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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTIONS

1.1: Area of Interest

Problem based learning (PBL) is a teaching approach where a problem is used

to initiate the acquisition of new knowledge. Using “real world” problem

scenarios, students are provoked to think of a way of solving the problem

through careful analysis and synthesis. As compared to traditional approaches

of teaching, a shift to PBL has shown a lot of benefits because of its relevance

to the real life experiences of the learner. The use of real life experiences, in

addition, keeps students1 at the center, holds student interest, develop deeper

conceptualization of content knowledge and increase retention of new

information (Spencer, 2015). As master of their own learning experiences,

students develop critical thinking and problem solving skill which later

becomes tool for solving numerous challenges in the physical world.

Despite all its potential benefits, PBL has not been supported in Zambian

Colleges of Education (CE) as a pedagogy which has the potential to impart

practical real life problem solving skills. It is hoped that this study will bring

to light perspectives of college of education lecturers on PBL which may

provide a basis for policy makers to consider institutionalize PBL as a teaching

pedagogy which should be transferred to young teachers. It is further hoped

that this research paper would provide a foundation for future research on

Problem Based Learning.

1 Learners in tertiary institutions in Zambia here referring to learners in Colleges of Education.

1.2: The area of investigation

In my teaching profession, I have always tried different approaches to ensure

the relevance of content knowledge with the experiences of the students and

also to facilitate successful transfer of critical thinking and problem solving

skills to my learners. After my in-service training in subjective learning

approaches, I developed an interest in Problem Based learning as one of the

key approaches in the development of a wide range of skill in the learners

using most of the literature by (Lambro, 2002). In this paper attention will be

given to establishing how science education teachers in particular perceive

PBL as a teaching approach in the Zambian context.

1.3: Overview of Study

This study will look at establishing how science teachers in colleges of

education in Zambia perceive problem based learning approach in relation to

teacher training. The study will start by looking at the literature on PBL from

the international spectrum and points to practicing teachers who have been

trained and are operating in this space to establish their motivates and

experiences on PBL. A small scale piece of research will investigate how PBL

is supported by different groups operating in this space.

In order to investigate the perspective of science teachers on PBL, it is

important to first build a firm understanding on what constitutes PBL from

literature and establish grounds to which PBL has been preferred as a teaching

approach in relation to traditional lecture method. We will examine both the

roles of the teachers and students in PBL approach and review the structural

design of the PBL instructional model.

Data will subsequently be collected from practicing college of education

lecturers (N=6) and education standard officers (N=4) by means of in – depth

personal interviews which will be recorded and be transcribed

orthographically. The transcribed data will then be analyzed using thematic

method. Thematic analysis is the method of identifying, analyzing and

reporting patterns (themes) within data, minimally organizing and describing

data set in rich details (Braun & Clarke, 2006, P.26).

1.4: Definitions

Pedagogy can be understood as leading people to a place where they can learn
for themselves. It is about creating environments and situations where people

can draw out from within themselves, and on the abilities they already have,

to create their own knowledge, interpret the world in their own unique ways,

and ultimately realize their full potential as human beings. Some scholars

argue that good pedagogy is about guiding students to learning. It is about

posing challenges, asking the right questions, and presenting relevant

problems for learners to explore, answer and solve.

Problem Based Learning (PBL) pedagogy is operationally defined as the

teaching approach where students use a problem case or scenario to delineate

their own learning objectives. Subsequently they do the work independently

in a self-directed study before returning to the group to discuss and refine their

acquired knowledge (Woods, 2003).

Woods (2002) further explains that PBL is not about problem solving per se,

but rather it uses appropriate problems to increase knowledge and

understanding. Group learning facilitates not only the acquisition of

knowledge but also several other desirable characteristics, such as

communication skills, collaborative skills, problem solving, independent

responsibility for learning, sharing information and respect for others. PBL,

can therefore be thought of as a method involving small groups and combines

the acquisition of a range of skills and attitudes. The term PBL, its constituents

and its application has best been dealt with in chapter 2 of these thesis under

literature review as part of the definitions.

Colleges of education refers to Government Established Education institutions

in ten provinces of Zambia Offering Teaching courses in various subject

disciplines. Colleges of Education offers a range of certificates from Diploma

certificates to Bachelor’s Degree Programs. These are the institutions where

teachers who are trained in PBL pedagogy operates from.

Traditional teaching pedagogy refers to all teaching approaches where a

teacher takes the central stage in the learning process and is highly regarded

as the only source of knowledge. The teacher talks more than the students who

are passive listeners and usually takes notes or handouts from the teacher.

Traditional pedagogies are highly opposed in the 21st Century teaching

pedagogies which are taking a constructivist approach which tries to shift the

responsibility of learning to the learners who are expected to construct

meaning of the learning experience. As opposed to traditional pedagogy, PBL

is a constructivist pedagogy. An exhaustive understanding of the idea of

constructivists learning and the traditional pedagogies has been discussed in

much more greater details in chapter two of this thesis.

1.5: Chapter outline

This Masters level dissertation is divided into six chapters. Chapter one states

the personal interest in the area and briefly outlined the context for research

topic centered on the perspectives of college of education science teachers on

Problem Based Learning pedagogy. It explores briefly reasons teachers prefer

PBL pedagogy as opposed to traditional teaching approaches and also offers a

summary purpose of the research centering on establishing the experiences of

the teachers working in this space. Chapter two gives a clarification of terms

and literature reviews based on these ideas taking into account the historical

and theoretical perspectives of PBL. It gives a rich review of scholarly

perspectives on PBL and the instructional models suggested by some scholars

including the 7Cs of learning designed by Grainne Conole (Conole, 2014).

Chapter three is an outline of the methodology and particular instruments

including personal interview schedules. It gives a detailed and rich description

of data and how data was coded and analyzed. It further gives the limitations

of this approach. Chapter four comprises of descriptions of findings of the

project under a series of themes. While in chapter five the findings are

critically analyzed with reference to searched themes. Chapter six gives a final
statement on the overall study and recommendations outlined.

1.6: The purpose of the study

The purpose of this study is to investigate the perspectives of Teacher

Educators regarding Problem Based Learning as a science classroom practice

in a Zambian context. Using in-depth personal interview, this research will

examine perspectives and experiences of teachers trained into this practice by

the Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA) in collaboration with

the Zambian Government with a view to improving the quality of science

teaching in Zambian post primary institutions and teacher Training Colleges.

It is hoped that this research will provide a basis for future exploration of PBL

pedagogy as a means of improving achievements in learning and acquisition

of a divergent range of skills related to constructivists’ pedagogies. The

outcomes of the study may be used to facilitate possible inclusion of PBL in

the Zambia Teacher Education Curriculum to provide alternative approach in

the teaching of science as well as laying a foundation for further research.

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1: Introduction

This chapter is divided into four sections. Section one defines Problem Based

Learning (PBL) from literature and gives an overview of what constitutes PBL

pedagogy. It highlights science teachers’ perspectives on the implementation

of PBL and gives a general impression of why PBL is assumed as an important

teaching method. Section two of this chapter focus on establishing theoretical

basis of PBL and the philosophy enshrined into this methodology. The third

section gives a brief history and development of PBL as an instructional

strategy in medical schools and how it has evolved over time. It has further

given prepositions of constructivism under which PBL is rooted. The section

further discusses the instructional design of PBL and the general modal
adopted by most scholars. The last part of the chapter gives a discussion on

some perspectives of scholars about PBL outlining the major strengths and

weaknesses of the method as a classroom practice in general.

Problem based learning has been defined almost in a similar manner by

different scholars. Lambros (2002) defined PBL operationally by describing it

as a method where the problem is used as the starting point for learning new

concepts or knowledge. Torp and Sage, (2002, p. 15) defined problem Based

Learning as, “learning where a case problem is presented to the students who

are asked to apply reasoning, questioning, researching, and critical thinking to

find a solution to the problem.” Further Woods (2003) highlighted that PBL

can be thought of as small group teaching method that combines the

acquisition of knowledge with the development of universal skills and

attitudes. Basing on the above definitions we can generally say that PBL is a

learner centered approach in which the student is left with the responsibility

for their own learning and work towards providing solutions to problem

scenarios presented to them. The role of the teacher is that of a facilitator of

the learning experiences. The teacher provides real life problem scenarios and

offers the necessary environment for the learners to explore new knowledge

basing on their prior experiences. The process of arriving at the solution is

important and is the focus of problem based learning. In trying to solve the

problem with their peers in groups, students develop a wide range of skills

which eventually materializes into the development of an individual capable

of finding solutions to a number of problems affecting his physical world. The

next sections will focus on establishing the theoretical basis, scholarly

perspective of PBL approach, instructional design and the merits and

challenges that this approach offers.

2.2: Theoretical Basis of PBL

The Theoretical Basis of Problem Based Learning, is originating from the

theory of learning by doing (Dewey, 1935). In this student centered approach,

the learner takes central stage in the learning process given the opportunity to

make decisions about the various components of the learning process and to

personally evaluate their performance. PBL is an active learning paradigm in

which students solve real life problems by making operative decisions to be

able to determine own personal learning needs which can help solve the

problem. The use of problem based learning has increased especially in

medical schools in the 1950s in USA and it has enshrined its implementations

at the medical school at the Mc Master University in Canada at the end of the

1960s (Rhem,1998; Herreid,2003). Today this constructivist approach has not

only been implemented in medicine, but has also seen its implementations in

other educational institutions of which natural sciences, engineering and law

has appreciated the pedagogy. Barrows had described problem based learning

as the best exemplar of constructivist learning environment (barrows, 1992).

PBL is closely linked to the philosophy of pragmatism by Richard (Rarty,

1991). Basing on Rarty and vonGlasersfeld (1995), the philosophical view can

be characterized into three major prepositions which anchor the application of

PBL.

The first preposition (savery, 1995) describes our understanding as a

derivative of our interaction with the environment. This is the basis of

constructivism. This concept stipulates the idea that our understanding is an

individual construct. What is learnt cannot be separated from how it is learnt

and, therefore, experience of the student is core to what knowledge a student

will constructs. Problem Based Learning make use of this philosophy by using

problem scenarios as a stimulus to determine the organizational and nature of

what is learned. The key idea of constructivist perspective is that knowledge

is constructed with individual mechanism or social influence. Learning is

contextualized by providing enhanced activity based instructions and

promoting learning in collaborative groups (Von Glasersfeld; 1995).

The second presumption is that cognitive conflict stimulates learning and

determines the organization and nature of what is learned. For learning to take

place, there must be some stimulus or goal for learning and the learner has a

purpose for being there. Not only does the goal stimulates learning, but it is a

primary factor in determining what the learner attends to, what prior

experience the learner brings to bear in constructing an understanding, and,

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basically, what understanding is eventually constructed. In Dewey's terms it

is the "problematic" that leads to and is the coordinator for learning (Dewey,

1938; Rochelle, 1992). According to Piaget (1977) and vonGlaserfeld (1989),

the need for accommodation when current experience cannot be assimilated in

existing schema is a stimulus and organizer for learning.

The third presumption according to Rorty (1991), is that Knowledge evolves

through social conciliation and through the assessment of the practicability of

individual considerations. The social environment is critical to the

development of our individual understanding as well as to the development of

the body of propositions we call knowledge. At the individual level, other

individuals are a primary source of information about our own understanding.

Working in collaborative groups can help us test our own understanding and

examine the understanding of others as a mechanism for stirring, linking, and

increasing our understanding of particular issues or phenomena.

VonGlaserfeld (1989) has noted that other people are the greatest source of

alternative views to challenge our current views and hence to serve as the

source of puzzlement that stimulates new learning.

2.3: Problem-Based Learning instructional design

This section focuses on outlining the instructional design of problem based

learning environment. Different writers have suggested different PBL learning

environment models, however, we will base our discussion on PBL model by

Howard Barrows (1985; 1992) which appear to possess most of the basic

elements necessary for a typical PBL learning environment. The sections

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begins by giving a brief background of PBL and progresses with outlining a

typical PBL model in distinct but coherent phases.

