9/9/2010

MAN TECH 4TF3

Introduction

Pressure - Manometry

Thursday September 9,
9, 2010

Fluid Mechanics
Behaviour of fluids
– Fluid: Liquid or gas
– Wide subject with variety of applications
Extreme range of physical parameters
– Length - Pipe flows: From nano-
nano-scale tubes to 4-
4-ft
diameter oil pipelines.
– Speed: From hypersonic flow of air around aircrafts
and meteorites (104 m/s)
to creeping flow of magma (10-8 m/s)
– Pressure: From pressure inside hydraulic rams
(10,000 psi) to sound waves (10-6 psi) Vid 1 & 2

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Definition of a Fluid
Solids: Strong intermolecular forces
– Closely spaced molecules
– “Hard”
Liquids: Weaker intermolecular forces
– Molecules spaced further apart F
L
– “Soft”, but hardly compressible
U
Gases: Almost no intermolecular forces I
D
– Molecules are free to move S
– Expands to occupy all available space

Fluid Definition
A substance that deforms continuously
(flows) when acted on by a shearing stress
F
of any magnitude
Surface

Continuum Approach
• Do not consider motion of individual molecules
• Consider “small” volumes and average over its molecules
• Properties change continuously within the fluid

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Density
Mass per unit volume
• Units: Kg/m3, slug/ft3, lbm/ft3
• Small dependence on temperature for liquids
• Liquids are practically incompressible (density does not
depend on pressure)

• Strong dependence on temperature and pressure for gasses

Specific weight & gravity

• Specific weight (γ): Weight per unit volume
γ=ρg
Units: N/m3 or lbf/ft3
Water: 9800 N/m3
• Specific gravity (SG): ratio of fluid density to
density of water at a specific temperature
Reference density: water at 4°C (ρ = 1000 Kg/m3)
ρ
SG =
ρH O@ 4 o
C
2

Units: dimensionless

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Viscosity
Video 3 and 5

Shear Thinning
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TT8RwyrHA1Y

Shear Thickening
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vNzTYzjLgKE&feature=related

Viscosity
Shearing experiment
Place a material between two parallel plates and apply a
force on the top plate

Solid material: Plate will move slightly and then stop!

Liquid material?

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Viscosity
Liquid material:
• Plate will move continuously at a velocity U
• Fluid “sticks” on boundaries (NO-SLIP CONDITION)
– Fluid is stationary at bottom plate
– Fluid moves with velocity U at top plate
• A linear fluid velocity profile is developed

Viscosity
Forces on upper plate

P: Force applied by you

τA: Shear stress from fluid

du
It is τ =µ
dy
du NEWTONIAN
rate of shearing strain FLUIDS
dy
µ VISCOSITY
(Absolute or dynamic)

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Newtonian fluids
Viscosity is constant with shearing strain

• Simplest case
• Many common liquids are Newtonian

Non-
Non-Newtonian Fluids
Viscosity depends on shearing strain
Shear Thinning: Viscosity
drops with shearing strain
(liquid polymers, paint)
Shear Thickening: Viscosity
rises with shearing strain
(quicksand)
Bingham Plastic: Yield stress
must be exceeded for flow
(mayonnaise, toothpaste)

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Viscosity - Temperature
Viscosity depends
greatly on temperature
Liquids: Viscosity drops with
temperature
Gasses: Viscosity increases
with temperature

Pr 1.65

Compressibility of Fluids
Bulk Modulus (Ev)
dp dp
Ev = − or Ev = −
dV / V dρ / ρ
Change in pressure required to compress the
volume V by dV

Liquids: Ev ≈ 3 105 psi

a pressure of 3000 psi is required to
compress a liquid by 1%
practically incompressible
Vid 7

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Compressibility of Gasses
Gasses can be compressed (or expanded)
Isothermally: P/ρ = constant
Then, Ev = p
Isentropically: P/ρk = constant
Then, Ev = kp

Bulk modulus depends on pressure (the higher the

pressure, the higher the modulus, the harder to
compress a gas)
Air at 1 atm (14.7 psi). It is k = 1.4 and Ev = 20.6 psi
compare to water

