QUAD!l.IVIUM
me two ordo:n. He caOs che ORC pladng !he sun second m..
omor, me omer he alls thc oedor; and he
uplains thc re2$OJl fOI thc division oí opinion. H. then goes on ro
gi". on cvcn nguer ""'temenr than Vitturi... abont the circl.. of
Venus Ind Mercnry about tIIe ""n.... Thcon of Smyma discnsscs rival
views which place Mercury and Venus abo".
OI below me 8Ull,
ehanging tIIe positions oi Mercury and Venus with respect ro each
other, and )ata prtsenn two epicyclic I)"tetnl ro expWn thc motiQRS
oi Mercury .nd Venus, che sec<lnd bcing Iike thot .ruibute<l ro
by Catcidius." E,= Ptolemy d..1s with che rival theones
regarding their positiOll'l and che causes oi m.
confusion, at me open-
ing of Book IX oí hi5 Almlgtlt. Ptolemy the older
mar plaecd them hoth benc.th me SUD ot aU times. Modero ItistoriAns
oí Qttonorny have elCpressed IIIrprise rhat Ptolemy did oot see thJ.t
thc rival theorles oould be reconciled by abandoning his SCpaNt:e epi-
cycles for Ven ... ""d Mercury ond by nulring [he SUR the cent:er of
both their orbits, .., Hel'3Clidcs did."
W. mould noe be surpristd, then, ro find ¡hato immediately alter
M:utianus Iw described tIIe heUOctntric orbilS of V mus and Mel'<:Ul)'
.. alumately above aud be!ow me sun, he deals with che rival view$
of luthoriries wbo mlintairoed a tued order oi the planees. Martianus,
uolike ¡he others, does not indicau. prcference. (858)
Astronorny now cclls me wedding guests tIlat she is going ca alcu-
late me size of tite arbits of all the pbnets. "on undemking that
utronomcn consider a diffocult one."" Once tgajn Martianus rnninds
us of thc bridesmaid's presence when Ite is ca .lepan: from me
standard flandbook rapia. Asttonomy begins with me premise tIlat the
earth'. clrcwnferwce is .¡o6,OfO sbdia. TIús figure, ,he soys, wtS

" c""........, ,. '9- ]-(\; ". StUt pp. 'ó'-6t-

.. Th-. .d. Hill.., pp. '_J, '_7.
.. Seo J. B. J. Ddombn, Hin.in h r......"""'¡.It1l&im7rt, 11 (l>ario. ,1'71 , ..ss,
ond D«y.... H;'I"" <>f 11m",.""." P- "',.
M Only PtoJemy otl<lnpt<d _ "Out MartitJIuo woold '"" bn.
knoWD ...... So< iknw"d R. GoIdo!ein. -n.. Arabio:
H,pmbtut," T._.m.",
v.....,.,
<>f lb< A-'<... f'bilowpmc.J
of ProI<my'.
s.m.". Vol.
Lvtt. pt. 4 (J<}671, pp- S·u. M.crob. . (C."",u,u",,, 1.1(>, .... ,,1, Jiu Mutional,
depuu ft'Om lundbook ...... rWs lO "pWo m. omo<Íog ""'" by "m.
Egyptilns" '" me dimenJio .. <h. Nn', orl>it ond orl:>.
 ASTROllOMY
'9'
offued by hu 5ÍsI:er Geornetry and has approved by mtos-
tllenes and Archimedes. W c howevel, that euliu Geornetry
C<llrc<:tly lepotted Erarotosthcncs' figure fOl me euth's <:in:umfereno:
as 15>,000 india. Astronomy's starding figure a1erts U$ ro ¡"., wary of
the disclosures to follow."
She continu.., lnfallihlc rcckonings mow mu !he moon'. orhit is
one hundred times greater tllan !he earth'l circumference. TIle O!'bit
is 2150 f(!Und 10 be hundred tiou:s OS large as ¡he moon The
!tUe dimensions are asccrtained hy comparing Ihe me of !he moon
with !he breadth of me .hadow cast on !he carth when the moon lies
directly btneoth the sun during on eclipse." If !he reader is not be-
coming bond, Astronomy will explain haw me ohtllined these figures.
\Vhen on eclipse of me sun oe<:Uf1 over Meroé, !he encite orb is
darkened tltere; bUI in !he latitudc oi Rhados. not br removed. the
obscur:ation is only partial; and in {be latitude oi !he moutb of the
Dnicper tht sun is not obstntcted 1t alL" Sino: me distancc from
Meroe ro Rhodcs haslxcn conectly asccnained, in stadio, Asttonorny
has calcub.ted thar the breodlh of thc shadow cast by the RlOOIl is
onc..eightoentb of!he com'. circumfereao:. (lt should be pointed out
in paso.ing tba{ 1 am "",lcing Astronomy's accouru plaincr fOl moocrn
readers tban Mutianus "",de it for rcodees. His intended
meaning would hove becn intelligihle to mose few readen who were
familiar wich !he procedures de5c:ribed from having read aboue mem
in odI« tumon.) Asnonomy tdds dlat hodie. casting conical shodoW$
are broadcr chan cheir shadows and tbat chus she ha. fro'"
me distan"" Ixtween che latitudes at which the SU!! poutio.lly oh-
scured tbar che moon is mree Iimc$ as largo as i1!l shadow. Conse