Problem-Based Learning (PBL), as a general model, (John R. Savery &

Thomas M. Duffy June, 2001) started and developed in medical education in

the early 1970's and it has, ever since, undergone various metamorphic

changes and has seen its implementation in over sixty medical schools. PBL

approach has widely spread in the first two years of medical science and has

been vied as a better option to replace the traditional lecture based pedagogy

to anatomy, pharmacology, physiology etc. The pedagogy has been adopted

in an increasing number of other areas including Business Schools (Milter &

Stinson, 1994), Schools of Education (Bridges & Hellinger, 1992; Duffy,

1994); Architecture, Law, Engineering, Social Work (Boud & Feletti 1991);

and high school (Barrows & Myers, 1993).

Problem Based Learning Model according to Barrows, (Barrows, 1992)

starts with the presentation of a problem scenario to the students usually in

small groups. Students discuss the problem, generating hypotheses based on

whatever experience or knowledge they have, identifying relevant facts in the

case, and identifying learning issues. The learning issues are topics of any sort

which are deemed of potential relevance to this problem and which the group

feels they do not understand as well as they should. A session is not complete

until each student has an opportunity to verbally reflect on their current beliefs

about the problem and assume responsibility for particular learning issues that

were identified. Note that there are no pre specified objectives presented to

the students. The students generate the learning issues (objectives) based on

their analysis of the problem. Students engage in self-directed learning.

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There are no assigned texts. Rather the students are totally responsible for

gathering the information from the available, library and computer database

resources. Additionally, particular faculty are designated to be available as

consultants (as they would be for any physician in the real world). The

students may go to the consultants seeking information.

After self-directed learning, the students meet again. They begin by evaluating

resources -- what was most useful and what was not so useful. They then

begin working on the problem with this new level of understanding. Students

will not simply tell what they learned but they will use this opportunity to share

what they learnt and re-examine the problem in the light of emerging

information. This cycle may repeat itself if new learning issues arise --

problems in the medical school program, for example, may last anywhere from

a week to three weeks.

Students work is assessed at the end of the process by peer or self-evaluation

mostly to ascertain the degree to which self-directed learning took place and

to check the level of development of problem solving skill of individual

participants in a group. The teachers’ role will be to provide rubric, giving

details of the levels of competence expected from the students as the criteria

for assessment.

In line with the above model Finkle & Torp (1995) Lambros, (2002) and

Wee, (2004) observed PBL as a process of learning which starts with students

identifying the problem at hand and Gather the information given unique to

the problem. Students will proceed by procuring extra information in the view

of finding a solution to the problem and this will result into generation of

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possible solutions which can be communicated, accommodated, selected and

the best solution executed. The solution will be presented and be subjected to

self, Peer & Facilitator evaluation. In executing this PBL model efforts should

be made to ensure the following; “First, problems or assignments used as the

starting point of small-group discussion and self-directed learning should be

promoting epistemic curiosity and should be perceived by students as relevant

to their personal strivings. Second, small group work should enable the

activation of prior knowledge and elaboration on what is learned. Third, tutors

should engage themselves actively in didactic conversations with the learners

and provide appropriate scaffolds. Fourth, students need ample time for selfdirected

learning using resources that (to some extent) represent their own

interests and preferences (Schmidt, Van der Molen, Te Winkel and Wijnen,

2009, p. 240).”

Graff, Cowdroy & Pettersen (1997) designed a seven steps model outlined

below: 1. Clarify the concepts;

2. Define the problem;

3. Analyze the problem;

4. Find the explanation;

5. Formulate the learning objective;

6. Search for further information; and

7. Report and test new information.

Self-directed study groups discuss and analyze selected cases. The typical

study group (8 to 12students) meets once or twice a week. Each individual

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student in the study group presents his/her work. It is then discussed and the

group decides who will continue with what tasks. Often students organize their

work in such a way that their individual work supplements the work of the

group, enabling them to develop a broader perspective of the related themes

(Barrows, 1984). The role of the teacher who attends the meetings is primarily

to facilitate the learning process (i.e. to facilitate the group's work and internal

communication).

The assessment methods must be compatible with the objectives of the

learning process. With PBL this means progress testing to establish the
individual's knowledge and testing for competence rather than for isolated

factual knowledge (Van der Vlenten C. P.M, Norman G.R and deGrraff E,

(1991).

Different PBL models organize the didactic elements quite differently,

allowing for variation within the general framework. However, there are limits

to this flexibility. It is, for instance, not enough to simply change the

educational format within the framework of ordinary class teaching. This is

one of the classic `mistakes' made when changing to PBL. Changes in the

educational format must be consistent with the form of the examinations or

with the principles of material selection. Otherwise, the students will soon

figure out the `examination code' and single that out as a learning goal instead

of completing the PBL cycle.

To sum up the section, we identified according to barrows (2002), and Walker

and Leary (2009 pp. 13-14), four key components of PBL. The presentation

of ill-structured problems so as to engage students into multiple thoughts on

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how they can solve the problem. Such problems may not have a single correct

answer and should engage students in the exploration of multiple solution

paths.

PBL is a student-centered approach where students regulate what they need

to learn. Learners have the responsibility to derive the key issues of the

problems they face, delineate their knowledge gaps, and track and attain the

absent knowledge. Teachers act as facilitators or tutors in the learning process.

These tutors, typically faculty, initially prompt students with meta-cognitive

questions and in subsequent sessions fade that guidance. Tutors forgo lecturing

about content in favor of modelling the kinds of learning processes that lead

to success in PBL settings. Authenticity forms the basis of problem selection,

embodied by alignment to professional or “real world” practice. As such, the

problems are inherently cross disciplinary and require students to investigate

multiple subjects in order to generate a workable solution.

As Lebow (1993) noted ...traditional educational technology values of

replicability, reliability, communication, and control (Heinich, 1984) contrast

sharply with the primary constructivist values of collaboration, personal

autonomy, generativity, reflectivity, active engagement, personal relevance,

and pluralism (1993, p.5). This hits on strategy for summarizing the

constructivist framework in a way that may help with the interpretation of the

instructional strategies. When one takes a constructivist perspective, one

would talk about a shift in value of instructional delivery. These value system

serve to guide the interpretation of the instructional principles as well as the

interpretation of the problem based learning environment. Instructional

strategies should anchor all learning activities to a larger task or problem.

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Learning must be a derivative of a purpose which focuses on the broader

world. The learner should have a clear understanding of the purpose of any

learning activity and the important issues relevant to the larger perception of

the physical world (CTGV, 1992; Honebein, et.al, 1993).

The constructivist strategy focuses on supporting the learner in developing

ownership for the overall problem or task. The problem can be solicited from

the learners and use that as the stimulus for learning activities. Scardamalia

and Bereiter (1991) noted that elementary students are able to initiate problems

that can serve as the foundation of learning activities in traditional school

subject matter. In essence, the strategy is to define a territory and then to work

with the learner in developing meaningful problems or tasks in that domain.

On the other hand, a problem can be launch in such a way that the learners will

readily assume the problem as their own (CTGV, 1992). In whichever case,

however, the most paramount thing is the engagement of the learner into a

problem statement and how relevant the problem is to the learners’ physical

environment.
An authentic learning environment is another very important proposition

which constructivist strategies takes into consideration. For the learning

environment to be authentic, the intellectual demands, i.e., the thinking

required, should be consistent with the perceptive demands in the environment

in which we expect the learner to solve real life challenges (Honebein, et.al.

1993). As observed by Bereiter, (1994) and Honebein, Duffy, & Fishman,

(1993) learners are not engaged in science, for example, to memorize a text or

execute scientific procedures but rather to engage in scientific discourse and

problem solving. This imply that the learning environment should be

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meaningful and related to the physical world of the student if the student has

to take ownership and therefore engage in the learning process.

2.4: Scholar’s perspectives on PBL.

Scholars have been trying to examine the merits of PBL and how best it can

be integrated into providing learning experiences. This section discusses some

of the perspective by some scholars regarding PBL and how these perspectives

affects student learning experiences. The use of a problem scenarios as a

stimulus to determine the organizational and nature of what is learned provides

a sense of direction and focus in maintained the learning process as long as the

student is trying to solve a problem. PBL provides opportunities for Interaction

with different concepts and consequently results in a development of different

range of skills. As Piaget had put it the existence of the problem (Piaget 1977;

vonGlaserfeld, 1989) is the need for accommodation of new ideas absent in

the existing schema and this is a pivotal goal in considering what is learnt.

The interactive atmosphere provided by PBL according to Savery (1995)

highlights the fact that knowledge evolves through collaborations and

evaluation of what other individuals’ interpret the environment about them.

Through the interaction with different social groupings, individuals discover

alternative views to challenge their current views. And the spirit of

collaboration results is discovering of new ideas which broadens students

approach to a problem. It has been observed (Albanese and Mitchell 1993;

Vernon and Blake 1993) that problem based learning is an effective approach

in school environment and findings have shown that students developed better

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problem solving skills on problem scenarios and that students perception and

motivation about PBL is overwhelming.

According to Barrows and Tamblyn, (1980) PBL offers two learning

objectives; acquisition of an integrated body of knowledge and the

development of problem solving skills. PBL provides advantages for skills in

problem solving. Information, concepts, and skills learned by the student are

put into his memory in association with the problem. The student will be better

placed in information recall in situations associated with the problem in which

the information is relevant. The problem can be used as a focus of study and

association to many different subjects by active integration of the information

into any other system that can be applied to the problem at hand and to

subsequent problems in future. Working with unknown problems enable

students to develop problem solving, diagnostic and critical thinking skills.

The student must get information, look at cues, and analyze and synthesis the

data available, develop hypothesis, and apply deductive reasoning at the

problem in question. The fact that the problem scenarios given to students

relate to the actual problems in the physical world motivates students to work

towards finding a practical solution to the problem. In addition, relevance of a

problem to physical world give the student a broader perspective of the

importance of the realizing basic science information for his future tasks.

Skills acquired in PBL class can be useful later in the professional life and the

problem scenario become the stimulus for further knowledge acquisition.

Barrows & Tamblyn (1980) further indicated that PBL like any other students

centered approach excites, motivates and enables students’ exhibit more

mature learning behavior. Students tend to develop critical thinking, learning

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skills and acquire an impressive groundwork of basic knowledge. Problem

Based Learning is, however, without shortcomings.

Firstly, PBL tend to increase course work and correspondingly increases

teachers and students workload. Kingsland (1996), however, reported his

generalized findings that students were satisfied with PBL although they

perceived that they covered less content material as compared to students

exposed to traditional lecture methods. PBL education is based on the students'

back ground, expectations, and interests. It is a very common experience that

students are more motivated and work much harder with the PBL model than

with traditional teaching methods. They also spend a great deal of time on PBL

work. There is a connection between the teaching method and the depth and

complexity of the learning, as the student may be expected to reach a level of

analytically complex comprehension through the problem-based work that

would not be possible in conventional classes. However, while students can

be expected to reach this deep level of learning, it is still possible that they

may miss parts of the broader perspective or breadth of knowledge. It is

therefore an important part of PBL pedagogy to ensure that the student is in a

position to fill in any potential `subject area gaps', if or when there is a need

for that at a later point (Graff & Cowdroy, 1997).

There is likely to be a problem of group dynamics with a likely wood of some

students dominating the task and these may lead to withdraw by some inactive

members of the group (Benbow & McMahon, 2001). In a case of competitive

Classes, a switch to group work may be disliked by certain students.

