Traditional mathematics

Traditional mathematics (sometimes classical math education) was the

predominant method of mathematics education in the United States in the early-to-mid

20th century. This contrasts with non-traditional approaches to math education.

[1]
Traditional mathematics education has been challenged by several reform

movements over the last several decades, notably new math, a now largely abandoned

and discredited set of alternative methods, and most recently reform or standards-

based mathematics based on NCTM standards, which is federally supported and has

been widely adopted, but subject to ongoing criticism.

Traditional methods

The topics and methods of traditional mathematics are well documented in books and

open source articles of many nations and languages. Major topics covered include:

 Elementary arithmetic

 Addition

 Carry

 Subtraction

 Multiplication

 Multiplication table

 Division
 Long division

 Arithmetic with fractions

 Lowest common denominator

 Arithmetic mean

 Volume

In general, traditional methods are based on direct instruction where students are

shown one standard method of performing a task such as decimal addition, in a

standard sequence. A task is taught in isolation rather than as only a part of a more

complex project. By contrast, reform books often postpone standard methods until

students have the necessary background to understand the procedures. Students in

modern curricula often explore their own methods for multiplying multi-digit numbers,

deepening their understanding of multiplication principles before being guided to the

standard algorithm. Parents sometimes misunderstand this approach to mean that the

children will not be taught formulas and standard algorithms and therefore there are

occasional calls for a return to traditional methods. Such calls became especially

intense during the 1990s.

A traditional sequence early in the 20th century would leave topics such as algebra or

geometry entirely for high school, and statistics until college, but newer standards

introduce the basic principles needed for understanding these topics very early. For

example, most American standards now require children to learn to recognize and

extend patterns in kindergarten. This very basic form of algebraic reasoning is extended
in elementary school to recognize patterns in functions and arithmetic operations, such

as the distributive law, a key principle for doing high school algebra. Most curricula

today encourage children to reason about geometric shapes and their properties in

primary school as preparation for more advanced reasoning in a high school geometry

course. Current standards require children to learn basic statistical ideas such as

organizing data with bar charts. More sophisticated concepts such as algebraic

expressions with numbers and letters, geometric surface area and statistical means and

medians occur in sixth grade in the newest standards.

Technology in Mathematics Education: Preparing Teachers for the Future

Technology is a prominent feature of many mathematics classrooms. According

to the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES, 1999), the percentage of public

high school classrooms having access to the Internet jumped from 49% in 1994 to 94%

in 1998. However, the use of computers for instructional purposes still lags behind the

integration of technology in the corporate world and is not used as frequently or

effectively as is needed. One way to close the gap and bring mathematics education

into the 21st century is by preparing pre service teachers to utilize instructional tools

such as graphing calculators and computers for their future practice.

One purpose of the technology methods course is to provide the opportunity for

pre service teachers to use specific technological resources in mathematical contexts.

That is, teacher candidates are presented with a task involving some mathematical

problem or situation and are required to learn to use and apply an appropriate piece of

technology in completing the task.

For example, one activity used in the methods course is found on the NCTM

(2004) Illuminations .The activity, titled “The Devil and Daniel Webster” and adapted

from Burke, Erickson, Lott, and Obert (2001), has teacher candidates explore recursive

functions using technology. The undergraduates are presented a scenario in which

each person earns an initial salary of $1,000 on the first day, but pays a commission of

$100 at the end of the day. On subsequent days, both amount earned and

commissions are doubled. Pre service teachers complete a chart using either handheld

or computer technology to determine if it is profitable to work for one month under these
conditions. Additional questions require the undergraduates to graph the data from the

chart. In this way, teacher candidates not only learn to use the kinds of technological

tools that are available for use in instruction, but also learn them in the context of

examining mathematics, which helps increase their content knowledge.

