=ounca:ions anc ear: swor ~s 'or
cy inc rica s:ee s:orace:an~s
by GRAHAM M. HARRIS+
Introduction
FOR MANY YEARS cylindrical steel stor-
age tanks have been in common use for the
storage of many industrial raw materials
and products. One major industry that has
up to the present been heavily committed
to using steel storage tanks has been the
petroleum industry.
Nowadays there is an increasing ten-
dency to store raw materials, such as crude
oil and liquid petroleum gas below ground
surface as much as possible where
economically feasible, either utilising dis-
used mines or chambers specifically con-
structed for this purpose. This has arisen
due to aesthetic requirements or as the re-
sult of strategic planning.
Refined petroleum products which are
numerous and are normally handled in
fairly small quantities cannot be so easily
stored underground as bulk raw materials,
such as crude oil, and it is expected that
these will continue to be stored in conven-
tional steel storage tanks for the foresee-
able future.
It is the purpose of this article to review
general design and construction techniques
of the foundations for steel storage tanks-
not only for those in use by the oil Industry
but also for those in use for storing bulk
commodities generally.
Apart from the underwriting and safety
aspects which will be commented upon
briefly, there is little difference in the plan-
ning and design of steel storage tanks to
hold aviation fuel or to hold calcium chlo-
ride, except that one commodity is con-
siderably lighter in density than the other.
From a geotechnical viewpoint the require-
ment for foundation performance is more
or less exactly the same, i.e. to provide a
safe, economical support which will pre-
clude the development of stresses and
strains within the steel tank plates that
could either lead to rupture of the plates
or interfere with the flow of the particular
commodity into or out of the tank. Pres-
surised or refrigerated storage tanks will
not be considered.
Nature of storage tanks
Cylindricalsteel tanks that are used for the
retention of bulk materials at normal at-
mospheric pressure are of two basic types,
either fixed roof or floating roof. When
empty the tanks are very light structures
and can be moved if necessary by flotation
in a shallow depth of water. For example
two 100000 ton oil tanks were floated in
less than 1m of water after the foundation
for one tank had failed during water testing
and the foundation for the second tank had
been condemned at Fawley Refinery, Eng-
land'.
Because of the thin steel wall and roof
sections involved, the design, construction,
maintenance and servicing of steel storage
tanks give rise to some unique problems
especially when soft ground conditions
*Senior Civil Engineer,
Edward L. Bateman
Bokshurg North, Transvaal, South Africa
24 Ground Engineering
have to be overcome during construction.
Further problems are generated because
unlike the majority of civil engineering
structures, the dead load is relatively small
in proportion to the considerable variation
in storage loads that is usually involved.
Storage tanks can vary in diameter from
a minimum of about 10m to almost 100m
for the largest diameter floating roof tanks
used for crude oil storage.
Fixed roof tanks usually have a conical
roof shape and are normally chosen for
storage of bulk commodities that are either
volatile and inflammable, such as gasoline
where the prevention of leakage is of para-
mount importance, or where the volume of
storage required is small. They are often
chosen in situations where regular mainte-
nance and inspection is difficult to carry
out, and where ground conditions affect
the satisfactory foundation performance of
floating roof tanks.
Floating roof tanks, as the name implies,
possess roofs which float on the surface of
the retained fluid, the roof being supported
on one or more pontoons that are guided
on columns. Of necessity floating roof
tanks incorporate a number of seals round
the periphery to prevent leakage and al-
though these seals normally have a long life
floating roof tanks are not normally consid-
ered for retention of volatile inflammable
fluids or fluids having a slurry type of com-
position, such as calcium chloride.
Steel storage tanks have been used in
Canada for the storage of grain; these are
however, of fixed roof design.