.. TI.., ,,",o dilf<t<nt ,¡gur<l fo. die eanb', circumf«coco .... I"'''''P' "'" ""'"'
..,'onishiDg of th< lMIly disc,..ponci<s" IolutionlK' work. t, ""'" knowD who
",ig¡,....,d thc Iarger ligur<. Ari<rotl< (O. <.<10 l. >¡I!Ib) r<po<U .., _ 01
_ stadU. ourront in hU doy, Archimed .. (An ... i14 ,,0[#., ed. J. L Hti-
buS' l!.e¡p>.is, '9,) 1. n. m) suggootO J _ SI"ldI>. .. . eaimn< .
.. In rhis """<IId-he virtuoso ""'Q",,,,I)' lo uruwore dio< obo jo
in oIJecr romp&rio¡ !he """",'. dl:tn>ete. with !he ""¡". drrom/o.....,....... disk
of thc DHlOJl wid>.., m: of d>< ....m'o cim1mf«ellCO .
.. Oeom<des h . J. 9J) las me "'" rooolty oclipsod .. ,he Ilelkspoot too po<-
cloUy rna,1c .. Aluandril..
 '9' TH[ Q UADRIVIUM

quently, sM conclud.., mono ;, one-si.rth '" brOOld 15 me carth.

(859)
Thc angular diameter of che ffiOOn is derermincd by (:{Impuing the
amount of water rllat nms dU'ough a clepsydra during one complete
T01lnion ol tlle celestial mth th. amoum oí wne. that ru",
through while tite: cdcstiaI are occupied by the orb of the moon rises
above die horizon." TM mooo's orll ;. found ro occupy ,,_.. uf
che complete circuir of che beavens. If the moon'. &ngU1ar diomo:ta is
'/toO of the circumfmmce of!he heavens, and che carth is oS clme$ 15
Iargt '" me moon, me mootú orbir wiU be roo tUne.. as hrge as che
eanh. From this point it q a simple mauu ro measute the oruts of
che amee plancts. Assuming that the planelS travel It a unifonn speed.
che SUD' , orbit is 11 times al Iarge as me rnoon's. Mar$' orbit iII titen
14 time&, Jupitcr'l '44 times, and Suum'. JJ6 rimes, as largo as tIle
moon's owt. Talring che mooo', orbit ro be 100 times greater tlum
the earth'. circumference, Saturn', orbit is !:hen Jj,óoo times gnattr
than me cin:umfomnce of tho emh. (&60-6,)
Mutianus, retUl'Iñng ro CQtlvcntional handbook topies. now takes
up tlle orbilS .ud behavior of eadl of me planm stparately and in
order, beginnlng with tite moon. Thc cycle oí lunar pIwes Jasts I
m011lh, but the moon is aiwJY' fully illuminated on che sido facing
the 5IlII.. 00 che thirticth day of iu cyclc ir uve:als none of iQ¡ Iight ro
ir is betWeen B5 tnd me SWl, tnd me illllmilUtW half faces me son.
Thc reuon for me changing phasc' is (hu the moon's COlll'St is lO ODC
.. Tbert ... .,..., .....,.., oí .... proced ... In <he INm"""¡pu. P=u rejooted
tito looJer nnio.., whicb _ _ <he bu.lk of oection 8óo In ..vemI edidons,
.. . si- d.. WH;" . .' , >:e ftom MoaobNs C,,,, "",.,. 1, >1, "_>1, A", .. lJy
tito at- /o •