Speed of Sound
Disturbances in a fluid propagate at the acoustic
velocity, or speed of sound (c)
c depends on changes of dp Ev
pressure and density c = ⇒ c =
dρ ρ

Isentropic process (negligible heat transfer)

kp
For gasses c=
ρ
For ideal gasses c = kRT
Air at 15.5°C: c = 340 m/s
NOTE: Ev = ∞ and c= ∞
Water at 20°C: c = 1481 m/s For incompressible materials

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Vapor Pressure
Observation: Liquids (e.g. gasoline) evaporate when left in an open
container
Explanation: Liquid molecules escape the liquid phase and enter the gas

Experiment: Completely fill a container with a liquid

and lift one end of it (without letting any air in).
Result: The space between the liquid and the container
will be filled with vapor. The pressure of the vapor is
called “vapor pressure”

Vapor pressure is a property of the liquid.

It depends heavily on temperature

Surface Tension
The surface of a liquid (gas-
(gas-liquid interface) behaves as a
“membrane” or “skin” (e.g. it can support a razor blade)
Results from unbalance of molecular forces
along the surface
A tensile force acts in the plane of the surface
at any line along the surface
This force is called Surface Tension (σ(σ )

Units of σ: N/m, lbf/ft (Force/Length

(Force/Length))

Videos

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Surface Tension
Pressure inside a drop
Force Balance: 2 π R σ = ∆p π R2

2π
Hence ∆p = pi − pe =
R

Pressure is higher inside droplet

Capillary rise
Water rises inside a narrow tube

Pr 1.95

Capillary rise
Free Body Diagram
Force Balance

γ π R2 h = 2 π R σ cosθ

and

2σ cos θ
h=
γR

Liquid may drop too!

Depends on angle θ

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STATIC FLUIDS

Pressure at a Point
How does pressure at a point vary with direction?
Consider the triangular wedge of fluid:
– No shear stress
– Gravity in negative z direction
– Neglect forces on x-axis

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Pressure at a point - 2
Triangular wedge
– Assume acceleration in y (ay) and z (az) directions
Force balances in y and z directions
δxδyδs
∑ F y = p yδxδz − psδxδs sin θ = ρ 2
ay

δxδyδs δxδyδs
∑ F z = p zδxδy − psδxδs cosθ − γ 2 = ρ 2 az
Note: Multiplying pressure by area gives force
It is:
δy = δs cos θ and δz = δs sin θ

and the force balance equations yield

Pascal’s law
…
δy δz
p y − ps = ρa y and p z − ps = (ρa z + γ )
2 2

And as δx, δy, and δz tend to zero, we get

py = pz = ps

Pascal’s Law
Pressure at a point in a fluid at rest or in
motion is independent of direction as long as
there are no shearing stresses present

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Pressure Field
How does pressure vary from point to point?
Consider the rectangular element of fluid:
• Fluid volume is δx×δy×δz
• Pressure at center is p
• Pressure at sides is expressed
using pressure derivatives
• No shearing

Pressure Field - 2
Pressure at sides are expressed using derivatives
For example, the pressure at the top surface is:
∂p δz
p+
∂z 2
Distance from center
Pressure at center
Pressure derivative

Two kinds of forces act on the fluid element:

• Surface forces (due to pressure on the exposed surfaces
• Body forces (the weight of the liquid)

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Pressure Field - 3
Forces in y-direction (only surface forces)
 ∂p δy  )  ∂p δy  ) ∂p )
δFy =  p − δxδz j −  p + δxδz j = − δxδyδz j
 ∂y 2   ∂y 2  ∂y

Forces in x-direction (only surface forces)

∂p )
δFx = − δxδyδz i
∂x

Forces in y-direction (surface and body forces)

∂p ) ) weight
δFz = − δxδyδz k − γδxδyδz k
∂z

Pressure Field - 4
Assuming the fluid element’s acceleration is a, the
force balance yields:
∂p ) ∂p ) ∂p ) )
− δxδyδz i − δxδyδz j − δxδyδz k − γδxδyδz k = ρδxδyδz a ⇒
∂x ∂y ∂z
 ∂p ) ∂p ) ∂p )  )
−  i + j+ k δxδyδz − γδxδyδz k = ρδxδyδz a
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

∇p Pressure gradient

Then: )
− ∇p − γ k = ρ a

General equation of motion for a fluid without shearing stresses

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Fluid at Rest
Fluid at rest (or in solid body motion) a = 0
)
− ∇p − γ k = 0
And in component form
∂p ∂p ∂p
=0 =0 = −γ
∂x ∂y ∂z

• Pressure does not vary in x and y directions.