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The introduction of high level of course fees in some parts of the world had

led to some parents and students to expect that information has to be

transferred to them from the teacher rather than an investment in an effort to

learn considering the belief that teaching is an information transfer and

learning is an increase in knowledge (Bradbeer et al., 2004), students and

parents will expect information to be transferred in the most commonly held

conception of teaching. According to Chappel (2006) such concepts are very

challenging to proponents of PBL whose focus is on learning how to learn as

opposed to learning to imitate. Beringer (2005) added that most students, even

then, are not comfortable with the merciness of real world problem scenario

and would rather prefer the structured and more traditional learning style. It

has further been argued that in its quest to priotise a problem as a fundamental

aspect of life, PBL shifts its attention on the doing ahead of the thinking,

reflection and accommodation. According to Fenwick (1998, P.2), such an

approach is viewed to be inconsistent with “the modernist pursuit of

efficiency, predictability, productivity, measuring concrete outcomes, and

unitary meaning subordinated to instrumentality.” There had been some

disagreements by many, though, who claim that PBL actually gives instructors

an approach to instruction delivery in a more diverse manner. According to

barrows & Tamblyn (1980) the central belief of the PBL approach is that of

developing meta- cognitive skill through reflection. Others at the same time

have argued that PBL gives opportunities for students to pursue many avenues,

some of which may be irrelevant to the learning outcomes, thereby giving

freedom to make mistakes and to learn from them (king, 2001).

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2.5: Conclusion

In conclusion, we may say that Problem Based Learning is assumed to offer

benefits not only to the learners but also to the instructors and institutions of

learning. Despite a number of challenges, the benefits of PBL are viewed to

be quite immerse. From the definitions given, PBL is viewed as a

constructivist paradigm which shifts the responsibility of learning on the

learner and the teacher assumes the role of a facilitator of the learning process.
The teacher provides the problem scenario and facilitates students to reflect

on their learning. The problem guides them to identify what they ought to

know to solve the problem at hand as they build knowledge basing on their

prior understanding of the problem statement. The ownership and reality of

the problem situation motivates learners to search for information to fill in

their knowledge gap resulting in a development of a range of skills. It may be

observed that PBL help to develop key transferable skills for work and social

life, enhance student experience and link research and teaching. Student are

engaged into research based learning as they identify the key problems of the

case scenario, clarify what they know, naming research question, identifying

sources of information, evaluating resources, synthesizing information,

marshalling evidence to support an argument and presenting findings ( Barrett

& Cashman, 2010). All these experience appears to prepare students fully for

future endeavors including provision of pre requisite knowledge for masters

and Doctorate research prospects.

Generally, PBL is believed to increase academic achievements of students

and also promotes the development of metacognition and problem solving

skills. It can be stated here that in administration of PBL attention must be

22

given to the nature of the problem, time and diversity of learning. Basing on

these understanding, the researcher has endeavored to establish the reality of

PBL in a Zambian scenario by investigating the perspectives and experiences

of science teachers working in this space. These paper therefore is an attempt

to answer the following questions:

1. What are the experiences of teacher educators toward Problem Based Learning

pedagogy in Zambian colleges of education?

2. How does the perspectives of teachers towards problem Based Learning

impact on students’ experiences?

3. What are the challenges associated with the use of Problem Based Learning
pedagogy in Science Teacher Education in Zambia?

The following chapter outlines the research design and the methodology

employed in this research.

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CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

3.1: Introduction

This chapter introduces the methodology employed in this research about

perspective of science teachers on Problem Based Learning as a Science

classroom practice. Attempts had been made to demonstrate why the methods

where chosen for this study and how they were applied to answer the research

question.

The section starts by introducing the research approach underpinning this

study and proceeds by introducing the study location. It further describes the

sample and the techniques employed in determining it. Attention has also

being given to explaining the method of data collection and how data was

processes and analyzed. Before outlining the challenges, the chapter has also

outlined evaluation criteria and ethical considerations employed to ensure

validity and reliability of the results.

3.2: Research Approach

This qualitative study on the perspectives of teachers on Problem Based

Learning as a classroom Instruction strategy employs a case study design. It

focuses on 6 teachers (N=6) teachers and 4 education administrators( N=4)

who were trained in constructivists Pedagogies by the Government of the

Republic of Zambia (GRZ) in collaboration with the Japanese International

Co-operation Agency (JICA) and who are currently practicing the pedagogy

in respective Colleges of Education (CEs) in Zambia.

Case study is the study of an instance in action (Adelman et al., 1980).

Creswell (1994:12) also defines case study as a single instance of a closed

24
system. It can be a child, a clique, a class, a school or a community. Yin (2009:

18) however do not hold a tight definition and argues that the broader line

between the phenomenon under study and its context is not so clear, as case

study focuses on the case within its context. A case study as argued further by

Verschuren (2003:123) can sometimes be tightly bounded and other times less

so. Creswell’s definition suits well in my study because a single teaching

pedagogy is studied in a system of teacher education in Zambia.

In this study on perspectives of teachers on PBL, real people in real situations

were studied in order to present ideas more clearly other than by mere theories

and principles. As echoed by Vin, (2009: 72-73), a case study enables the

reader to fully understand how ideas and abstract principles can be put

together. It was expected that in carrying out a case study on perspectives of

teachers on PBL the researcher would come up with an in-depth understanding

of the causes and effects of PBL in real context and that this knowledge will

be helpful in justifying the execution of this teaching pedagogy in a Zambian

context. As Stirman (1999:103) argues, human systems are unique and have

complex dynamics and unfolding interaction of events, human relationships

and other factors at play. It was therefore necessary to get to the ground of the

Zambian education system and investigate the reality of PBL and its

practicality rather than generalize it from other settings.

3.3: Study Location

This study was conducted in two colleges of education in Luapula and central

Provinces of Zambia respectively where teacher educators trained in

constructivists’ pedagogies by GRZ and JICA operates from. Two colleges of

25

education: Mansa College of Education (MACE) and Malcom Moffat College

of Education (MMCE) provided a pool of teacher educators trained and

operating in this space. The National and Regional headquarters of the

ministry of education was a source of policy documents and provided a system

sample comprising of education administrators monitoring and assessing

education systems in the country.

3.4: The sample and sampling techniques.

A sample as defined by Best and Kahn (2006:13) is “a small proportion of the

population that is selected for observation and analysis.” In order to have a

holistic picture of perspectives of teachers on PBL, two categories of sample

was investigated. The first category, was a composition of six teachers (N=6)

working in this space. The second category comprised a system sample of four

education administrators (N=4) working as education standard officers at

regional and national levels. These were involved in the monitoring and

assessment of education programs in the country.

A purposive sample was chosen from a national pool of teachers trained in

constructivist pedagogies by the Zambian Government in collaboration with

the Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA). Using purposive

sampling technique involves selecting certain units or cases based on a specific

purpose rather than randomly (Tashokkori & Teddlie, 1993: 713). Marshall,

(1996) highlights that in purposive sampling, the researcher actively selects

the most productive sample to answer the research questions. In this study, the

sample was selected basing on the fact that they were not only, trained in

constructivist pedagogies but they were also involved in practicing and

26

managing PBL as a science classroom practice among other teaching

strategies. Education administrators were selected on the basis that they were

trained in the same strategies and were involved in providing for and

monitoring all the teaching and learning activities regarding science classroom

at colleges of education level and beyond. According to Hox & Boeije (2005),

individuals are selected in a purposive sample because they are formal nodes

of information and therefore in a position to provide the researcher with

informative responses to survey questions or to points the researcher to other

sources of valuable information. The next section discusses the method

employed in data collection and gives a brief explanations on why the methods

had been adopted for the research.

3.5: Method of Data Collection

In-depth semi- structured personal interviews were administered to ten

respondents. According to Guion, Diehel & McDonald (2001), in – depth

qualitative interviews are excellent tools to use in planning and evaluating

extension programs because they use an open- ended discovery oriented

method which allow the interviewer to deeply explore the respondents’

feelings and perspectives on the subject. The researcher used open ended

questions to allow the respondent to explain more on the topic. Galvin (2004),

noted these interviews as Focused (semi- structured) interview:

“…are used to collect qualitative data by setting up a situation (the

interview) that allows a respondent the time and scope to talk about their

opinions on a particular subjects. The objective is to understand the

respondents’ point of view using open- ended questions, some suggested

by the researcher and some arise naturally during the interview. The

researcher times to build a rapport with the respondent and the interview is

like a conversation. Questions are asked when the interviewer feels it is

appropriate to ask them. They may prepare questions or questions that may

occur to the researcher during the interviews” (Galvin, 2004: 26).

27

The researcher conducted semi- structured interviews with the following:

1. College of education Science teachers (N= 6).

2. Education Administrators (Standards Officers) (N= 4)

Questions flowed from previous responses and clarity was pursued where

required. The responses were audio recorded and complemented with written

or field notes. Observations of every other details of verbal and nonverbal

behaviors were systematically recorded to help investigate deeper meaning

and understanding. The audio – recordings were transcribed by creating a

verbatim text. All questions were written down together with their respective

responses. Side notes were also included as part of the verbatim text written

as side notes of the interviews and responses. Bell & Stephen (2014),

however, highlighted that apart from being time consuming, interviews can

also be highly subjective and therefore prove to be biased. When done

thoroughly, interview questions and transcribing responses is as demanding as

it is for a questionnaire. Despite all the demands above, interviews still

remains by far a rich source of materials and can often dig deep into the subject

under investigation. All the audio and transcribed interview schedules were

stored on an encrypted flash disk.

28

3.6: Validation of instruments.

3.6.1: Generalizability

Cassell & Symon (2004) observed that a view may be taken that research

which is not based on large quantitative sample surveys, is insufficiently

generalizable to be of value in the creation of organizational knowledge for

academic or policy purposes. This, however, is strongly challenged by

Qualitative researchers who argues that the heterogeneity of populations of

organizations and of their owner-managers suggests that smaller samples,

tightly controlled for structural and other relevant dimensions, are likely to

have greater explanatory power than could be revealed by a large scale survey,

although of course the latter may be useful for other purposes. In this study on

perspectives of teacher educators on problem based learning as a classroom

pedagogy, understanding the detail of the processes and behaviors is

paramount and a technique such as in- depth interviews enables such an

objective to be accomplished.

3.6.2: Reliability

Reliability means that the “results produced by an indicator do not vary

because of characteristics of the measurement process or the instrument used”

(Lawrence, 2000: 164). In order to enhance reliability the researcher chose to

conduct in-depth interviews with a purposive sample that was operating in the

space of the target population, in this case science educators directly involved

in classroom practice.

In- depth interviews are not easy to conduct well. A lot of skills and a high

level of maturity was exercised to manage the respondent, directing their

29

interview so that clarity of understanding can be achieved, it also included the

aspect of handling the expression of emotion including distress. Of course not

all respondents were able to reveal unfavorable experiences and the researcher

had to probe sensitively and not be carried away by the wave of success which

the respondent may be putting across. The researcher created a rapport of trust

and open exchange with the interviewee to provide a conducive and friendly

atmosphere to the respondent. It was difficult to capture all critical experiences

as expected but this was handled by probing them skillfully and rephrasing

questions.

Reliability was further increased by making online follow-up questions to the

respondents to seek clarity on some issues as captured from the interview data

transcription. In doing so the researcher was careful not to drive the respondent

in giving out truths but to understand the respondents’ perspectives and

actions. Furthermore, reliability was enhanced by triangulating the sources of

information from the focus group to that of the system sample which included

in-depth interviews for education administrators involved in teacher education

at regional and national levels. Such representative reliability enabled the

researcher to capture consistent data among subpopulation. According to

Lawrence (2000) to have representative reliability a measure needs to give

accurate information for every subgroup.

3.7.3: Conformability
In my study, I was aware that my perspectives could influence the collection,

analysis and interpretation of evidence, including deciding what evidence is

(Denzin & Lincoln, 2009). With this in mind, I had to employ mechanisms to

30

ensure that my personal perspectives does not affect the credibility of the

research process. To achieve this, I safeguarded that all the in-depth interviews

were well probed to seek clarity. I further recorded every detail of the

interviews and transcribed them to avoid any possible distortion of the

information. I was equally aware that research is never objective and therefore

I faithfully endeavored to divorce this piece of work from personal values and

any theoretical inclinations to ensure that did not affect/ influence the conduct

of the research and consequently arriving at new findings (Bryman, 2012).