Tank performance
Although a steel storage tank is a rela-
tively flexible structure and can tolerate
greater settlements, either total or differen-
tial, than most engineering structures,
there is of course a limit to the settlement
that a tank can be expected to take with-
out distress. Some of the effects of settle-
ment which it is desirable to avoid in the
design of a tank foundation are as follows:
(a) Differential settlement across the dia-
meter which may affect gauging ac-
curacy, jam floating roofs and over-
stress internal piping connections.
(b) Differential settlement along the peri-
phery which may jam floating roof
mechanisms and overstress or warp
the shell plates.
(c) Differential settlement between the
tank bottom and the shell plates
which may overstress the shell welds
and cause loss of drainage facilities
for tank cleaning. In addition column
supported roofs may undergo severe
warping as a result of bottom settle-
ments.
(d) Differential settlement between tank
and external connecting pipework
which may overstress the piping.
(e) Overall settlement of the tank which
may lead to loss of superelevation of
the tank pad above external tank com-
pound grade or ground surface, even-
Ltd.,
tually resulting in the ponding of water
around the shell base plates and a con-
sequent increase in corrosion of these
plates.
The magnitude of stresses and strains
within a steel storage tank caused by the
degree of differential settlement experi-
enced by the foundation are dependent on
a number of factors. These are:
(i) the diameter and height of the tank,
(ii) the uniformity of soil conditions under-
lying the tank,
(r'ii) the loading intensity, and
(iv) the type of tank involved.
Generally fixed cone roof tanks are more
tolerant of differential settlement effects
than floating roof tanks.
Theoretically, when soil conditions are
uniform below a tank the settlement that
takes place at the centre will be about
twice that at the circumference and this
expected settlement may be allowed for
by constructing the tank bottom coned up-
wards the requisite amount. Opinions vary
as to the maximum amount of tank bottom
deflection that can be tolerated. However
during the flotation of two large diameter
100000 ton oil storage tanks'he bottoms
are reported to have deflected upwards
about 1m.
From a practical standpoint tank bot-
toms are usually quite irregular as the thin
plates warp during welding. Due to the pre-
sence of drainage sumps which are usually
located close to one edge of the tank, as
well as the provision of internal stiffening
columns in the case of fixed roof tanks, the
actual settlement performance of a tank
may vary considerably from that predicted
theoretically.
Settlements which do take place result
from two separate types of soil behaviour.
In most cases the soil consolidates under
the tank loading, to a magnitude and at a
rate that is dependent on the type of soil
underlying the tank. The soil and ground
water conditions will also control the time,
after full loading has been realised, when
tank settlement becomes negligible. For in-
stance an impermeable clay soil will take
considerably longer to consolidate than a
free draining sand under the same load. The
depth of soil involved in this consolidation
process is theoretically approximately
three times the tank diameter.
The second type of settlement phenome-
non which is often encountered is that aris-
ing when the soil is overstressed by the
tank loads. In this situation the soil flows
out from under the tank edge often in an
unpredictable manner leading to large,
non-uniform and rapid settlements taking
place. Such settlements can result in over-
stressing of welds or rivetted connections
and catastrophic failures from this cause
are not unknown.
Actual tolerances to settlement are de-
pendent to a great extent on the manufac-
turer's specification for continued satisfac-
tory performance of the tank. A common
tolerance during erection is ~ Smm on the
finished tank pad surface around the cir-
cumference. When in use, however, con-
siderable settlements can be tolerated de- or where floating roof tanks are involved. out for all tanks to provide sufficient infor-
pending on circumstances, and it is not These reduce the tendency for "punching- mation for proper design and subsequent
unknown for tanks to have experienced in" of the shell or localised edge bearing safe operation of the tank. This is despite
total settlements of up to 600mm without failure taking place, and also assist in re- the fact that such tanks can normally
being seriously impaired. ducing perimeter differential settlements. tolerate considerably greater settlements
As far as differential settlement is con- Large size cone roof tanks have their compared with other structures.
cerned a common criterion for performance roofs supported on columns and gen- Relatively large cost savings and the
of a tank shell is 25mm per 30m measured erally a centre column; up to three rings avoidance of distress from settlement can
along the tank perimeter. Tighter toler- of interior columns can be involved de- result from adequate advance knowledge
ances than these are however more com- pending on the tank diameter. The dead of soil conditions. For instance, the author
monly specified and for large (i.e. over load on columns normally ranges from 50 was involved in a case where an 85m dia.