' " m ,m. tito .ppu= diw-. ol tito

gi_. .<t,,,
quoutioa [fOIl) RcmigiIIs'
Lua, n. m), a.o-deo (>" , 7S)
011 thit 1 8< {ed.
brid 0000IU>f oi dolo procedun .. -....I
be "",,00... tito onubod to tbe
E'¡yp<WIo. .. doeo
.. Thio 0100 ..... ro OH fd!!IUlu d i e .... ol )6', ............. po"'" tbo!I ddxr
<he ocnolll figuo< or _ udooo.><i"....,
.......-..J ....... *PJ>U'<Dt _ JI' 1'1'
OóoH!edto' lJe>- ,t' ...
fogu... )<1'
PIdemy', ...... JJ' ,''''
HC2tb (Aftnld...., p. J',.l, cirio¡ T0"""'Y" opitolon, chlnb thot do-
,;«<1 bit fisure 100m V..... ond _ ir ....¡. , d;"'. period befan Hippoldnot.
 ASTRONOMY '9l
side of ... and we glimpse Ihe illuminaled portion 10 an incrtasing de-
gree as me mOGo mo,·es away from th. suo. Ar a position opposite
th.,¡un, rhe mOGo 'ppcars fuUy iUuminared ro USo Mmimus gives the
Greek renos for the pllases: fint appesnnce, menotides
shaped]; OC 90' eastwafd elongation, dicooromos [halfl; at 'H',
ampbikuttor [gibboush "od at ,So", [fuU moon] . The
same twnes are lpplied in inverse order as the mooo dimini>h"" in size
on ir. returo cour.;c)' In '4 houn; the JUOOO coutses through , 3' of
ir. orhit. During thc S;""" inrervul the othcr pbncts coUr.. t/rrongh
the following porcions of their orbits: Mar!! '/!' ; J upites '/,,11"; 20d
Sarum '/, • . (861-6.¡)
TIte mooo complet"" a circuir of tite zodiae in '7"13 day!" hot
quircs '9'/. day'" ro ovemkc lbe mil, thc rC<1S00 I.>eing that while
the mOGO i. complecing its orbit me suo has moved inro tIIe Oellt sign,
.od .<>merimes in,<> an<>ther sigo beyood. F<>r .:xample, if the mooo
begim 1 cyck io ,he \asr degre<: of Libn, Scorpio, <>r SogitwiU$, it
d".. nol <>vertak. thc suo 'Vin in tIIe sigo immediarely f<>lIowiog,
bur in ,he one airer rh;tt. But becau.e che mn curies thirty or more
dlys in diamerriC<tlly opposire sigos, and lbe mOGo mem.k.. the !\\lO
in '9'/. dayi, me moon will sometimes have conjunction wich lbe
""" Iwice in che SlIIIe sigo. The mono reaches lbe fuU phase 00 the
foU/ttenth, the fifteenth, or, more frequendy, Ihe si1te<:oth day" of
irs cyde¡ bUl when a gttat<::r oumber of days eLopse io Ihe wuing,
there wiU be fe.ver in ¡be wming,:so th.tt lhe sum of day' in a c)"cle
isalwaya lhe same. The period of a lunar yelr is 3$'1 daya (tweln coo-
jnnctions with tite suo); a sobr yea:.. aceed, a lunar y= by JI d.ya,
rhe differeoce being made up by intcrcalaclons. (865-66)
Thtre are [1 ' of btirude in the belt of tilo rodi:lc, l$ pointed out
abono Two planea have deviations rhrongh .11 ,,' , one through as
Utde as 3' , "nd me >un deviacc, fmm the ccliptic ooly in Lihn, where
ir is ddlccted ro the north of soum." Qne of m e p!anets wich

" Cf. Gtminuo 9- "-11, Mocrobiul. CM'''''''...,. ,.6. jj.

" A. sldeulll puOld.
" A srnodic p<riod.
.. Geminus (9. IV Jiveo die eorH... dar .. ,he chirrmuh, che '-'" os d><
"'=J>Ch.
" Compilen of p<>pulu IIIOODÜ< comin=l ro perp<ru'" ,his ..-.ot, oIthoosh
'94 THE QUADl\lV l lIM
muimum deviation .. thc moon, wbieh ro.nges 6' above or below tite
ccliptic. In ¡es asttnt and deseenc =
thc line of me ecliptic, it cucs
the ecliptic &1. vuying angles. Thc moon cannot retum ro me .. me pooi.
tion with mpett ro me $lln-th2t is, ... tite sarne position in che .. me
degre. oi bUnlde-until 'H months (ninetecn years) tuve eLopsed."
Fifty-6ve yean <IR requmd f<:lr the moOP ro mum ro thc sarne
place 011 the same day (Jf che year, in conjunction with thc ..me fixcd
SW'Si ,00 a of" "grest ycu" is required for tU pJanet. ro r«um
to thelr idcntical positiollS with respect ro thc fixed IIWS,'" When the
mOOn Cl"05!ICS lile ccJipric in " nonherly direcáon, it .. said ro b. in
axending clcvatioo; when =ming ro thc ccliptic fmm !:he north, in
dcscending tlCVlItiOO; when moving in a soudIcdy dircction from thc
ccijptic, in descmding <kdinuion¡ ond when returning ro tite ccliptic
from the wuth, in a$CCt1ding declination. (867-69)
Thos<: lS«IlCS ond d=n15 C<lntrol me eclipses of the sun and die
m<>On. Ji the ascending or descending moon Cto os thc ecliptic 00 me
trurtieth day oi ir. cyde, ir lics directly heneath the SUD with it:s entit"
body and Cluses an cclipee ni !he sun. TIUs .:loes not happen ev«y
month, b«:.>use die moon is usuolly above or bclow me «:lipcic 00