3.6.4: Reflexivity

Bryman (2012) holds that reflexivity is a term used in research methodology

to refer to a reflectiveness among social researchers about the implications for

the knowledge of the social world they generate of their methods, values,

biases, decisions, and mere presence in the very situations they investigate.

In this study, I was aware of the need to avoid taking sides when conducting

interviews to avoid reproducing my assumptions as findings. I knew that

though I had my own perspectives about the research topic, I had to strike a

balance between my personal perceptions and the perceptions of my

participants to prevent my research from being skewed to my own viewpoint.

"A researcher's background and position will affect what they choose to

investigate, the angle of investigation, the methods judged most adequate

for this purpose, the findings considered most appropriate, and the framing

and communication of conclusions" (Malterud, 2001, p. 483-484).

With this in mind, I allowed the participants to share their experiences without

interrupting them even when their opinions about the research topic

contradicted with mine.

31

I was equally aware that it was not necessary to separate myself from my

respondents but needed to create a rapport with them as I was part and parcel

of knowledge construction (Bryman, 2012). All my prejudices were reflected

upon and self- monitored in order to accommodate the perspectives of my

respondents. To avoid confusing my perceptions with those of the participants,

I attempted to answer the questions on my interview guide in advance and kept

a separate record in my diary to cross check the responses of my respondents

(Cassell & Symon, 2004).

3.7: Methods of Data analysis

This sections gives an outline of the method employed in this study. It gives

an account of the general analysis approach used, explaining how the

researcher analyzed the interview data from interview data sets in order to

arrive at the findings.

This study employed Thematic Analysis approach which is one of the most

accessible, flexible, and increasingly popular method of qualitative data

analysis. According to Braun & Clarke (2006), thematic analysis is an

organization of patterns of meaning across a data set, through which a

researcher makes sense of collective or shared meanings and experiences. The

research identifies common grounds regarding a subject as it is written about

or discussed. In this study on perspectives of science teachers on PBL as a

science classroom pedagogy, numerous patterns were identified across data

sets from in-depth interviews with a view to identify those relevant to

answering a research questions. Six teacher selected were practicing science

teachers and four participants were education administrators in education. The

32

interviews were audio recorded and then transcribed orthographically,

reproducing all spoken words and sounds including hesitation false starts, cut

offs in speech indicating by dashes, interview gurgles e.g. mm- hm, ah- ah,
laughter, log pause[indicated by (pause and strong emphasis(indicated by

underscore), commas signal a continuing intonation, broadly commensurate

with a grammatical comma in written language; inverted commas were used

to indicate reported speech, three full- stops in a row (…) signal editing

transcript.

Analyzing this piece of writing was done in six phases outlined by Braun &

Clarke (2006). Responses to qualitative interviews were read through twice in

order to familiarize myself with the data. Notes were taken alongside the data

as I read through it actively; analytically and critically and starting to think

about what the data means. The aim of this phase was to become intimately

familiar with my data sets content and to begin to notice things that might be

relevant to my research question (Braun & Clarke 2006).

In the second phase the researcher began the systematic analysis of the data

through coding. Codes were the building blocks of analysis, which identified

and provided labels for features of the data that was potentially relevant to the

research question. Codes can provide a pithy summary of a portion of data or

describe the content of the data— such descriptive or semantic codes typically

stay close to content of the data and to the participants’ meanings (Braun &

Clarke 2006). Braun and Clarke further explains that Codes can also go

beyond the participants’ meanings and provide an interpretation about the data

content. With this on mind, the researcher coded from the interview responses

every piece of data which was potentially relevant to the research question.

33

Hard copy data was coded, by clearly identified the code name and

highlighting the portion of the code associated with it. This process ended

when data was fully coded and the data relevant to each code had been

collated. Enough codes were captured to address both the diversity, and the

patterns, within the data, and as it appear across more than one data item.

After coding, the research proceeded with searching for Themes. In this phase
a consolidation of portions started to take shape deriving a shift from codes to

themes. A theme “captures something important about the data in relation to

the research question, and represents some level of patterned response or

meaning within the data set” (Braun & Clarke, 2006, p. 82). Searching for

themes involved an active process of generating and constructing themes

rather than discovering them. Coded data was reviewed to identify areas of

similarities and overlap between codes. Broad topics or issues around which

codes cluster were identified. The process of generating themes and

subthemes, which are the subcomponents of a theme, involved collapsing or

clustering codes that seem to share some unifying feature together, so that they

reflect and describe a coherent and meaningful pattern in the data. Different

codes were combined under different themes. The researcher explored the

relationship between themes and considered how themes worked together in

telling an overall story about the data. A record of miscellaneous theme was

also kept and this included the codes that do not clearly fit anywhere, which

may end up as part of new themes or being discarded.

After the themes were searched the researcher proceeded the next level which

involved a recursive process in which the developing themes were reviewed

in relation to the coded data and entire data set. Themes were checked against

34

the collated extracts of data and explored to establish whether the theme works

in relation to the data. Some themes were discarded and some codes relocated

to ensure that they fit well with the data set.

After the process of identifying themes that worked in relation to the coded

data extracts, themes were reviewed in relation to the entire data set. This

involved one final reread of all data to determine whether the themes

meaningfully captured the entire data set or an aspect thereof. The themes were

then defined and named, indicating what is unique about each. This phase

involved the deep analytical work and shaping up of analysis into its finegrained
detail. Extracts were selected to present and analyze and then setting

out the story of each theme with or around these extracts. Extracts provided a

vivid, compelling example that clearly illustrated the analytic points made.

The extracts selected to quote provided the structure for the analysis—the data

narrative informing the reader of the interpretation of the data and their

meaning (Braun & Clarke 2006). Data was then interpreted and connected to

the broader research questions and to the scholarly fields within which the

work was situated.

The final stage involved producing a report. The purpose of the report was to

provide a compelling story about the data based on the analysis. According to

(Braun & Clarke 2006) the task of the write up of a thematic analysis, whether

it is for publication or for a research assignment or dissertation, is to tell the

complicated story of your data in a way which convinces the reader of the

merit and validity of your analysis. This write-up, therefore, has provided

sufficient evidence of the themes within the data i.e., enough data extracts to

demonstrate the prevalence of the theme.

35

The writer had put into this compilation more than just data. All data extracts

embedded within an analytic narrative illustrate the story that is being told

about the data, and the analytic narrative was beyond description of the data.

This is included where appropriately to provide literature support and

arguments in relation to the research question.

JerseyGuest, MacQueen and Namey (2011) recommended that Thematic

Analysis is one of the most useful methods in capturing the complexities of

meaning within a textual data set although issues of reliability is of greater

concern primarily because more interpretation goes into defining data

items(codes) as well as applying the codes to chunks of texts.

3.8: Verbatim quotations

In this study the researcher used extended verbatim quotations within three
main constructs: as evidence; as explanation and to deepen understanding.

The researchers believed that presenting quotations helped to provide evidence

for their interpretations. Corden & Sainsbury (2006) noted that readers could

make their own judgement from the original data and this strengthens the

credibility of the research. Alongside such beliefs, the researcher had to work

hard at justifying the findings, so that the work did not appear unscientific or

subjective.

The researchers used extensive verbatim quotations to explain how something

happened and thought this was particularly useful when it was important for

readers to understand complex processes by which people made sense of their

lives. Understanding why people had particular views or perspectives, or

behaved in the way they did, was sometimes made easier for readers by

36

showing the ways in which individual people constructed what was happening

to them and the linkages they made for themselves (Corden & Sainsbury

,2006).

Furthermore the researcher used verbatim quotations to offer readers greater

depth of understanding. People’s spoken words sometimes showed the

strength of their views or the depth of feelings or, on the other hand, their

passivity and lack of engagement in ways that the researcher’s own narrative

could not. The actual words spoken were sometimes a better representation of

the depth of feeling.

3.9. Ethical considerations

I adhered to the codes of ethics for conducting a qualitative research by

ensuring that research was based on informed consent. The consent document

stated clearly that the study involved research and explanation of the purpose,

expected duration, a disclosure that participation was voluntary, how

confidentiality would be maintained and that refusing to participate did not

attract any penalty (Best and Kahn, 2006). Before engaging the participants
into the interview I took my time explaining to the participants the purpose of

the interview.

Furthermore, I explained to the participants that all their responses would be

kept confidential as the information I collected from their interview responses

would not identify them as respondents. As Kvale (2011:28) affirms,

“confidentiality in research implies that private data identifying the subjects

will not be reported” unless the participants desire to be recognized.” In this

37

research none of the participants was referred to by name. Consequently, all

respondents were kept anonymous.

To ensure anonymity, the educators (six teachers and four education

administrators) are referred to as T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6 and S1, S2, S3 and

S4 respectively. The two colleges of education are referred to as CE1 and CE2

respectively.

I explained to the participants that the interview would take about 30 minutes

and that, if they agreed, I would tape record the session to avoid missing any

of their comments. I also explained that they were free to end the interview

anytime and that they only had to talk about things they wanted to talk about

to avoid coercing the participants to answer questions to an extent that their

privacy is invaded (Patton, 2002). Before signing the informed consent form I

gave them chance to ask questions if they needed any clarification.

3.10: Challenges

Generally, I did not face any major challenge with my respondents as they

were all committed to the task and sometimes rendered help to me beyond my

expectations. Minor challenges included rescheduling the interview dates.

However, I had patience and considered my task to be less important than that

of my informants and adjusted to fit in their schedule whenever it was

necessary. As for infrastructure related challenges, a solution was always

arrived at with the help of my informants. Education administrators, on the

other hand, may have limited disclosure regarding their implementation of the

pedagogy as this may reflect a weakness in their policy implementation. This

might have resulted in withholding details regarding policy issues.

38

3.11: Conclusion

This chapter gives a step by step description of the research approach used in

this study outlining the ontological stance taken and giving explanation for the

choices made. A qualitative approach was the research strategy used and indepth

interviews was the only methods of data collection. A detailed

explanation of the reasons for the choice of this method and how they were

effected have also been given. Sufficient information has also been given

about sampling and the sampling procedure which was used so as to make

easy the interpretation of findings. Issues of reliability and ethical

considerations have also been taken care of. The next chapter presents the

findings with reference to the concepts that arose from the data responses

given by my respondents.

39

CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS

4.1: Introduction

This chapter presents the findings of the studies on the perspectives of science

teachers on problem based learning as a science classroom pedagogy. The

findings are stemming from two data sets. One is the data collected from

science teachers trained and practice PBL as a science classroom pedagogy

and the other data set was collected from education administrators who were

predominantly standard officers at regional and National level directly

involved in monitoring and evaluation of education programs. Emerging from

the codes in the responses in the data set three themes were extracted. These

were:

Teachers’ pedagogical knowledge of PBL.

 PBL benefits Realization.

Changing Pedagogical Practice.

All these themes were reported individually and given equal attention although

teachers’ pedagogical knowledge appeared to be cross cutting among the three

themes. In some cases subordinate themes are used to support the main theme.

4.2: THEMES

4.2.1: Teachers’ Pedagogical knowledge on PBL

Teachers’ pedagogical knowledge measures the degree of understanding of

PBL and the extent to which teachers applied Problem Based Learning in their

day to day teaching. It investigated the extent to which educator preferred PBL

to other teaching strategies especially in relation to traditional lecture

40

approaches. It further examines the educators’ personal understanding of PBL

as a classroom pedagogy and its applicability in their habitats. In addition,

teacher educators’ pedagogical knowledge examined the extent to which

students value PBL, their interests and aspirations.

(a) Degree of understanding of PBL

All the science educators interviewed demonstrated a good knowledge of what

constituted PBL as a classroom practice, however they were able to state that

despite having received adequate training in Constructivist pedagogies in

Malaysia, little had been done to train others and therefore little skill had been

transferred among the teacher population in the region. Three teachers T1, T4

and T5 testified:

“We had received adequate training from SEAMEO RECSAM in Malaysia

and I personally proposed to multiply the training to all the Science Heads

of department in the region but due to lack of resources my proposal was

not honored. And so I would not attest to the fact that all the educators in

the region, really understand fully what is involved in Problem based

learning” (T1, 2017).