• Pressure varies with elevation
• Pressure decreases as we move upward in a fluid

Incompressible Fluid
Incompressible fluid: A fluid with constant density
If also g is assumed constant
γ=ρg is constant (γ: specific weight)
And integration is easy
∂p p2 z2
= −γ ⇒ ∫ dp = − ∫ γdz ⇒ p2 − p1 = −γ (z 2 − z1 )
∂z p1 z1

p1 = p2 + γh

Hydrostatic pressure distribution

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Pressure Head
Use hydrostatic pressure distribution to express
pressure differences in terms of “height of fluid”
p1 − p2
h= h: pressure head
γ
Pressure in fluids is often measured from free surface

p A = pB = p0 + γh

• Pressure depends only on height of liquid (not shape)

• Pressure on same level on continuous liquid is same Pr. 2.5

Hydraulic equipment
• Pressure on same level on continuous liquid is same

Base of all hydraulic devices (jack, brakes, lifts, etc.)

• Apply a small force F1 (on a small piston) to achieve
a high force F2 (on a big piston)

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Compressible Fluids
Compressible fluid: Density changes with pressure
(any gas is compressible)
dp Density (and specific weight) of gasses is small
= −γ
Neglect pressure changes in gasses when elevation
dz changes are small (order of few hundred feet)

For high elevation changes:

p
ρ= Ideal gas
RT
And dp gp p1 dp g z2 1
=− ⇒∫ =− ∫ dz
dz RT p1 p R z1 T
 g ( z 2 − z1 )
If T=T0 (constant with elevation) p2 = p1 exp − 
 RT0 

Pressure in Atmosphere
For the atmosphere, this correction does not make
such a huge difference

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Standard Atmosphere
Idealized representation of mean condition of earth’s
atmosphere

Temperature changes with elevation…see text

Pressure Measurement
Absolute pressure: Pressure value relative to perfect vacuum
Gage pressure: Pressure value relative to the local atmospheric
pressure
Vacuum pressure: Used for pressure values lower that the local
atmospheric pressure. Difference from atmospheric value is
reported as a positive number.

Pr 2.21

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Barometer
Used for measuring atmospheric pressure

patm = pvapor + γh

But for mercury, pvapor ≈0 and

patm = γh

h ≈ 760 mm

Manometry
Measure pressure using liquid rise in a tube
Piezometer Tube
Absolute pressure at A

p A = p1 = patm + γh1
Gage pressure at A

p A, gage = γh1

Disadvantages:
•pA must be higher than
atmospheric
•pA must be low (so that h1 is
small)
•Fluid must be liquid V2

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U-tube Manometer
p A = p1
p2 = p1 + γ 1h1
p2 = p3
p3 = patm + γ 2 h2
Then
p A = patm + γ 2 h2 − γ 1h1
or
p A, gage = γ 2 h2 − γ 1h1

If A contains a gas γ1 ≈ 0 and

p A, gage = γ 2 h2

Differential U-
U-tube Manometer
Measure pressure difference between A and B

p B + γ 3 h3 + γ 2 h2 − γ 1h1 = p A ⇒
p A − pB = γ 3h3 + γ 2 h2 − γ 1h1

Pr 2.24, 2.36

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Inclined – Tube Manometer

Used for measuring small pressure differences
Vertical height difference results to pressure difference

pB + γ 3 h3 + γ 2l2 sin θ − γ 1h1 = p A

Changing the angle θ you can convert small pressure

differences to large l2 values

Pressure Measurement Devices

Bourdon pressure gage
– Measures gage pressure
– Only static pressure (does not respond quickly)
Pressure acts on elastic structure, deforms it,
deformation is read (as pressure) on a dial

V3

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Pressure Measurement Devices

Pressure transducer
Provide electrical output
Bourdon gage with LVDT Diaphragm transducer
Fast response

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