Hipporcll ... Itod de"""""",ed dio, "'" ••In does """ ve..- from <he eclipóc. TI><
orto....,." oboetvllÓOn hu beco attributed to E"donto of QúdQ bu< m.y bn.
origin>t<d «rl"'. O .. <he tttOf ..,d ;., ",ido """""....,. in OMiquil:y oo. He>th.
Arist",ebw, pp. '9S-'"", O«y.... Hinor¡ of Anr0nmn" pp. 'H""9j'. To ".. "'"
darom ... videnc. tb... O.....itu'. utrot>01fO)' "'.. pre-Hipparch"" lo ""worrwted.
Compilen iDoorponlUl d,,,, of .",Iy """ ' - vintoJe, a dtoy fouod it. usualIy
dioregudiog ""Y m.:ODIi=nc....... r rnigb. be iDvolnd.
,. Altbcugh Mattianu. .... ¡.... mur«! '" tbo: moon'. d thc
eclip<ic--1I:D<>wn '" utrO""""'" .. thc -.Jiog oJId 10lllU xx'.. ..d
oldooogh OlIO """'f'k« revolncioo 01 the <><>deo '" d><i<" "",rwud 1nOl"<meot 010"8
the ocliprio occun nuy ,M yeon (opproEimately ,11'1. J'cat"I -dlns lO En-
daI ... ,r'.)'< .... lICc«diog.., Hippotchus). it opp<ln dut Mortioruu' outho.iIy
;. bere nl.ning lO the cycle" ot 'JJ 1.....,.,. wbidl ..... p"'pooed '"
thc f1fth c<nrury • .c. '" brio¡¡ roW- """ Junu ¡rrors in«> "S.cemomt. 00 "'"
MttOIlic c)'<:I. seo Heoth, AriI....eb .... PI' '93""9j'.
"ea<
,. MIII"tÍuU:II gi..... no figuro {", di. durttioo of o yeu, tbc 0Kim0<z0 01
which nry grtotIy ,..;tJo di/k ....... writers. 00 cluAcol m=eo lO tbc 1JIQg .....
.".".. ... th. _ .diñon of Cicero'. (JI -..r. tU"""'" n, -mw
F....
nI thc .....,\lsp'" on.nai' in !he indexes '" tbc volnm<s ot Tborndike'.
Hln/ny of Mq/e",J Ezpt. i" ..",,,, Sc/nu;t.
 '"
ASTkONOMY
tite thirtietb day. ln hice nwmcr the moon b; eclipse<! when it crosses
tlle ecliptic on tite fiftccntlt day, in a position of opposition to the
sun. The sun projccts ia .hadow along tite ecliptic and, if tite moon
lUches thillin. on tite fifteentlt day, a lunar eclipse <>cenr.." Eclipses
Clnnot recu.r within sU: months," fOf cb. moon will not be found on
the ecliptic twice on the fútccntlt Of firse days of ia cycles during
that period:
If. in...........u.g 10 lb< eclipti<: lrom tbc oortb, it come. inoo clo .. loteral proliolity
with lb< ..... 1M do<o _ n>OYC inoo In obouuctiog po.moo, ir is slid ro p«>doce
"" .ppr=io>otion jO) tnnSit tv but 11. in coming lrom !he
nonh. it do<o move inoo coojunction ..d obotnlcu m. "'n. le b slid ", prodnc<
... tdil'" in D01'tItero Iftnoit ("" ...llIIk"'.. tv flo ...¡", m>>ó&p). 1I ir """"" 1<0lIl
thc .,,,.Ib ..,d .loes mo, IDO'" into COI!.joocrion, ir prOOlICOO on opproIimo.tioo in
ooutI><rn ........, tv lJ\W/>6qI """"'1; ... d i€. in "-miDg 10 tho oclipti<:
110m the _ . ir ......... tl>o pot/I of lb< $dIl. It .. .,. .....,dina ocl;¡'<
nodo oIMieq&O» ."

Manian ... concludes bis aceount of tite moon'. moti"", by Rmadcing

thn the ""garies of ehu pbnce confound IDOna" with thcir COm-
plaiey, a statemcnt which stiU bolds true. (S6q-'¡')
Tite SUD, like the rnoon, has • twofold motion, bcing swept .. long
in an east-west direction by tite diurna! rotarion of tb. celestial sphen:
ond numWDing il:'! propcr motion obliqucly .Iong tite ecliptic in an
canerly din:ctioo.lts daily shifts in points ni rísing cause it to describe
,aJ circles;os ir nnges ob1k¡udy fmm tite .ummer rropic to tbe wimer
tropic. In its retum course Emm tIIe wintcr tropic ie describes tite
very same cirdes. Each circle cua .ero.. che zodiac twice ond is
duwo ebrough sigas opposia: eaclt otl\er: me first cirel. of Aric:5 ¡"
siso me first ni Libn ; tite thirtieth of Aries il tite thirtieth of Libn;
the first of Tauros is the fine of Scorpin, and W on. The sun tnlverses
thcsc circles, in bod! aso:rtt and daceot, in 365'1, days. It is intcrcsting

"CI. G ....imu chopo. '0, " : Oeomedo: ••• 6. "J'II; lñeon (<<1. Hillorl. pp.
'9J-<]7·
.. A. PuDokock, A Hin •• , '" A, ..."""" tL<>ndon, '<p'), l' .pi, Sin. o:h<
......... and pointJ "'" ti.., lb< _len< BobyIon1<nJ WWl 0WU'0 oí Ibis IICt.
,. CI. Ammi ...... Mucdli"... Re, ""4' ,o. J. f' Ptolecny Amu,." 11. 11: Fo_
.. EoIogtU$ Do ,""m;" &ipioni.t 9 (.d. v.., Wod<liGgell (Btussds, "m I li.
>O _ 'J. 4l - v.., mioftnly tbo puooa:e in F•....,.;", .. te-
fm;"g '" epi<ycle< ..'" eccentria.
,,6 TIlE QU.\.PRIV I UM