60m) diameter floating roof tanks the fol- to 100kN whereas live load can add a oil storage tank was relocated after soft
lowing performance requirements are con- further 100 to 150kN per column. This is soil conditions were encountered below a
sidered more desirable: especially important in regions where superficial covering of dense glacial till in
(i) 5mm maximum differential settlement large accumulations of snow can be ex- a region of comparative "safe" geology.
in 10m of perimeter length as a com- pected. Maximum column load can thus The soft soil conditions were due to the
bined result of pad construction, tank range up to 250kN. collapse and infilling of subsurface chan-
erection, water testing and ultimate Such columns are usually carried on nels in a minor but extensive stratum of
likely soil settlement, square base plates 20 to 25mm thick gypsum within parent shale bedrock. Cata-
(ii) 25mm maximum differential tilting whose dimensions are dependent on per- strophic failure of the tank during testing
across the tank diameter, and missible soil loading. The soil pressure or initial loading would undoubtedly have
(iii) 25mm maximum differential settlement beneath such column loading can be esti- taken place if the tank had been erected in
for every 10m of tank bottom mea- mated either on the net base plate area the originally intended location.
sured lineally in any direction. provided or alternatively based on the as- Tanks are normally constructed on a
A table indicating the desirable form of sumption that the effect of the tank bot- raised pad of free-draining granular mat-
bottom plate construction dependent on tom plates is to enlarge the column base erial such as crushed stone to provide for
the predicted settlements around the tank plates by a certain amount dependent on drainage and to deter tank bottom corro-
shell and across the bottom is given in the thickness of the tank bottom plates. sion. An asphalt or oil-sand seal is some-
Table I. No special requirements are neces- Column loading is additive to that im- times provided to the surface of the pad
sary for tanks less than 50ft (15m) dia- posed by the tank fluid contents and is op- thus formed to prevent infiltration of water
meter. Where settlements larger than those erative in the tank empty condition. which could increase the rate of corrosion
indicated are predicted then some form of Actual stress distributions within the soil of the bottom plates. If a tank pad is not
site improvement or provision of structural are affected by the tank bottom plate constructed out of free-draining material,
support to the tank is necessary. thickness and type of construction and then precautions to limit corrosion can be
A special case of tank settlement for whether these are crowned up or down. effected by providing the tank with a
fixed roof tanks arises when planar tilt This also dictates the pattern of tank 100mm thick layer of oil-sand.
takes place through the points of maximum settlement which subsequently develops. Some foundation solutions for varying
and minimum settlement. With regard to soil conditions are shown in Fig. 1. These
the design of bottom plates, only non- Foundations are referred to in the following sections.
planar differential settlement of the shell General Shallow foundations in competent ground
becomes of consequence. For floating roof The cost of a tank foundation can in Where tanks are to be located in com-
tanks this type of tilting may or may not some circumstances, depending on the petent soil conditions which provide ade-
affect the performance of tanks depending soil conditions, exceed the cost of the quate structural support, then the tank
on the circumstances and the degree of tilt. tank itself. Because of the practice of loca- may be wholly supported by a raised pad
ting tanks in areas which are either remote of compacted soil. Before the pad is con-
Tank loadings or undesirable for normal civil engineering structed however, all superficially weak
Shell bearing plates are normally used for structures (often indicative of poor subsoil materials should be removed from the plan
fixed roof tanks where shell bearing pres- conditions) it is particularly important that limits of the tanks, see Fig. 1a.