“…a few times I’m given opportunities to share my experiences of the

SEAMEO RECSAM training during stakeholders consultative meetings and

Zambia Association of Science educationists Conferences but usually only

for a few minutes, perhaps 30minutes had been the maximum, and surely

you don’t expect to transfer much skills to the rest of the educators who had

no opportunity to travel abroad” (T4, 2017).

“Aaaah , aa I would say that transfer of skill, it is not 100%, because as

long as the people that are trained are still using these other pedagogies,

you know aa, you can learn something but with time you stop using the

skills, so just like in schools we have continuing professional development,

so we also need refresher courses. Teaching is dynamic, new things are

being introduced, so in a long run I feel that most of the people have even

stopped talking about these methodologies due to the passage of time”

(T5, 2017).

From the responses above one would observe that all the trained teachers

operating in this space were enthusiastic about sharing their learnt skills with

the rest of the teachers in the regions and the country at large despite being

given little opportunities to do so and very little professional trainings had

41

been organized within the country to refresh trained teachers and reflect on the

impact of the programme.

However, one education standard officers argued that training opportunities

are provided for in the School Based continuing professional Development

Meetings. He explained that the policy existed which requires all teachers to

participate in professional development meetings and failure to transfer

relevant pedagogical knowledge to the teacher population is the failure of the

school administration to set its priorities right (S2, 2017).

Despite the existence of this information gap, all the trained educators

demonstrated thorough understanding of pedagogical knowledge in relation to

the relevant skills PBL can transfer in the students and the facilitation roles of

the teacher in creating the learning environment and student engagement. All

educators interviewed were able to indicate that PBL was a viable means by

which students can be equipped with the skills of problem solving which can

readily be transferred into solving day to day problems experienced by

individuals in the physical sphere. Majority were able to explain that the

relevance of the problem scenarios to the social sector are motives which

drives learners in research and consequently acquisition of a wide range of

problem solving skills. Two responses give a particularly good sense of this:

“Yes I would say these are methods where learners are given an

opportunity to solve real life problems. The teacher gives a problem, it can

be a social, political or economic problem that requires a scientific concept

to solve and learners try to explore ways of solving it” (T2, 2017).

“Formation of a problem scenario is one of the critical roles of a teacher

in PBL, the problem case can be political, social or economical in nature

and relevant to the day to day life style of learners. Without a good problem

case, learners will luck motive to learn” (T3, 2017).

42

(b) Level of application of Problem Based Learning

When asked about the extent to which Problem Based learning was used as a

classroom pedagogy all the college teachers interviewed except one where

able to testify that they applied it quite rarely. The main reasons advanced

where that PBL required a lot of time to implement and would not be efficient

in a curriculum permeated by high stake national examinations. Because all

educators goal is to complete the prescribed syllabus coverage and delivery of

content knowledge the process of skill acquisition therefore appears to be a

waste of time by both educators and the students whose prime occupation is

to prepare for high stake national examinations at the end of a prescribed study

period. One of the education standards officers noted that;

“.. We monitor teachers’ pedagogical application and really one can see

that our teachers are still preferring to use traditional approaches due to

its efficiency at subject coverage. We however encourage them to try and

mix the approaches for the sake of development of higher order thinking

skills which the Ministry of Education is highly advocating” (S3, 2017).

The Head of Science Education Section (HOS) of a G1 college of education

also stated that;

“... Curriculum being pursued in the country is exam driven. Everyone is

rushing to ensure that all the topics, all the outcomes in the syllabus or the

curriculum are completed by the end of the academic year. Let’s say

Zambian secondary school, grade 10 to grade 12, so in that period someone

is rushing to ensure that all the topics, all the outcomes are covered. Now

if you go the direction of PBL you don’t basically rush to complete the

syllabus, you are rushing to ensure that the student understand the skills

and gain knowledge” (T1, 2017).

The statements above reveals clearly that while teachers appreciate the

benefits PBL can offer to the mental and skill development of students,

teachers did not fully utilize it as a classroom pedagogy because of the

limitations of curriculum and assessment criterion demands.

43

(C) Educators’ knowledge of students’ interest in PBL

Educators practicing PBL had mixed feelings concerning students’ interest in

the pedagogy. Four out of the six educators interviewed observed that students

have interest in the pedagogy but were quick to state that the interest is

dependent on the relevance of the problem scenario given to them.

“Students enjoy when they are masters of their own learning. Students are

happy when they discover things on their own. But this is but with the

teacher committed to provide a suitable and relevant problem scenario

related to the students physical world” (T4, 2017).

“They (students) are very interested especially if you explain to them what

they will be doing, you guide them and you allow them to make mistakes.

Most of the times children are not participating because of our language.

Which will make the child live in a cocoon like if I try the teacher will rebuke

me, but if we allow the learner to accept his/her self and just allow them to

make mistakes, that is learning itself ” (T3, 2017).

“… for me, the time I started using PBL I had difficulties with the children

because, initially children are taught that it was only the teacher who knew

everything. So to make children start finding answers on their own it was

difficult but latter own they got interested. So it takes a lot of teacher input

for the learners to develop interest in PBL” (T2, 2017).

With regard to students’ interest in PBL one education standard officer

affirmed to students’ interest and said;

“All the lessons I have observed has shown that students participate fully

and collaboratively in PBL than in traditional approaches. I have noticed

high levels of enthusiasm among students. Of course the teachers plays a

pivotal role of facilitation” (S2, 2017).

The above experiences suggests that students are interested in PBL practice

depending on the level of expertise knowledge of the teacher in providing case

scenarios and the facilitation skills of the teacher are key in students’ response

to the pedagogy. Contradicting results however were noticed from T6 and T7

of CE1 and CE2 colleges of education respectively who indicated that students

are not interested categorically in anything that seem to waste their time to

prepare for their examination.

44

“We give our students the schemes of work for a term extracted from the

syllabus and students work around the scheme to ensure they cover the

topics within the stated period. So any form of project work appear a waste

of time and failure by the teacher to provide them with relevant

information” (T6, 2017).

The response above was supported by T7 who said that once students enroll

for the course there minds are set towards passing examinations and they look

forward to receive information from the teacher. Students are very much aware

of what constitutes their assessment and therefore anything outside their

continuing and high stake examination assessments becomes a waste of time

and energy.

“The prime goal of our students in the Zambian education system is to pass

the examinations and get a certificate which will warrant future career

prospects or academic endeavors and students are expected to receive

anything less than what is relevant to their syllabus and assessment criteria.

The absence of process skill assessment in the Zambian education

curriculum makes it irrelevant for students to develop interest in Problem

Based Learning” (T7, 2017).

4.2.2: PBL benefit realization

PBL benefit realization maps the extent to which the assumed benefits in the

bid to use PBL as a science classroom practice in colleges of education in

Zambia has been realized. It looks at teacher educators’ perspectives and

experiences with regard to PBL as a basis for inclusion in the teacher education

curriculum. For easy understanding, the results on PBL benefit realization are

therefore presented under two sub headings outlined below:

(a) PBL benefit realization in teacher education

All educators interviewed expressed concern with regard to the manifestation

of PBL benefits in colleges of education mostly because of the low levels of

application in science classroom. They were able to however, point out that

the benefits as assumed by the Ministry of Education are good and are being

45

realized but to a minimum degree. All the educators were hopeful that the

country can move forward in terms of skill acquisition only if continued efforts
are directed towards the implementation of constructivist pedagogies. As the

status quo stood educators expressed worries that very little efforts were being

channeled towards PBL implementation and the enthusiasm to apply PBL

pedagogies in science classroom was slowly dying out. The HOS of college

CE1 stated;

“The assumed benefits in the use of PBL I would say are being realized to

a very small degree but perhaps we would say we are in the process of

realizing those benefits at a large scale but on a small scale and maybe on

individual basis and depending on the environment in which the lecturer or

the teacher is operating from” (T1, 2017).

Asked on the realization of the assumed benefits of PBL a teacher from

College of Education CE2 further responded:

“Aaaah , aa I would say that it is not 100%, because as long as the people

that are trained are still using these other pedagogies, you know aa, you

can learn something but with time you stop using the skills, so just like in

schools we have continuing professional development, so we also need

refresher courses. Teaching is dynamic, new things are being introduced,

so in a long run I feel that like myself I feel that most of the people have

even stopped talking about these methodologies due to the passage of

time” (T5, 2017).

The other educator from college of education CE2 explained that,

“The assumed benefits are being realized. It’s like you are sending a child

to school, you don’t think that the assumed benefits will be immediate, you

wait the child completes secondary school then go to college and so on.

For me being one of the beneficiaries it is being realized” (T6, 2017).

From the responses above, I would haste to say that the realization of the

benefits of PBL and other constructivists’ pedagogy in a Zambian Education

system is very minimal. Realization has been affected by a number of factors

ranging from the environment (T1, 2017) to lack of professional development

and support (T5, 2017). This is confirmed by the response from the education

standards officer at regional level who lamented that,

46

“Monitoring and assessing the effectiveness of constructivist pedagogies in

Zambian Schools had been greatly hampered by financial limitations since

Japan International Co-operation stopped funding the lesson study cycle

Project. 2We, in most cases depend on reports from schools and you

wouldn’t be certain how genuine these reports might be unless you are on

the ground. There is always a tendency by school administrators to send in

good reports to give an impression that everything was going on perfect for

records sake” (S2, 2017.

Basing on the information above, one would see that while it is easy to state

that there is little realization of the assumed benefits, very little had been done

on the ground to ascertain the extent to which the rolling out of this

constructivist pedagogy had impacted on the Zambian Education System.

(b) Curriculum recommendations

A number of issues emerged when educators where asked about the need to

incorporate PBL in teacher education curriculum. Firstly, all the educators

recommended PBL pedagogy to be fully incorporated in the teacher education

curriculum because the curriculum at that level will form a backbone for

intensive teacher training in the pedagogical knowledge. The multiplier effect

would, in their view, be overwhelming if teachers graduate with full

knowledge of PBL application. This will in addition widen the professional

development base in PBL knowledge and increase on the skill development in

young students.

However, all the teachers interviewed also cautioned that the effectiveness of

including PBL in teacher education curriculum can only be acquired if there

is an overall restructuring in the assessment criteria of the programme. The

high stake examinations administered by the Examination Council of Zambia

2 A School Based Continuing Professional Development Programme (SBCPD) where teachers meet to

collaboratively plan a lesson, one teaches to the class and the others observe mostly to test the
effectiveness

of a pedagogy. The lesson is revised and retaught to a different class.

47

(ECZ)3 should consider factoring in process and problem solving skill

development if both students and educators were to pay particular attention

and emphasis on long term projects and learning processes emphasized in

Problem Based Learning. One educator emphasized that the success of

including PBL in teacher education curriculum hinges on the restructuring of

assessment criteria (T2, 2017). He advised that there should be a dramatic shift

from mare testing of content knowledge to a continuous examination of skill

development in the students. This will not only engage educators fully in

implementing PBL but also motivate students to fully engage and commit

themselves to the process of learning.

It was further noted by some educators, in addition, that if PBL was to be

integrated in the current curriculum, consideration must be made on the time

frame allocated to the practice. This is to ensure uniformity in skill

development and content knowledge acquisition by the students. If too much

time was allocated to PBL, it will result into low syllabus coverage and

therefore disadvantage students in terms of level of high stake examination

preparedness. When asked on the recommendations for curriculum inclusion

of PBL two educators T4 and T1 respectively observed that there should be a

deliberate policy to balance up skill development and content knowledge

acquisition which should stand out as a guide to teachers:

“Ok for me, first of all to the person who have been using PBL, that person

should strategically use PBL not for every lesson and every topic but

perhaps in the term maybe in each month, once or twice. Or else he is not

going to cover the syllabus, so for the sake of balancing up, the students
acquiring skills at least use PBL for at least once or three times in a term,

minimum three times in a term and maybe maximum 6 times in a term to

maintain the balance. So curriculum designers I think should also give the

3 The Zambia national examination body.

48

lecturers or teachers an opportunity to see which approach or pedagogy is

best suited at a particular period of teaching” (T1, 2017).