that, a(though the nonhun and southem are of &:aIll<=

dimef\skJos, and me signs encnd cqually on either Me of cquatQr,
lhe son 00= through the sigm in unequal period.. le complete¡; in
a=ndiog Course ro tIle summc.r uopic in ,8S". day. and iu descend-
ing ooutSe in ,80 day"" The (cason (01' this onomaly is tI'oIt me eanh
is ««Dale ro the son', nIhil, which is more remote ([rom the eardl)
in me uppct" hemisph«c- The i!IlI\, U jI moves upWltm OOWlIro GIncer,
g=luaUy brings on wumch; we havo che scorching heat of summcr
while it is in Cancer; and u ir movcs souchward roward Caprioom,
dar' become chillier. FUf antipodeans tbe seuoros ao: revused: summer
wllen the son is in Capricorn, winter when jt is in Cancer. Wheo me
sun is ae me quator, botl! tempcrate wnes ,,"ve núld weather. {8¡>-
,.l
n.e diseussion oí me sun'. oIbie brings Martianus ro me subjea: of
the hnulS oí daylight al me differcm "climates" or latitudes. Wlnter
nights corrcspond uacdy in Imgth ro summer day., and
nights ro wmter days. On {WO daY' in {he y=- the houn of rlIylight
and dltkn .... ate enctly equal. The loopt doy hu '4 equinoccial
huu<$, tite shorteit 9." but tite hours vary according ro btil;Ude. Tb=
are eight climotc:<, bcginning with {he one passing through Meroe,
whicb is clmest to che summer tropic." North of il we come in se-
queoee upon the cijmate5 passing through Syene, Alexandria, Rhodes
.. GemiD .. ([. [J-[7, J[-J5) "l'" ''-t'/. dsl'" cI.opoo in tho uca>din¡ C<IIlNe ond
,10'1. in the d ending;"Ibeon (0<1. Hillu). P. '5), has [., lInd ,¡t'I. d.ys.
" Most manuocriplll tcH - - . lInd this is the 'ooding adopttd by By .....-
hudr. Apptrtndy """'" ooribeo ove« di<rurbed b<oct.""" 't ""d 9 do no< gin a
«IhI of. '4 ..d became M......,...• ..... me'" b<n ¡, iD<:onsistcnt ,..u¡, Iúo «mulo:
(in) tht.t tho krngat dJ.y .. tho cltnat. bdO'Io" tbe RhIJ'l""" MoonWns has ,6
hollfO of dsylieln. Th .. Di<k .dopa tbo """,ndod .... ding of. """" ","",,"'ripI>:
,6 b.,.. ... of. doyligh[ .. the Ammo' ..,¡.;a. ond Ii boun .. tbo what toIsdce. But
!oC"""" .. ¡, ,..,. cooc<roed .bo.. fnaio .. of. bouro, oc .... hould ,..,. be con-
cuncd obout • toa! of. 'J. j[ <:rOpo "P <¡¡oh! (!In) lo, tho Hdleapoot clima«.
Mutianno hu ID mincl not the loogm tecOfded dsy .. <he climot<
bu< <be long ... day .. the lotitnd< ... '"" tdetrins to in oection. ll.¡6, wh<o ...
said dIO< tho Ioa¡m doy bu [4 (and • ff"OClÍOG) """'" ond <be sbonooo: dsy 9
(and • fnaioD) I\ours. 00 tho com.>pÓ<>I>I dIO< commoD)y .ppur m """""",1pIs
mtho lwId1ing of RoDWI. numu...... above, p. '4'.
a Mo.rdanuo jo <:Oof"..d hen. 0 ......1 ""lttn rince EnOlOdv"" liad pi"""
Syen. ot tho ""pie.
 ASTRONOMY '97
(tite fooM middlc one"), Rom. and Macedonia, the He1ksponc
and Germany and tite moum oí ch. Onicpcr, and finally through
che region above che Seo. of Azov and below me Rhipaean Moun-
tajQS." (875"76)
The ITUIXimurn ond minimum houn oí daylighc gh-en by Marcianus
(877) lor ach of lhe .ight lacitude. are summarized here in rabular
form....

Muimum lI1Id Mittimum Hours of

''..
Meroe
Syene" " "
,."
'. ,,
Alexandü.
Rhodes"
R=, 'S
HeJlespOlu'
Dnieper
,S ••
"
Rhipaetn Mts.
"
• Hippuchoo' i ...... fQ1" Sr''''', Rhodet, tnd ti><
•
Udl«pon' (Le, Pomus) ,..e,.. giVotl ro m. hall
hour, oocordinJ ro Snobo, Syene, 'J'/,; Rhod..,
'f'I.; tbe Holldp<>ot, IS'I< <Stnbo •• j. JiS, J9- ond
f', ....pecti..lr). HoWgmaon bdX .......... Dj,oIHI_
11,_ ¡" o COI"flIptioo of tIW r.", ....
as A middl. eJimue """"" .ij:h< ;. ol 00."... imp<"'ibl • . In , ... cl..nc.l ocborne
of ond Hippuclmo, Rbod<s marbd oh. middJ. ""cl principallacltudo
01 tho .. veo clirnt. .... MutiaDus odd<d "" oigbtll boj.,.. "'" Rhipo«n
Mouotairu; ba>cc hiI ."",1...;0 ...
.. W. h.... to dopond rnoialy .poo So:nbo (,. S. 1J-+') fo< infonoorioD ,00...
the ""'¡'1Wu,."" of tho pri<>cipol clim>tes. Scrabo'. "'1"""' io 110( cl ... or CODo
.;,............... of hio pe<lClwK for critici1ing hlo.1ItboritKo. ¡'¡O iDI"",,".,. tIu..
Hippare"'" odopted tbe principal cllmotes. 01 En.toethooeo . nd re..,.,<Ied tloo lIours
01 doyllgbc fOl eoeh . ...w.b vuy by hill boun in cluncioo. r.. HOIIigmaruI'. Di<
",/1m KU-. io • cueJ:uI sru<ly el tIIe o.d ... ruerenc .. m tbe climalU Seo tloo
IkInbory. JI, 4-'1-
.. H<>IIigmt.no (pp. so-S') , beJi.-. .. tII .. Mucioous' och ..... 01 cllm .... Jt<mo
froro V.no, for, lIIIlib P1iny. Mortia.nu. U><> tilo G .. ..-wd IOl cU"...." .ud
gi.... G=k ro .bem.cvm ro tlo. 01\0 thn>.\gII Romo (61<1 l. U.
_ _ tIu., m. oId Klima VI, dio micldle of Pontus, bu
becn ood 10.". V, o:broogh tho Hell.. po .... then becomeo VI, mt.king
room ¡.,. <he """'"'" duoogh Romo IX> beoomo V. Thio leodo him ro concludc
", TIIE QUADKIVIUM