sures are in excess of about 100 kilopascals an adequate soil investigation be carried Tank pads may be constructed out of
any soil or locally available material that
TABLE I. TANK BOTTOM DESIGN REQUIREMENTS+ on compaction will produce a strong reli-
able, non-corrosive surface which will
Predicted settlementfi Tank diameter safely support tank construction and which
on the basis of available precedent will
Maximum Differential 50ft to 150ft stand up to the effects of weather, etc.
at sheff in bottomf (15m to 50m) Over 15lt (50mm J In this connection it would, for example,
< 2in < ~tin per Per API Specifica- Annular plates of 2ft be advisable to use a free-draining, non-
30ft tions. (600mm) minimum width frost susceptible, granular fill for tank con-
when trimmed per API struction in areas subject to deep frost
(( 50mm) (( 12mm
per 10m)
Specification. Bottom
plates two-pass welded
penetration in order to preclude the pos-
sibility of frost heave taking place with
with 70 per cent efffciency. consequent ice lensing, leading to failure
< 6in ( 1in per
30ft
Annular plates of 2ft
(600mm) minimum
Annular plates of 3ft
(1 000mm) minimum
of the foundation at time of thaw. In
regions where more temperate climatic
conditions prevail an impermeable fill
width. Bottom plates width when trimmed per might otherwise be quite suitable. The use
(< 150mm) (( 25mm
per 10m)
two-pass welded
with 70 per cent
API Specifications. Bottom
plates two-pass welded
of artificial materials such as blast furnace
slag should be carefully investigated prior
joint efficiency. with 70 per cent joint to use, since such materials often exhibit
efficiency. undesirable swelling and chemical effects
over the long term. Similarly the potential
< 12in < 2in per Annular plates of 2ft Annular plates of 6ft
swelling characteristics of clays should be
30ftt (600mm) minimum (2 000mm) minimum
width. Bottom plates width when trimmed per
investigated when considered for use as
(( 150mm) (( 50mm
per 10m)
two-pass welded
with 70 per cent
API Specifications. Bottom
plates minimum two-pass
tank pad fill.
Tanks are often supported on ringwalls
joint efficiency. welded with 80 per cent constructed either of crushed stone or con-
joint efficiency. crete (see Fig. 1(b)). The ringwalls trans-
fer the tank shell loadings to stronger soils
'No special requirements for tanks under 50ft (15m) diameter, at shallow depth thus eliminating the pos-
I)Predicted settlements are based upon sibility of shear edge failure around the
(aI inclusion of loading intensity from proposed water testing,
(b maximum settlement being uniform around circumference, periphery of the tanks.
c) differential settlement refers to deviation from anticipated behaviour on uniform soils, and Where concrete ringwalls are used these
d) planar tilting of the bottom not detrimental to the tank bottom.
tAlong circumference as well as radially. have the advantage of confining the soil
tlf these settlements are exceeded then some farm of site improvement is required prior to tank erection. within the ringwall thus preventing lateral
26 Ground Engineering
movement of the soil under full tank load. general techniques for providing an ade- However this does not preclude the use
With this type of support system, how- quate tank foundation. These are (a) re- of other materials being considered if more
ever, it is important that the soil be well moval of unsuitable soils and replacement easily available.
compacted within the ringwall otherwise with engineered fill, (b) use of piles or The final choice of material to be used
high shearing stresses can develop in the other deep foundations to transfer tank will also depend on likely weather condi-
tank bottom above the point of contact be- loadings to a suitably competent soil or tions to be experienced at the time of
tween the retained soil and the concrete rock stratum at depth, or (c) strengthen- construction and when in service. A fill
ringwall. ing the soil by preloading, vibration or replacement programme must of necessity
An alternative to seating the tank shell compaction methods to render it suitable take into account water conditions to be
on a concrete ringwall is to locate it within for tank support. These approaches are dis- dealt with during excavation and if indica-
the ringwall directly on the retained soil. cussed in the following sections. tions are that expensive well-point de-
In this situation the ringwall has to be Fill replacement technique watering is necessary then it might be
designed to resist hoop tension that can Where unsuitable soils are present to more economical to excavate in the wet
develop. This alternative approach has ad- depths of 2-3m below surface, below by clamshell or dragline and use relatively
vantages in situations where compaction which a competent soil or rock is present, more expensive end-dumped crushed rock
of fill within the ringwall cannot be carried then the best solution to adopt, and or stone, without recourse to pumping.