In addition to learning to use the technology, pedagogical issues associated with

the instructional tools are emphasized. Specifically, the course focuses attention on

how and when to use technology appropriately in mathematics classrooms. Misuses of

technology are discussed and discouraged, such as using calculators as a way to avoid

learning multiplication skills and using computers to practice procedural drills rather than

to address conceptual understanding. Rather, pre service teachers discuss the uses

and benefits of commercial software and handheld devices to explore different content

topics that have become possible with technology and consider pedagogical issues.

Some time is also spent previewing national curriculum projects that have a high

involvement with technology (e.g., Key Curriculum Press, 2002). As a result, pre

service teachers address and discuss issues of teaching prior to their clinical

experience, which helps these students focus attention on these matters when

participating in their practicum.

Teacher candidates in the technology methods course apply their knowledge of

technology and its uses in the teaching and learning of mathematics. These future

mathematics teachers create several lesson plans using technology as an instructional

tool. Lesson plans center around concepts and skills found in pre-algebra, algebra,

geometry, pre-calculus and calculus that are enhanced using technology. Once a topic

is selected for the lesson plan, pre service teachers determine an appropriate piece of
technology that facilitates instruction. They develop and write instructional lessons

using graphing calculators, an interactive mathematics computer environment, an

interactive geometry application, computer spreadsheets, and the Internet. However,

based on a selection of specific mathematics topics, each teacher candidate creates

lessons using additional forms of technology examined in the course, including dynamic

statistical software and a CAS. As a result, each teacher candidate has a unique

experience of using technology to enhance mathematics instruction at the secondary

school level.

The following illustrations provide detailed descriptions of the process in which

pre service teachers engage as they learn, analyze, and apply a particular piece of

technology in the course.

Interactive Computer Environment

One important feature of the course is to introduce future teachers to the world of

possibilities open to instruction when computers are used effectively. The vast majority

of our pre service teachers have had some experience using computers within and

outside their high school mathematics courses, but few have had the opportunity to

learn mathematics in an interactive computer environment. Providing this experience

for our teacher candidates has created a template on which they can draw as future

teachers.

Interactive Geometry Application

One way to introduce teacher candidates to a particular piece of technology is

through classroom-ready, published materials. This is particularly useful when the

software is well established and used regularly in classrooms, because teachers could

adopt the activity for future classroom use. In one case, we use Bennett (2002) to

introduce undergraduates to interactive geometry software on the computer. For

example, the following problem could be posed at the beginning of a class session:

How could you determine the height of a tree without measuring it directly? At the time

they take the technology methods course, teacher candidates typically have an

extensive cache of techniques to solve such a problem from prior geometry and

trigonometry courses. Bennett (2002) utilizes interactive geometry software to find such

indirect measures using lengths that are easy to measure and proportions in similar

triangles. Specifically, the worksheet directs the learner to create line segments to

represent the tree’s height and the learner’s height in the application; then learners

construct parallel lines to simulate the rays of the sun. Finding the tree’s height is a

matter of calculating the unknown length (tree’s height) in the proportion of ratios of

object height to shadow length. Although pre service teachers often know this

technique, constructing the solution in the interactive environment helps clarify concepts

and procedures learned in prior courses.

After becoming familiar with the software from the activity, discussions take place

on the appropriate uses of the technology. In the case of the interactive geometry

software, teacher candidates should recognize several potential uses of the software in

a high school geometry course. For example, appropriate use of the software can

reinforce properties of similar triangles in students’ minds. The pre service teachers

should also recognize that the interactive component of the software allows their

students to see that corresponding angle measures remain equal and that
corresponding ratios of sides remain equal during actions that change the dimensions of

the similar triangles. Pre service teachers reflect on the ability of the software to have

students discover these properties, rather than simply telling their students, thus

creating a more student-centered classroom environment. These future teachers

should also recognize the need to transfer the knowledge gained from the interactive

domain to problem situations away from the technology, which leads to discussions of

how this might be accomplished.