A$ OIIe dnw. ncar thc polc, days beCOfm longer and nighlll .honu;
consequendy it is ro be = e d mat tborc is pupctual do.ylight Ir che
pol","lncrements in the omount of dayüght occur as '/a of
tite tol2L in<:uase from the ",¡mer solrtic. to thc summer solstic<l is
added in die flm month, '/. ;n thc scomd, 1/4 in che third, in tite 'l.
founh, 'l.in che fifth, and in me sirth,"' The f"'SOQ for me
variation Í5 chlr die wdiac winds around Cancu and Capricom bUI
cua across me almost diw:cly (878). So mocil for the SUIl and
the moon.
Mercury aOO Venus """" th";r orbits.bout me sun, "off f.O one side,
in • cerain nwmcr," and do not encompass me eartb in thcir <><bits.
They are impeJled bad: and forth alternately. n..y are obaerved
rising and Ktting becarn;c tbey ore .wept along by che motion of thc
celestial ""hen:.
Mercury uquius nearly • yCa[ to complete lIS oroit l OO moves
through S' nf laticude.lts nwcimum clongation is u · ¡" never does ir
gel: IS fat away as twO signs from die sun, ahead of bchind it. Mercury
therd'ore never has acronical risings, fOI these occur ooly ro planets
tllat are Utuatcd dia.mrriC<illy opposirc che sun." Mercury's risings are
inroospicuous and bri.f:. OOe when clongation )'Umia and m e plan«
;. not obliteratcd by me run'. brilliant "')'1¡ . soc<In<! whcn. as it retrO-

di.. <he tibie of clbn...,. hod beco rnioed by 00<lIO Wesrun-o,io<=d compilo"
p""iW y Poddoniu< '" NijidJno Fi¡uI.... Seo tJoo Miller, ' ....
.. Pliny tJoo . ... ibit> coofuoion obottt rhe <Iunciort of doyliglrt in <he Iv nonb.
H. <»rrectIy "po'" {'¡""4l ... bours 01 ••• ThW. ot "" ....,."... ookric,.,
bu< \lo ¡",:orrtcdy "po'" (•. ,8ó-t¡) Pyth<ao .. .. ocilI. tItot "",o .... ,;. a-m.
ai doyliglrt •• Thul. jo rhe ..."",,,,, .. _no Gen>inuo 6. 'J"f) sba"'l' ="""
W>dotsroodirtg of "" dumIo.t ai oarlishl: .. tilo poleo
*' TIúo OC< <>1 ino::rt<nona ogrt<O eucdy with""t o:f Oeomed.. h. 6.. '1) .
.. Pliny Jives Morcury'. muimum eIoog>cioo fim .. ,, ' iD. Roman """",nk
(•• )9), rhen .. 'J ' widl <he 1llDDbe:n written out (• • 7). TbeOll (ed. HiIler), P.
')7. md Cakidhu 10 p'e ÍIi ...... . For othcr cto..lcaI ,dere"" .. "" Morcury'o
oJonrcion onJ 011 _ OIpoct> 01 do. pbn<t'. bebo""" .... ti>< .......dition o:f
acero'. CH _ . Wmmt, 61f-'¡6.
.. n..o.n (ed. HiIIer). p.
')7, "o"M,.. ocrtmio::ol risiDg>.irt rhe ...... "'Iy.
.. Hobino.l tl<y_wucben moy poso • lifetlme being ourun. of """"
pmpoed Mercury. Copernicna io ssid ". .... '" bon ..... ir. 0b0ernti0JI 01 it is
n>ode euy ,.be<> it: io in pro<imicy ro VetIUI, os it wu dutU.g !he momIt ai
J"""'Y. '96'.