out effectively or where natural soil is left usually the most economical (Fig. 1(c)), The main drawback to this approach is
in place. is to excavate and replace with engineered that all unsuitable compressible soils may
Foundation alternatives for poor ground fill, dewatering the excavation if neces- not be removed from within the tank exca-
conditions sary. The replacement fill chosen should vation and may even remain in a disturbed
Where soil conditions are encountered preferably be a clean granular soil because and thus more compressible condition
beneath tank locations which are unsuit- of its ease in placement, handling charac- than originally. The result can be exces-
able for direct tank support there are three teristics, good drainage qualities, etc. sive non-uniform settlements taking place
which can be detrimental to tank perfor-
mance unless observed at an early stage
of loading, such as during water testing,
and corrected in an appropriate manner.
The fill replacement technique of con-
structing tank pads has been extended to
very large diameter oil storage tanks'n
which up to 10m of alluvium has been
dredged out by suction dredges, and re-
(o) RAISED PAD OF COMPACTED FILL (I>) REINFORCED CONCRETE OR CRUSHED placed by well-graded gravel which has
ON COMPETEN1 GROUND STONE RINGWALL ON COMPETENT
been vibro-compacted. It has been claimed
GROUND that the technique could possibly be ex-
tended to replace poor soils up to 20m
depth.
Piled foundations
Although the use of a piled foundation
for storage tanks (Fig. 1(d)) is the most
positive method of dealing with weak sur-
ficial soils strata it is frequently overall the
most expensive solution and it is not un-
knoiwn for the cost of a piled foundation
to exceed the cost of the tank which it
WEAK SOILS REMOVED AND (BI) PILED FOUNDATION WITH must suppoi't.
REP(aCED WITH ENGINEERED FILL END-BEARING PILES Piled foundations for storage tanks are
LOAD TO BE EQUAL TO
not without problems and failures have
1,5 TO 2,0 TIMES FULL TANK ERECTED taken place during water testing'. Be-
TANK LOAD
ON RAISED cause of downdrag, or negative skin fric-
PAD OF FILL tion, which develops in weak superficial
soil strata under the combined effects of
surcharge, tank and fill loadings, individual
pile design loads normally have to be
maintained sufficiently low to allow for the
additional forces that come onto the piles
as the soil consolidates.
These additional forces can represent a
considerable percentage of the pile carry-
SAND DRAINS MAY SOIL CONSOLIDaTED ing capacity especially where high sur-
BE PROVIDED TO UNDER TaNK charge and fill loadings are involved. Re-
ACCELERATE PLUS V ATER
W
cently however, bitumen coatings have
C 0 N S0 L I DA1 I 0 I4 LOADING been applied extensively to piles subject
to downdrag forces with the object of cre-
ating a coating to the pile surface which
can shear without transfer of the down-
drag forces to the piles'. Thus pile sec-
tions can be relied upon to carry a greater
proportion of their working loads and con-
sequently become more economically
NOTE — SAND DRAINS EXTEND THROUGH SOFT SOILS
DEFORMATION OF TANK BOT1OM effective.