“As things stand, there must be a policy, a guide to the frequency of

application of respective approaches to instruction delivery. This is with a

view to maintain a balance. Remember there is the aspect of completing the

syllabus and the need develop lifelong skills in the learners. Completion of

the syllabus is meant to ensure adequate preparedness of students for

examinations which cannot be ignored all together” (T4, 2017).

The comment quoted above clearly states that while educators attaches a

degree of importance to problem solving and higher order thinking skills

development, they also want to balance the curriculum need for student

certification in terms of content knowledge as outlined by the curriculum.

The inclusion of PBL in the teacher education curriculum demands investment

in the provision of materials and equipment. Most learning environments in

the country are very disadvantage and out of reach of conventional means of

communication making it very difficult for the learners to access information.

The fact that PBL leaves most of the responsibility of the learning with the

learners, it becomes absolutely difficult for learners to fully engage in the

learning process in absence of materials and equipment. In addition to

investment in learning resources, teachers felt that massive investment in

human capital was also vital in the bid to include PBL in the teacher education

curriculum. With the status quo of very few educators being grounded in the

use of PBL it was uncalled for to introduce PBLin the teacher education

curriculum. One educator highlighted that:

“So many things need to be done if PBL has to be introduced in the teacher

education curriculum. We need massive investment in materials and

equipment, we also need a lot more human resource development. As things

stand, rolling out a programme with little preparation is wasting time” (T4,

2017).

Commenting on the degree of preparedness another educators lamented that;

“These programme requires preparation in a lot of areas, you need books,

you need the internet, and you need skilled man power. Otherwise most

49

schools at the moment luck all these aspects and therefore while we

appreciate the benefits PBL can offer, our country needs to do more than

just mare pronouncements of using these constructivist pedagogy” ( T2,

2017).

4.2.3: Changing pedagogical Practice

Changing practice maps the perspectives regarding the difficulties

experienced by teacher education in adopting PBL as a new classroom

innovation. It looks at the adverse experiences teachers in this space undergo

which makes it difficult to change their pedagogical practice from traditional

teaching methods. It also maps support structures of education at all levels

regarding implementations of constructivists’ pedagogies.

The adoption of PBL in Zambian schools has not been an easy undertaking.

While educators embrace the idea of PBL as a good classroom practice in

science classroom, there appear to be a number of challenges making it

difficult to change practice from traditional teaching approaches to modern

innovations. Emerging from the responses three subthemes were prominent as

outlined below:

(a) Examination oriented curriculum

The biggest challenge as pointed out by all respondents is that the education

curriculum in Zambia is examination oriented and educators are polarized

towards student attainment in public examinations. This has in general

affected the utilization of teaching strategies which are create a rift in skill

development. One educator explained:

“The major one (factor affecting change of pedagogical practice) is the

curriculum being pursued in the country is exam driven. Everyone

(educators) is rushing to ensure that all the topics, all the outcomes in the

syllabus or the curriculum are completed by the end of the academic year.

Let’s say Zambian secondary school, grade 10 to grade 12, so in that period

of three years someone is rushing to ensure that all the topics, all the

50

outcomes are covered. Now if you go the direction of PBL you don’t

basically rush to complete the syllabus, you consume most of the time in

ensuring that students understands (master) the skills and gain knowledge”

(T1, 2017).

(b) High teacher student ratios

Apart from limitations in the curriculum, three respondents pointed out that

high enrollment was another reason why it had been difficult for teachers to

adopt PBL. They were able to point out that in PBL learners work

collaboratively in relatively low groups easily managed by the facilitator. With

the high teacher/ student ratio prevailing in the country, coupled with

insufficient resources, the practice of PBL is unrealistic. Teachers have huge

classes and in most cases more than three classes. This not only make it

difficult to manage the huge classes but also make it unbearable to plan for

them. Asked why it was difficult to change practice from traditional

approaches to PBL two educators narrated as follows:

“I have four classes to teach and each class has more than 45 students. So

you can see that I have little time every day to reflect and plan for each of

those classes. And in PBL the most important thing is that the teacher need

enough time to reflect on his practice, plan and source the much needed
materials if realism is to be brought into the class” (T6, 2017).

“You don’t expect a teacher to easily change to these modern approaches

when they are stressed up with overloads of work every day and are

demotivated by poor conditions of service. The government should first

address the high teacher student ratios, provide enough teaching/ learning

resources and such approaches can be facilitated without difficulties” (T3,

2017).

(c) Lack of technical knowledge

Other educators attributed the difficulties in changing practice from traditional

approaches to PBL to the mind set by science educators permeated by low

technical knowledge in the utilization of the pedagogy. They pointed out that

the current crop of teachers were trained in traditional teaching styles and

51

necessitating a paradigm shift to teachers who were taught predominantly in

lecture format was challenging. One educator has this to say;

“…Also change of mind set, you find that most of the teachers that are

teaching right now, they were taught using traditional methods, so they also

think that the traditional way is better and they are not willing to change

their mind set because they don’t realize times have changed, things are

different from the way they used to be. Children are being exposed to

various ways in which they can learn. So, mind set also is one of the major

reasons why changing practice is not easy from a Zambian scenario” (T2,

2017.

Another educator highlighted, however, that despite the resistance to change

most people have the understanding of the benefits that PBL can offer

students:

“Naturally humans are resistant to change but with time, and from the

time that this method was introduced into our teaching in Zambia most of

the teachers are coping up and they have come to understand that PBL is
one of the most effective modes of instruction delivery”(T6, 2017).

Resistance to change in pedagogical practice was further perceived as a result

of low technical knowledge in the use of PBL approach. Most people have not

received adequate training in PBl and therefore feel uncomfortable to use an

approach where they luck competence. The demands of PBL as an instruction

mode stresses a lot of innovation and skill in creating relevance in case

scenarios. Apart from that the teacher was expected to be well vested with

facilitation skills. These aspects needs staff development especially in a

Zambian case where educators have no initial PBL training from their

respective Teacher Training Colleges.

“Very few teachers have received trainings in constructivist pedagogy

including PBL. The rest have only heard about it in briefs, usually in stake

holders meetings and in isolated workshops. There has never been a

comprehensive programme to adequately empower teachers in PBL nor is

there a guideline on integrating it in the current curriculum” (T3, 2017).

On the contrally, the standard officer at the National level argued that the

policy guidelines existed for training and retraining of teachers in any

52

innovations pertaining to change. Coting from the CPD implementation

guidelines (2010, P6) he said:

“There is a clear policy for CPD which encourages In Service Training

(INSET) for teachers to be school based. It is from this policy that all the

levels of education provision are encouraged to provide necessary CPD for

its human resource. Under School-Based CPD, each school is expected to

hold Teacher Group Meetings (TGM) and Head teachers’ In-service

Meetings (HIM) regularly. These meetings are initiated by the Heads of

Department with the assistance of Facilitators. The role of the Head

teacher is that of creating a conducive teaching and learning environment.

Thus, the role of the administration is very crucial in the planning and
resource mobilization for school based CPD.

The main actors in the meetings are the teachers. They are free to discuss

their concerns on teaching and exchange knowledge and skills in the

groups. However, experts from various educational institutions could be

invited occasionally as observers” (SBCPD Implementation guide, 2010).

He further explained that the school was empowered to carry out all the

trainings in new innovations and that it was the responsibility of the

administration at that level to identify the needs and effect necessary training

interventions. The Head of Science Section at a College of education

confirmed that while it was true that the school conducts SBCPD, the science

section was always facing low funding levels making it hard to round up a

crop of facilitators to share relevant pedagogical knowledge with the rest.

“Like you draw up a training programme and present it to the

administration for approval but all you are told is there is no money.

Sometimes you draw a one week programme and you are advised to reduce

it to one day. So how can you effectively deliver? You need allowances for

facilitators, you need refreshments, and you need materials and other

logistics. You also need enough time to dislodge the training materials in

full” (T4, 2017).

This was further confirmed by the college principal who stated that colleges

of education received very little funding allocated to professional development

and therefore faces challenges to fully implement each training programme

planned by all the sections of the college.

53

“Government is advising colleges to be innovative and stop depending of

Government funding for the running of programs. So management of the

scarce resources is a challenge amidst competing priorities of the

institution” (S4, 2017).

4.3: COMMENTARY
The following few sentences outlines the main findings which was arrived at

by the researcher after having interviewed the ten respondents, conducted

analysis of interview data and reflected on the findings.

With regard to the pedagogical content knowledge, all respondents expressive

a comprehensive understanding of Problem Based learning but there

perspective on the knowledge Base of the majority teachers was skeptical.

Very few teachers had received adequate training as a crop of facilitators but

the multiplier of knowledge had not been satisfactory.

All respondents were awake to the numerous good benefits that PBL can offer

to students outweighing traditional pedagogies but perceived the pedagogy to

be impacting very little on the Zambian education system with very few

educators successfully practicing it. The realization of the assumed benefits

was negligible although teachers hoped that it might be realized with time and

with the involvement of all stake holders.

It was further discovered that it had been difficult for educators to adopt

change of practice due to low technical support in the sector, highlight low

training levels, inadequate resources and high teacher student ratios.

Due to limited time of this research, it has not been easy to fully quantify the

impact of PBL on the Zambian education system which might have involved

a measure of skill development and other benefits associated with the use of

PBL. More work that measures the development of skills and other constructs

54

in students in relation to PBL compared to students tutored under traditional

approaches would be of considerable value.

55

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

5.1. INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this research is to investigate the perspectives of teachers on

problem Based Learning as a science classroom pedagogy. This chapter

discusses the findings from the results in greater depths to ascertain the

relevance of the results. To make understanding explicit the section is guided

by three themes derived from the study which are:

1. PBL Pedagogical knowledge

2. PBL Benefit realization

3. Change of pedagogical practice.

5.2: PBL Pedagogical knowledge

From this study it seems clear that science teachers in Zambia had little

pedagogical content knowledge on PBL apart from a few trained by the

Japanese International Co-operation Agency. Arguably this could be due to

could be due to the shortcoming by the Zambian Education administration to

successfully conduct multiplier effects as proposed by the trained personnel.

This has not only affected successful implementation of PBL in Zambian

Science classroom but also dampened the moral of the few who had received

intensive training with a view to train others. With this in mind we can state

here that it had been difficult for teachers with little technical knowledge of

the pedagogy to utilize PBL in science classroom. This agrees with the claims

by Wilson and others who said that while content knowledge was relevance,

being successful teachers also requires a solid foundation in pedagogical

content knowledge: that is, a type of professional knowledge that is used to

56

teach the content of a particular branch of knowledge (Wilson; Shulman;

Richert, 1987; Wilson; Floden; Ferrini-Mundy, 2002). Further Ball,

Lubienski, and Mewborn (2001), added that the development and selection of

tasks, the election of representations and explanations, the facilitation of

productive classroom discussions, the interpretation of student responses, the

emphasis on student comprehension and the quick and appropriate analysis of

student mistakes and difficulties are all underlying elements of pedagogical

content knowledge. Effective teaching using PBL therefore can be achieved

when teachers are well versed in pedagogical content knowledge which is key

in scenario formulation, management of group dynamics and assessment of

skill development in the absence of which full realization of the benefits of

PBL pedagogy would be almost impossible.

According to the OECD (2005) report, the pedagogical knowledge base of

teachers includes all the required cognitive knowledge for creating effective

teaching and learning environments. Research suggests that this knowledge

can be studied. Identifying the content of this knowledge base, however, is a

complex issue. Most studies use the distinction between declarative (‘knowing

that’) and procedural knowledge (‘knowing how’) from cognitive psychology

as a theoretical basis. This approach is relevant as it focuses on understanding

how knowledge is related to behavior, or in other words, the quality of

teaching performance. In my view development of pedagogical content

knowledge in Zambian teachers should be through established structures as

opposed to mare sharing of experiences. The teachers trained in this space

should be given enough time, material and financial resources to train others

57

before the rolling down of the pedagogy. In addition, the Ministry of

Education trainers of trainers co

uld be given more opportunities to meet and reflect on their practices. This

will give them prospects to share challenges and brainstorm on how best they

can handle the paradigm shift in respective environments.