•
 ASTRONOMY ' 99
grades in ti«: WeJt.. it moves into the vicinity of the SWl .00 l.des
from sight. lllese ftrit and bst visibilities recur in the foureb month.
.nd noe alway¡ then. (879-8.)
Venus completes its orok in 2 period of ayear. Located
on its own epkyde, ie goes abour sun. ir sometimell p:asses,
soflletimes lags bebind. When Venus is in retrognde motion, it takes
longer du.n a ye.. to tr:avcrse its mbit ; but wben it is going in direct
motinn, ie compleee, its course in as linle as deven m'mehs." Wben ir
rises .bead of the run ic is calle<! Lucifer; wben it bInes in tbe evening.
sundown. it ;. calle<! Vesper. Venus, 1iJ«, tbe moon, de";"tes
ebrougb an ,,' of che rodiac's Iatitude. les ffillximum doogation is
fOl ' ... Venus is me only une of the ftve pl>ner¡, like die moon, to asr
••lw:low'" and rhe only une ro tinger for. long time before yielding
to the sun', brilliance. In moming risings it frequently arriu lor (our
month$, bur in WtSt never lUore thm 10 da}'$-" II:!¡ rising:s and bst
v;,ib,litics recur in mn... to ten-month cyelcs. (88!-83)
Marslw;[$ own ",hit. the SilO', and .bont che earth. whieh
;. eccenttic ro ormr. Mus complete, a revolution in appro%irnately
two ye.IS. Ir ha •• motien in brirud. of S' . Like the two plane'"
heyond ;t, ir experiences starions and retrogradations, buc ir has ir. own
apoge<:, first station, and enltatien apan; from the others. Its aposee,
ehe point where ,ti
orbit reacllu highesc elevation above the earth, is
in Leo." h,. firsr star,on is "ruque. Because M all;' oroir is c10se ro rhe
" Among tite G"",k popu1u Iw>dbook oot:bo<>, Gemin.., Oeomedes, Achill ..
Torio .. ond .,...,oo-ArútotIe ci. e <he p<tiod> 01 MetcUt)'."d V..,.... o yeu '"
o y=." &>es Cicero ID • ....,.,.. deorKm l . ¡¡J. Su _ in <he
1'.... edition, 6¡S. VI",,., ... (9- l. 8-9) gives lOO doY' for Men:ury ond '¡sS
¡O< V""",,; PlIny (l. li-l9) gIves Jl9 ""d lt9 dJ.Y'. w. L. Lorimu (SomI No ..,
"" ,In Ton.( pr. AmtMlo"lh Mrm.to" IOD<>rd, r91s1, pp. "9-jo). has pu-
pued • ".10 o/ timos gr.." by me""" outhon. Mortiomls gI_ di. catreer "'-
plOIl2tion o/ tbe ..n",ionJ In Un....
.. PIlny [,. JI) .... ..,so; The<m «d. lIill",), p. 1)7. ond CioIcidi.. '/O hove ¡O' .
TIte carUCl f'"....,;. t ¡· .
.. O. PI.ioy ,.)7 .
.. An unulog _ n ' fOl .., ."do.. """"" 10 _!te, conoId<ring thst ce-
l<&ciol "''''<
much more f.",¡¡w ro m. ........... dwt lb.,. u. 10 ....
• 11<1 di" tite brill.iooc< of V..,u, In tbe ,. ... el o , 1Ue!, ;. one 01 <he ..-
t:On>pIcoou. of .n cd<&ciol ph<OODl<D" Muimntn brill.i01>C< ;. Ihorn: ¡6
doY' p«<:<ding 1JId /oIIowiPS inferior """jton<áon.
.. a. Pliny ' ..s..
 TH E QUADRIVIUM
.wl's. il feol'lh. offeccs of th. sun', rays even at a position of quadn-
rure and comes 10 a hall al • disrance of 90' frorn thc sun on elthor
side." Mus' =It:ltinn OCCUrs in the [Wenty-ninth degrec of Capri-
C(Jrn."
Propitious J upiter, belng higher Ihan the aforem.ntion. d plane!s,
rompIeres its ,"""olmion in rwdv. Ytan and has • devi.tion in latitude
of So. lt:s apogec 0CC\ll'I in Virgo and its eulution in the fifleenth
degue of Caneer." Its olevations and depres:sions prov. t1ur thc eanh
is <:<:cenmc 10 in orbit, (885)
Sarum, th. outennost ni the completes a revolution in
.ijghrly 1= lhan lhirIy yeo", and deVÍJtts in latirude J' or sometimes
only , . ... 1I has ics apogee in Scorpio .nd its enlcation in the
twentieth dogree of Libra.'" (nS)
.. Cf. l'Ul>y ,. 60, ."d ""'" ,he ""'...po¡>dence oí t<m: trkm .r qw;!.uo
, ...Iit (Pliny);.,""';" "."J'oItll•.•.• 4dJ.,
umit (M..-donoo) . The "".
m.,<I1lS ""'''''pondo."" be,,..,.,, Pliny tnd .. ¡., , ..... clo!.ing sectioN oí
VIII suggeot tito. dteir ..... oriJinorM in dio ...... ootron<>mku "...",i1.
ptUtIIlIObly <hu of V."".
" PLiny ¡,. 6$) "YO dio .. igb1h degru. OCCOTding to tho f'S"t< odopt<d
by tIto.dirors 01 tito lIndó..,d Lotb .dióo",. J. lIooujon, tilo &ud<' «litar. fU""
I'A"'¡....." Wltoi,.. N_eII. Üt:1". 11. P. ,1I,]ist> in hio .ppuonu <he ""dioS
XXVlIIJ «1<) ;., _..-.1 The """uocrip<> oí I'Uuy "'" Roow. ",,-
mua'" ", bu ., " ' - of Mutlonus ""ice tbt figlw 0\It. M""¡'"",' ooorc. . . .
uoing OD older mt..!Ioscript of PliDy tbon ..,y ""'" ........ Ir wooJd oppeor tilo,
M2nianns' figlw ¡, tito corrw: <>nO fo>, Pliny, ono<her inane. of .... ni.,. of
Monimus in mwnding Pliny'...... Mommsen p<>im<d 0Ul du., Solio.. coae-
lpOndcoces w:ith PIiny'. rogropbict1 bo<>ks W<lnld onsbI. . . . .dirol: ro emoru:l
Pliny'J .....
• " " " .......
o '.odwu corrupood ro Ptldy , . 4406,.
" It wiD be of interea: to oompue bue Mortionos' figureo f"" plorouuy derio-
tiord;ft l0dtnd0.,..ith _ ot TheoD (<<1.. Hillorl, P. '}j i Goomed .. l. 7. tlJ'
ood Plú>y ,. 6ó--6-¡,