TaNK ERECTION CORRECTED AFTER For very deep deposits of weak soils
AFTER FULL C OM PL E I ION which cannot be improved by other
OF LOADING
CONSOLIDATION methods a piled alternative may be the
TAKEN PLaCE only viable foundation solution. The type
of piling chosen will depend to a great ex-
tent on the soil strata through which pene-
tration will have to be effected. For ex-
j-il.l JJ J Lj Ljl I I Li>"
ample the use of displacement piles driven
at close centres through a stratum of very
soft clay may have an undesirable net
WITH FILL If) PRELOADING BY wa1ER- TESTING overall effect in which the strength of the
(e) PRELOADING EARTH
clay is reduced considerably by the re-
Fig. 1. Various foundations for storage tanks moulding caused by driving.
July, 1976 27
Fig. 2 (above). Vibroflotation of sand in progress
densified foundation for a large steel storage tank
(photo, Cementation (Africa) (Contracts)
Fig. 3 (right). Rig operated by Frankipile Ltd. at Canvey Island
for installing vertical cardboard wick drains
On the other hand, the use of similar
type piles where deep deposits of loose
sand are to be penetrated can lead to an
overall increase in soil strength resulting
from the vibratory effects of pile driving
on the sand causing an increase in com-
pacted density. Although general rules can-
not be laid down for all specific situations
that may arise it is stressed that the choice
of a pile type for a given set of conditions
is very important, to ensure that a situation
is not created whereby existing soil condi-
tions are made worse by the proposed
piling technique. Otherwise a consequent
overall increase in the cost of the founda-
tion work ensues over and above that
which is unavoidable.
One method of "piling" which is different
from conventional piling techniques is the
use of sand piles or rock piers. These can
be installed relatively cheaply and are
often used in soil conditions which are
reasonably homogeneous. The technique
is to create a hole, either by driving a
closed ended tube, or by augering, and
then filling the hole with compacted or
vibro-compacted sand or graded refill. Fig.
2 shows vibroflotation in'rogress to
densify sand for the foundation of a large
diameter storage tank.
There are disadvantages in using a long were created by excavation with a
closed ended tube (usually closed with a
plug of crushed stone or a disposable tip)
in soft clay strata. The remoulding effects
on the clay produced by this method of
creating a hole can lead ultimately to some
lateral instability of the sides of the sand
pile or rock pier thus formed. The tech-
nique of creating a hole by this punching
method can however be beneficial where
loose sand strata have to be penetrated.
Augered pile holes are generally impos-
sible to put down in sand below ground
water level without the use of casing, but
to provide a
Pty Ltd., Durban)
can be the most suitable method where
deposits of uniform clay are encountered,
provided the clay is sufficiently firm to
stand up without support for the depth
penetrated.
In this connection mixed ground condi-
tions where clay, silt and sand strata are
interlayered with one another are often the
most difficult soil conditions to be dealt
with using this technique. One other fac-
tor which needs consideration in the use
of a sand-pile or rock-pier solution is that
the sand or rock cannot be fully compac-
ted close to ground surface where com-
paction is by dynamic means. In this case
use should be made of an appropriate soil
surcharge through which the piles are com-
pacted, or alternatively the top of the piles
maintained at a minimum depth of 2m or
so below surface to ensure adequate com-
paction of the sand at the top of the pile.
If this is not carried out either the ground
surface fails around the top of the pile or
the sand or rock is not fully compacted.
There are a number of variations of types
of sand-piles and rock-piers which have
been used successfully depending on the
soil conditions. One such application on
reclaimed land'nvolved seven tanks up
to 45m dia. where rock piers up to 5m
grab and rapid filling of the holes with
quarried steelworks slag compacted by a
large vibrating poker.
Foundation preloading
One solution to the construction of tank
foundations on poor ground which can be
cheap from a construction standpoint is to
preload either with soil or, immediately
following tank erection, consolidate the
soil during the process of water testing
(Fig. 1(e) and (f)). Preloading, however,
requires, firstly, sufficient time before the
tanks have to be put into service to
ensure that preloading is effective in re-
ducing settlemens in the post-construction
period. Secondly, adequate prior know-
ledge of the soil conditions is essential so
that the preloading programme can be
properly planned and executed effectively
within the estimated time period available.