Handheld Data Analysis

One of the easiest technologies for pre service teachers to learn, and yet one of

the most adaptable for classroom instruction, is graphing calculator technology. Still,

too few secondary school mathematics teachers are comfortable using graphing

calculators or know how to use them effectively for classroom instruction. A primary

goal of the technology methods course is to provide instruction and experience with

handheld technology. Utilizing graphing calculators in a statistical application is one

way to meet this goal.

Recording, graphing, and analyzing data are important skills in mathematics, as

well as in everyday life. The notion that data exist everywhere in the world is important

for students to realize. Additionally, the ability to organize data provides a person with

quick numerical and visual representations of the data and the power to predict, to

within a predetermined degree of accuracy, future related events based on the data. An

introductory lesson for managing data using handheld technology is to enter and graph

party affiliations of the presidents of the United States.

 Conclusion

Teachers will use technology appropriately and effectively in their mathematics

classrooms if they are familiar and comfortable with the technology and, especially, if

they have had successful experiences with the technology in an instructional

environment. Additionally, teachers who are able to use today’s technology in the

classroom will be prepared to learn and utilize tomorrow’s technology. This core course

for the secondary teacher education program provides that experience. After this

course, the teacher candidates integrate the technology in their field experiences

conducted in one of the university’s partner schools. In one instance, pre service

teachers use technology during their first clinical teaching experience. At another time,

during their semester-long student-teaching experience, host teachers and university

faculty members evaluate student teachers on their ability to integrate technology in the

classroom. Upon graduation, these future teachers should not only be knowledgeable

as to which mathematics concepts are best learned through technology, but also will

have had many successful experiences in developing and carrying out lesson plans that

involve a variety of different technologies.

Since the creation of our technology-based methods course, its need is

apparent. Although technology in typical secondary schools is sparse, several of our

partnership schools are dedicated to utilizing technology in mathematics education.

From interactive chalkboards to data-sharing hubs for handheld devices, our pre service

teachers are beginning to experience these instructional tools during their field

experiences. Consequently, we think it is important to prepare them for these

eventualities. Our pre service teachers’ experience with technology in our program

makes them attractive to secondary school selection committees.

The quality of our pre service teachers since our program emphasized

technology in the mathematics classroom is apparent. As university supervisors, we

often hear from the host teachers that our graduates are highly knowledgeable in

dealing with technological instructional tools. Many host teachers admit to learning

valuable teaching strategies using technology from individuals in our program. Although

most of our pre service teachers receive favorable technology evaluations, we think we

can do better. Our pre service teachers continue to think pedagogically in ways that

they were taught rather than to think of the potential learning gains using technology.

This course does lay the foundation for these teachers as they become more

comfortable with their teaching practices and different ways to educate their students.

Today’s middle school and high school students were born into a world with

technology. Using technology during mathematics instruction is natural for them, and to

exclude these devices is to separate their classroom experiences from their life

experiences. One objective in preparing teachers for the future is to ensure that their

classrooms will include the technology that will be commonplace for a future generation

of mathematics learners, thus ensuring that the mathematicians, mathematics

educators, and citizens of tomorrow experience harmony between their world of

mathematics and the world in which they live.

References

 Bennett, D. (2002). Exploring geometry with Geometer’s

Sketchpad. Emeryville, CA: Key Curriculum Press.

 Burke, M, Erickson, D., Lott, J. W., & Obert, M. (2001). Navigating through

algebra in grades 9 – 12. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of

Mathematics.
 Key Curriculum Press. (2002). IMP sample activities. Retrieved November

15, 2004, from http://www.mathimp.org/curriculum/samples.html

 National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2000). Principles and

standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA: Author.

 National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2004). Illuminations.

Retrieved November 8, 2005, from http://illuminations.nctm.org/

 Waits, B. K., & Demana F. (2000). Calculators in mathematics teaching

and learning: Past, present, and future. In M. J. Burke & F. R. Curcio

(Eds.), Learning mathematics for a new century (pp. 51–66). Reston, VA:

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.