M_ ,,'" ,,' ,,' ,,'"

,,' ,,' ,,'
.... ,•
V_ 'o'
M""", • • •
Jopitor
,-, ""
,_,o "" ""
""
'" Agaio tbc " oí PH"y I.I\.t6J. "
,..,.,.,...tiono oorreopood '" doooe
 ASTRONOMY w,
Martian\15 c(lndud.. his book 011 IStronomy by redefming tite terms
tlpptied ro tite superior planm. Their .. Iast visibitities" OCCUr when
mek ¡himm<ring lighr finaUy di.. ppcars in the glarc of tite ..m. These
planets have mcir "morning (fllSt) stacioll$" ot 1>0' distance frum me
sun and mdr "evcning risings" ar opposici(ln (ISo' ); Iikewise, on tite
o,he/' side, m.y !u". me (sccond) starioru;" at a position
110' a",..y froro {he son. Witltin 11 ' {he nys of th<:: SOn eogulf and
obliterate the light of the superior planets. It is the powerful effecr
oE tru. son', nys {!ut is re.ponsib!e for me aoom.li.. in me orbits of
aU me planet¡-{he stlrions, retrog",dlIci(lns, progressions, c1entiom,
and depr=iono;. A. tite "'ys strike the plancrs, thcy cause tltem ro riso
00 high Or ro be depressed., ro deviate in britode Or ro rctrognde. 'OI
(887)
800k VIlI t nd. abrupcly in • !acuna. It that nothing im-
portam!us been Inst from the content of tite discipline, $ince M1ra..-
nus, dther Itere or in llook V I, hu c;¡ken op •.H {he convenrionallopiC!l
oí 10 Qrs \\'hat is regremtble is , he 10!ll <>f ,he dosing
Icene in me cclcstial !ull. Astronomy m:tk.. me bo:st pr_ntarlon of
tite qmdrivium bridesmoids, pcrh:!J"ó of .U seven bridesmaids. I{ is me
ro usume tlut Archirnedes and Ptolcrny wouId be duly impressed
wim !ter eloqurnt discourse and WQold join in {he 'pplame.
' " Doctrines.bout tho ...., .. tbc . u o r 01 <be pIor>en .ruI obou. !be dI.., ..
of 1m powetfuI "')'11 wen wi<kly circulu<d by popttlM wnters O<l roomogropby.
Pl¡"y (l. Ó9"70) 10)'11 .ho.. ti>< pbn<u, wbeo stmck by • <riwgu!or "y (i.....
!l.' eloopcion), .,.. defJoaM in thoir COlIDOS ",d !ifted SIraight uporn-d, thuI
ro '"' OD <arth ro be .. otacion. v;n-.a.¡", (90 l. ,,) 0100 points '" ti><
¡>(fW<lÍul á(oc< 01 tht ...".. ....Y' .. trit>< "poc<. MoeroI>i", (C. ,,",,",a ..., •. lO.
• • ¡) opeob o/ the su,," 1"''''" llJId inlluooc:< lo det<:rmioio¡ <he limirs b<)"'ruI
wlUch <he pW>e1$ ........ ««de ",d or< ""'"' ro turll bock 1<>WVd tho ""'; l.oco.n
... "'._)) " Y' <he ...... thing in VU><.. "Iñeon «<1. Hin..), pp. 117.a.
describes tite "'" .. tite onimatiog principie md beon of tht oninroe. Williom of
Coocboo (O. phjIOtapl;" mwt4J ••• ¡ lc>,dl), .. lo hio w<><>t, ..k<s tho !'"pWu
d_;col do"t';nt. LOd 11'''''';' hio ""''' pI .... be"""", of ....... ,,',
n.)"!, io-.., 0IllIclt rrniKur< th .. it n... i" >poce. .ruI w"'" nbs
pi.." it ,<tu"", ro i.. «guiar o,bit. Ont. worultro how """'" thi< ct..io:ol notion.
""mulnIo:t ,d=<d "' .. "'" "........,..,..-... pWOÍO#" thoory, ...... iofI""",,,d by tite
Sroic Oeondlu.' .;.... _ the ",n jo <be ruIing lora o/ <he urunne ond how
ro""h by !be Itdiooentrie th_.,. of Henclid<s ",d Arirtarclt",. Seo R. M. j""""
"Po&idondu ... d Sol.., Eochtrology," CP, XXVII (l9¡l), 'I ¡-m Oobem 1. « '-1Ó\
llJId i'".<brd..siebold ond A _ cf f:"",,", PI'- 'l. Ój.