Low levels of pedagogical content knowledge reduces the confidence of the

educators that PBL can result in the desired type of learning. Confidence in

PBL by the teacher is important because it is the attitude which not only allows

the instructor to convey confidence to students, but it also shapes the

subsequent action that he or she takes to support the students learning process

(Bridges & Hallingers, 1995).

Educators’ experiences of student interest in PBL indicated that students’

interest in PBL is dependent on the teachers degree of creativity and

innovation applied in a lesson. Teachers innovation in coming up with a good

and relevant problem scenario is key in facilitating students engagement. It is

important to note here that if students were to appreciate PBL the problem case

assigned to them should be relevant to the physical environment of the

students and to some extent in line with the prescribed curriculum.

One of the objectives of PBL is to help students become intrinsically

motivated. Intrinsic motivation occurs when learners work on a task driven by

their own benefits, trials, or intellect of satisfaction. Students are more

interested when they attach importance to what they are learning and when

their educational activity is associated in individually meaningful tasks

(Ferrari and Mahalingham, 1998; Leontiev, 1978). Students are also more

58

motivated when they have the conviction that the outcome of learning is under

their control (Bandura, 1997; Dweck, 1991). According to Bandura (1997),

to be intrinsically motivating, problems should provide students with the

proximal and tangible goal of applying their knowledge to solve a concrete

problem. This type of goal is more motivating than are more distant, abstract

goals that may seem insurmountable. Classroom contexts that reward students

for deep understanding, independent thought, and action are also more

motivating than many traditional classroom structures that reward

comparative performances (Ames, 1992; Biggs, 1985; Ramsden, 1992). PBL

instruction techniques assume that all these goals are achieved as part of the

PBL learning cycle. It is, therefore, important that the design of the case

scenario are done with a lot of technical consideration if the students can be

engaged into Self Directed Learning (SDF). It is important in addition that if

meaningful learning can be achieved under PBL assessment criterion should

be designed which rewards students for deep understanding and independent

of thought as opposed to the current reward basing on standard and

comparative performance.

The PBL environment poses a particular and deep- seated challenge to

students who are accustomed with traditional modes of instruction delivery.

To address these challenges and build student confidence requires a systematic

approach in the introduction of PBL to students. It is also important that

student efforts are supported whether they initially succeed or they do not.

This can be achieved by allowing students to work through the problem they

encounter with little interventions on the part of the instructor (Bridges &

59

Hallingers, 1995). By doing so the instructor communicates his confidence in

students’ ability.

Students’ interest can further be supported by formative feedback throughout

the project. This can be done through periodic, oral peer assessment,

debriefings and conversations of groups and individuals. It should be noted

here that these forms of assessment should be nonjudgmental. As noted by

Bridges & Hellingers (1995), nonjudgmental specific feedback behaviors, and

work products represents a powerful and essential form of support.

5.3. PBL Benefit realization

All educators had full knowledge of the benefits associate with PBL. It was

noted from the responses of educators that PBL is a basis for the development

of higher order thinking skills imparting necessary and relevant skills to

function in the physical world. The reality of problem cases and shift of the

responsibility of learning to the students are key to the development of a

problem solving and responsible citizen. This is in line with the Zambia

education Curriculum Framework which emphasizes on the learning that

strike a balance on content knowledge and skill development:

“The achievement of fairness in education should demand for educational

policies which value and promote a multifaceted development of the

learners, taking into account their uniqueness so that they can fully and
rationally participate in the economic, cultural and social affairs of the

nation. In all its educational endeavors, the Ministry of Education,

Science, Vocational Training and Early Education (MESVTEE) will,

therefore, aim at making it possible for citizens to lead useful lives, taking

into account knowledge and skills appropriate to their age, their social and

economic roles, the complexity of the modern world and the environment

in which they live. Education curriculum policy will, therefore, deal with

Zambia's cultural and intellectual heritage as well as with the knowledge,

skills and values that are to be transmitted to future generations” (ZECF,

2013).

60

However, it is regrettable to state here that while curriculum developers’

advices to strike a balance between content knowledge and skill

development, the application in the Zambian science classroom is still

polarized toward content knowledge development responding to the demands

of the National examination body. This explains why educators could not

explicitly state whether the benefits from PBL were eminent.

In my view, it is imperative that current and future generations of students

experience a problem-based learning approach and engage in constructive

solution-seeking activities. The 21st century education demands more than

ever, the development of higher-order thinking skills, self-regulated learning

habits, and problem-solving skills as necessities for all students. Providing

students with opportunities to develop and refine these skills will take the

efforts of many individuals to align the students with realization by industry

and government leaders that this information age is real and present.

Similarly, the opinions of leaders at the Wingspread Conference (1994) from

state and federal governments and experts from corporate, philanthropic,

higher education, and accreditation communities on important characteristics

of undergraduate education and quality performance for college and university

graduates stressed development of important high-level skills in

communication, computation, technological literacy, and information retrieval

that would enable individuals to gain and apply new knowledge and skills as

needed. The report further cited as important the ability to arrive at informed

judgments by effectively defining problems, gathering and evaluating

information related to those problems, and developing solutions; the ability to

function in a global community; adaptability; ease with diversity; motivation

61

and persistence (for example being a self-starter); ethical and civil behavior;

creativity and resourcefulness; technical competence; and the ability to work

with others, especially in team settings (Wingspread Conference ,1994). Given

this set of characteristics and the apparent success of a PBL approach at

producing graduates with these characteristics one could hope for increased

support in the use of PBL in the Zambian education system.

5.4. Changing pedagogical Practice

The adoption of PBL in Zambian schools and colleges has not been an easy

undertaking. While educators embrace the idea of PBL as a good classroom

practice in science, there appear to be a number of very practical and mundane

challenges making it difficult for teachers to change classroom practices from

traditional teaching approaches to modern innovations. The biggest challenge,

as pointed out by all respondents within this research is that the education

curriculum in Zambia is examination oriented and educators are polarized

towards student attainment in public examinations. This has in general

affected the utilization of teaching strategies which are oriented towards skill

development.

The scale of the challenge is well captured by Savery (2015) who observes:

“Most state-funded elementary schools, middle schools, and high schools

are constrained by a state-mandated curriculum and an expectation that they

will produce a uniform product. High-stakes standardized testing tends to

support instructional approaches that teach to the test. These approaches

focus primarily on memorization through drill and practice, and rehearsal

using practice tests. The instructional day is divided into specific blocks of

time and organized around subjects. There is not much room in this

structure for teachers or students to immerse themselves in an engaging

problem” (Savery 2015; 17).

Such structured and time-bound curriculum is what characterizes the

education system in Zambia and therefore dictates the instructional design to

62

fit in that frame. Monitoring and evaluation of education systems are also

polarized towards syllabus completion and student attainment in high stake

examinations. With this in mind educators find it difficult to employ Problem

Based Learning which does not factor uniform attainment and is oriented

towards skill development. In my understanding, the mode of assessment

adopted in any education programme highly affects instructional design.

Policy makers should therefore play a key role in interpreting the curriculum

and establish policies that develop the student holistically.

In relation to the above most respondents perceived PBL as an inefficient use

of time and so usually subvert the curriculum demands. This was usually due

to the multi-disciplinary nature of the pedagogy which usually resulted in

learning outside the syllabus outline. This is supported by scholars who argued

that PBL would extremely disturb curricula that have been delivered

effectively for many years, and, as it is based on small group work, a PBL

curriculum is much more costly to administer than a conventional curriculum

(Richard & Geoff, 2003; Colliver, 2000).

The cost of doing Problem Based Learning was also a major issue. PBL was

viewed by all the respondents as a very expensive practice. Firstly it needs a

well-grounded cadre of tutors to effectively facilitate the strategy. Although

efforts have been made by the Zambian Government to train teachers in

constructivist pedagogies through multiplier effects in school based

continuing professional trainings and stake holders consultative workshops,

the majority of teachers still luck skills to implement Problem Based Learning

effectively. It can be highlighted here that students in PBL session work in

groups towards educational objectives that define what needs to be learned

63

and which sources should be used. Tutors are present during these sessions;

they do not just pass facts on but ensure the educational objectives of the

groups are met. This is where the expensive major tutor development

programme comes in. Extensive and well-attended faculty development

workshops for tutors are imperative. Many attempts at PBL fail because

of inadequate tutorial skills (Walton & Matthews, 1989). In this study, it is

clear from responses given by all the respondents that they rarely use PBL in

their classrooms practices because they lack adequate technical knowledge of

how to use the pedagogy and therefore feel uncomfortable to put the pedagogy

to full use. It is therefore important to state here that a paradigm shift can only

be embraced and be implemented by all stake holders if, in the first instance

,adequate training is given to key personnel. Despite the massive monetary

investment staff training would require, it is non- avoidable if a paradigm shift

can be implemented successfully.

One would see from the responses that teachers attach value to professional

development as the engine in any paradigm shift but from the Zambian context

very little time has been devoted to such programs, apart from the educators

who were trained abroad very few regions came up with programs to multiply

the skills to other teachers and even where it was done, very little time and

resources had been directed to staff development in this space. While support

structures have been put in place at all levels of education to support the

implementation of PBL in schools and colleges of education, it is evident that

little has been done to transfer the relevant technical support toward the
implementation of the pedagogy. This inadequacy in pedagogical knowledge

due to inadequate training has a negative impact on change of pedagogical

64

practice. Some scholars have observed that Professional development efforts

designed to facilitate change must be teacher specific and should focus on the

day-to-day activities of a teacher at the classroom level (McLaughlin, 1990;

Weatherley & Lipsky, 1977; Wise, 1991). The lamentation of little time

allocated to pedagogical knowledge during in-service trainings is detrimental

to skill development among teachers and cannot guarantee effective change in

pedagogical practice at classroom level. Investing more material and time

resources in staff pedagogical training will provide opportunities for more

teacher engagement and therefore a pre-liquisite for change in pedagogical

practice. Other researchers have insisted that the broader the scope of a

professional development program, the more effort required of teachers, and

the greater the overall change in teaching style attempted, the more likely the

program is to elicit the enthusiasm of teachers and to be implemented well

(Berman &McLaughlin, 1978; McLaughlin & Marsh, 1978).

5.5: Summary

The chapter discussed critically and in detail the findings on this study on

perspectives of Colleges of Education science teachers on Problem Based

Learning as a Science Classroom pedagogy in two Colleges of Education. The

presentation was done in themes and started with teachers’ pedagogical

knowledge of PBL and then discussed PBL benefits and its realization in the

context of Teacher Education in Zambia. Later discussed why it was difficult

to change practice from traditional approaches to PBL.

It was noted that teachers have little Pedagogical Content Knowledge of PBL

apart from the few that where trained by the Japanese International

65

Cooperation Agencies. This was due to failure to organize successful

multiplier effect trainings in all the regions in the country. Luck of adequate

training in PBL affected the degree of application of the pedagogy and the

confidence by educators on the effectiveness of the practice. Luck of adequate

pedagogical content knowledge was viewed as a factor which negatively

affected students’ interest and motivation in PBL. It was highlighted that

introducing PBL to students who had been subjected to traditional teaching

styles required a lot of expertise if students were to be motivated and therefore

be engaged in bridging the knowledge gap. Teachers are required to be so

innovative in formulation of case scenarios if relevance and ownership of the

learning process can be realized.

Teachers perceived PBL as a good classroom Practice and that it was an ideal

practice in the development of higher order thinking skills. PBL was viewed

to be a pedagogy which can develop a citizen capable of solving numerous

challenges in today’s world. Teachers felt that although these benefits appear

to be farfetched, there was hope that if the practice was supported, it can help

develop science education and consequently combat numerous challenges

faced by the Zambian communities.

Changing pedagogical practice from traditional to PBL was viewed as

challenging basically because of the nature of the curriculum pursued in the

country which was polarized towards achievements in high stake examinations

at the expense of skill development. Teachers concentrates in transferring the

content knowledge prescribed by the curriculum to the students with a view to

cover the syllabus in a stipulated time. This disadvantages the use of PBL

pedagogy which do not focus on standardized test achievements. PBL requires

66

enough time to prepare and apply and therefore not a good approach in cases

where syllabus completion is the determinant of students’ preparation for

standard examinations.

Changing pedagogical practice was also viewed as difficult because of low

levels of preparedness among all stake holders involved in the implementation

of the practice. A number of factors could have been considered before rolling

out the programme. Most school environments lack space, material and

technical know-how to seriously engage in the pedagogy. The fact that PBL is

self-directed learning mode requires that learners be supplied with facilities

that makes it possible to access and search for information. High student

teacher ratios also makes difficult for teacher to manage PBL.

67

CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1: Overview

This chapter reviews the findings of the study on the perspectives of teachers

on Problem Based Learning as a science classroom pedagogy and ends with a

number of recommendations.

6.2: Finalizing Statement

The study demonstrated that teachers regard PBL as a preferable method of

instruction delivery in as far as teaching of science is concerned. PBL was

viewed as an important teaching strategy in the development of skills relevant

to the modern cooperate and information world. It is a key to the development

of an adaptive citizen who can contribute positively in solving the numerous

challenges faced by communities today. It was regrettable however to discover

that while the practice is held in high esteem, teachers rarely apply it in their

day to day duties due to a number of limitations. Mostly the utility of PBL in

the Zambian scenario is hampered by the high stake examination oriented

curriculum making teachers rush into delivery of content knowledge relevant

to prescribed syllabi. The mode of education assessment is also polarized

towards mastery of content knowledge and this makes acquisition of process

skills irrelevant to students whose prime goal is the acquisition of the relevant

certificates for carrier prospects. The methods of instruction delivery are also

tuned to such as would enable the teachers to complete the prescribed syllabus
for a particular academic programme. Despite administrators claims that

support structures were in place to support the implementation of the

68

pedagogy, it was clear that little was done to equip teachers with relevant

technical support to enable them handle PBL confidently.

6.3: Recommendations

Arising from the findings of this study the following recommendations were

made:

i. Provision of technical/ material support

The use of Problem Based Learning cannot impact positively on the Zambian

education system in improving Science education if teachers do not have the

necessary pedagogical content knowledge to use the pedagogy in a science

classroom. Arising from t findings of this research, it is highly recommended

that above everything else priority should be given to equipping the teachers

with the technical know-how if they can effectively utilize the pedagogy for

the good of the system. Material and monetary support should be allocated to

training of staff and re-training already trained teachers. Training hours should

be rationalized considerably with the content material of PBL to ensure the

necessary skills are transferred to the teachers. Opportunities should be given

to trainer of trainers to monitor and evaluate the successes scored and the

difficulties experienced by teachers in their respective environments. Bearing

in mind that some institutions are more disadvantaged than others, there must

be equitable allocation of resources to cater for the deficiencies in the

resources and enable students’ access the necessary tools for independent

operation.

69

ii. Balancing assessment criteria

The biasness of student’s assessment criteria polarized teacher action towards

high stake national examinations. This has greatly affected the preferred
pedagogy by science teachers in Zambia. The use of traditional approaches

seemed to have favored the much needed content knowledge delivery in

science classroom. For PBL to be effectively administered however, it is

highly recommended that assessment criteria be provided for which strike a

balance between content knowledge and skill development. There is a need

for the Examination Council of Zambia (ECZ) and the Curriculum

Development Committee (CDC) to effectively integrate skills development

and content knowledge acquisition in its assessment if PBL can be embraced

by both students and teachers in colleges of education.

iii. Adopting and Scaling PBL

The lack of pedagogical content knowledge has contributed more significantly

to the failure by most science teachers to effectively adopt a PBL model which

suit case scenarios given to their students. With this in mind it is recommended

that curriculum designers consider adopting PBL models to be used for

respective objects of the curriculum and suggest guidelines for teacher to

follow. This will not only standardize the mode of delivery but also effectively

help the development of skills intended for assessment and future utility by

students. Coupled with standardizing PBL model is the need to effectively

design a training programme for teachers which will aim at equipping them

with the skills to effectively use the standardized PBL models in their

classroom practices.

70

iv. Use PBL together with other teaching approaches

To ensure a balance in skill and content knowledge development it is

recommended that teachers use PBL together with other approaches to

teaching. This can be facilitated by suggesting the pedagogies to be used on

respective objects of the curriculum. In my view, integrating PBL with other

approaches will not only alleviate bias in constructs to be acquired by students

but will also afford teachers time to complete and achieve all the outcomes
prescribed in the curriculum for the course of study and also prepare students

adequately for both skill and content knowledge assessment.

v. Support monitoring and evaluation of pedagogical practices

The effectiveness of a programme can only be achieved with constant

monitoring and evaluation. This can be done by allocating resources to this

sector to ensure all the logistical support to the officers carrying out the tasks.

Monitoring will provide motivation for science teachers to use the pedagogy

and evaluation will provide mechanism to revisit areas of weaknesses and

ensure sustainability of the programme. It is highly recommended, therefore,

that CDC devises monitoring instruments which are focused on tracking the

utility of the pedagogy among science teachers and the effectiveness of its

implementation by monitoring various construct related to PBL. The MOE has

a role in facilitating the involvement of college principals and pedagogy

facilitators and other stake- holders in the monitoring and evaluation process

to ensure concerted effort and solidarity in the implementation of PBL.

71

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APPENDICES.

APPENDIX 1: INTRODUCTION LETTERS

Appendix I: Introduction Letters

(a) Letter to Principals

Dear-----------------------------------------------------------------

My name is Ivor Mutale. I am a student of University College Dublin, Ireland,

pursuing a Master of Arts in education Course. I am a bona fide citizen of

Zambia and a civil servant currently serving the Ministry of General education

as a Senior Lecturer at Mansa College of Education.

As part of my study, I am undertaking a research in teaching Pedagogy

focusing on the perspectives of science Educators on Problem Based Learning

as a Science Classroom pedagogy.

I therefore ask for your permission to conduct part of this study from your
institution. I request, precisely to have personal interviews to two of your

science educators identified who have been trained and practicing

constructivist pedagogies in your college. I will also need to conduct personal

interviews with the Head of Science section for the purpose of triangulating

my findings from the science educators. I hope to conduct these interview

between10th to 15th of June, 2017.

All data that will be gathered from your institution will be kept with a high

degree of confidentiality, integrity and anonymity in accordance with the

University Ethics and Research guidance. Although participants are

preselected from the National pool of educators trained and working in this

space, participation in this research is optional and voluntary without any

duress whatsoever. Further, participants are free to withdraw from the study

at any point, if they wish so. All summaries from this findings can be made

available to your institution if you wish so.

I would be happy to receive a written response and opportunity to have

further discussion with you in regard to this letter.

Yours Sincerely,

Ivor Mutale

University College Dublin

Master of Arts in Education- 2017

78

(b) Letter to Teachers

Dear-------------------------------------------

My name is Ivor Mutale. I am a student of University College Dublin, Ireland,

pursuing a Master of Arts in education Course. I am a bona fide citizen of

Zambia and a civil servant currently serving the Ministry of General education

as a Senior Lecturer at Mansa College of Education.

As part of my study, I am undertaking a research in teaching Pedagogy

focusing on the perspectives of science Educators on Problem Based Learning

as a Science Classroom pedagogy.

I therefore request you to participate in this study by means of answering

some in-depth personal interviews at the suitable time convenient by you. I

have already obtained permission from your college Principal who has

allowed me to discuss this case with you.

All data gathered from your school will be kept with high level of

confidentiality, integrity and anonymity in accordance with the University’s

Ethics and Research Guidance. Participation in this research is optional and

voluntary without any coercion whatsoever. Further, you will be free to

withdraw from the study at any point, if you so wish.

I would be happy to receive a written response from you within the shortest

possible time.

Yours faithfully,

Ivor Mutale

University College Dublin

Master of Arts in Education

2016- 2017

79

APPENDIX 2: DECLARATION OF CONCERT

I hereby acknowledge receipt of a letter requesting me to participate in a study

titled:

Perspectives of Teachers toward Problem Based Learning Pedagogy: A

Case Study of Colleges of Education Science Teacher Educators in

Zambia. I have received an information sheet and oral briefing to this effect.

I have read and understood the information sheet given and received adequate

oral briefing for this research.

I have also carefully considered whether to take part in this study. I understand

my participation is purely voluntary and I have the freedom to withdraw from

it at any point in the study process without being disadvantaged in any way.
I further understand information collected from me will be kept with high level

of integrity, confidentiality and anonymity in accordance with the researchers

University Ethics and Research Guidance principles.

I therefore voluntarily agree to participate in this research project.

Name of Participant (IN BLOCK LETTERS)

………………………………………………………………………………

Signature

……………………………………………………………………………..

Date

……………………………………………………………………………..

Name of Researcher (IN BLOCK LETTERS)

…………………………………………………………………………….

Signature

……………………………………………………………………………..

Date

……………………………………………………………………………..

80

APPENDIX 3: INTERVIEW SCHEDULES

Name: Ivor Mutale STD No: 16203254

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

Research Question: Perspectives of Colleges of Education Science Teachers

on Problem Based Learning (PBL) as a Science Classroom Pedagogy.

Sample: Science Teachers who are trained and practicing constructivists

pedagogies in colleges of education in Zambia.

Approach: In- depth interview

DECLARATION FORM

I ---------------------------------------- (respondent's name) hereby authorize ------

-------------------------- (Students Name) to interview me and cote my responses

in his scholarly research paper. I understand that the research paper will be
submitted to the faculty of education at the University College Dublin. I waive

my claim to copyright to this material in the event that the student published

my response in a scholarly journal or in electronic format online. I understand

that the author will maintain my obscurity as part of this interview. I hereby

give my permission in the form of a signature below

Signature -------------------------------------Date -----/------/--------

Part A: General Information

Name: (Optional): ----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Institution: --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Years in Service: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Teaching Subject/ Area of specialization: -----------------------------------------------

Part B Interview Questions for Lecturers

1. Will you share with me some of the classroom pedagogies you have been

using in your last three years of teaching science in a college of education?

2. How would you describe problem based learning as a pedagogy to a friend?

3. If you are to recommend problem based learning to a new teacher, why

would you endorse it as a good classroom practice?

4. Given an option to choose between traditional approaches to

teaching/learning (lecture method) and problem based learning:

a. Which approach would you choose?

b. What are the reasons why you choose the methods of teaching in question

4a above?

5. What would you regard to be major reasons why changing practice from

traditional approaches to PBL is not easy?

6. What is your opinion of students’ interest in PBL? Explain why

81

7. What learning experiences do you consider to be most helpful to the students

with regard to PBL?

8. What do you consider to be major setbacks to the use of problem based

learning as a classroom practice?

9. If you are to recommend problem based learning for inclusion in a teacher

education curriculum what would be your advice to curriculum designers?

Part C: Interview questions for Education Administrators.

1. Can you share with me some of the pedagogical practices recommended in

the teaching and learning of Science Educations?

2. With regard to PBL, what do you think were the assumed benefits of

introducing PBL in teacher education?

3. Do you think the benefits above are being realized? Explain?

4. What kind of support has the College/ Nation put in place to help the teaching

and learning of science with regard to PBL?

5. Do you think educators have changed their teaching practices from

traditional teaching approaches to PBL?

6. If you were to recommend the inclusion of PBL in the National Curriculum,

what would be your grounds?

END OF INTERVIEW

Reminders

Thank the participant for their time in answering the questions.

Ask them if they have any questions for you.

Make sure they have your details for if they want to follow up on the

interview.