A preloading programme also requires
the co-operation and willingness of the
owner to tolerate some post-construction
settlements should it not have proved fully
effective by the time the tanks are to enter
service. Despite the drawbacks of the pre-
load technique with respect to the estima-
tion of the uncertainties of time involved,
the method is comparatively cheap when
construction costs are compared with
those of a piled alternative in a situation
where deep deposits of weak unsuitable
soil are encountered. However the overall
economics of a situation where a tank is
erected and cannot enter service immedi-
ately can detract from this approach.
The preload technique permits load to
be applied to weak soil conditions in a
controlled manner, permitting consolida-
tion to take place with consequent in-
crease in soil density and shear strength.
The larger the area covered and the greater
the magnitude of loading ultimately ap-
plied the greater the consolidation and in-
crease in shear strength.
When the preload is removed some elas-
tic rebound of the soil system will take
place but essentially a major permanent
increase in the strength of the soil is effec-
ted. The technique requires a very care-
ful engineering analysis to be made to
determine the amount of preload and the
time required to achieve a desirable in-
crease in soil shear strength to restrict
post-construction settlements to within
allowable limits.
Where soils are extremely soft several
July, 1976 29
 1 Where tanks are designed to store pet-
roleum products, which have a specific
gravity less than unity, water testing will
indicate a factor of safety greater than 1.0
II if the tank is filled to the design storage
level. Where tanks are designed to store
products with a specific gravity in excess
of unity then water-testing of the tank will
only check its watertightness and the ade-
quacy of the foundation can only be deter-
mined properly by testing with the stor-
age product involved or bulk material with
a greater bulk density.
Irrespective of the purpose of water-
testing for the particular circumstance in-
volved, it is considered important that a
check be made on the settlement perfor-
mance of tanks in the early stages of their
lives. Where the water-testing or con-
trolled filling of the tank is intended to pre-
load the soil as discussed in the section
on foundation preloading, a number of geo-
technical instruments, such as piezometers,
settlement points and slope indicator holes
will be necessary to provide adequate
Fig. 4. Cardboard drains of 300mm'- cross-sectional area being installed at close spacing control on the preloading programme.
beneath an oil storage tank Many of these may be installed under-
neath the tank and read remotely; others
loading stages may be required in order (b) that the foundation provided is ade- will be situated around the periphery of
to avoid shear failure of the soil, each load- quate to carry the tank loadings with- the tank or within a distance which may
ing stage being maintained for an appro- out distressful settlements taking be affected by tank loading on the soil
priate length of time before additional load place. concerned.
is added. During preloading it is important
that sufficient instrumentation of the soil
SETTLEMENT
be carried out so that a continuous check
RING -DATE I
on the effectiveness of the preload tech-
nique is available at all times. In this way
appropriate adjustments can be made to
the preloading programme so that the de-
sired end result is effected as rapidly as
possible with appropriate safety at all
stages.
If a surcharge loading is placed too
rapidly there could be a failure resulting
in loss of fill and remoulding of the soil
which may not easily be strengthened. For
instance, a clay which contains a consid-
erable number of thin sand and silt part-
ings may consolidate fairly rapidly but on
disturbance with consequent remoulding
and loss of its "structure" may consoli-
date at a considerably slower rate.
This preloading technique was used by
Penman and Watson on their Teesside
site'ith considerable economic advan-
tages compared with the use of piles and
rock piers. To facilitate consolidation and
to increase the rate at which drainage was
effected from the soil a number of sand
drains were installed around the periphery
of the tanks involved.
A development which has taken place
over the past few years with regard to
accelerating the process of consolidation
of soft soils under load is in the use of
paper, or cardboard drains (the Kjellman-
Franki method) as an alternative to sand
drains. These paper drains consist of strips
of high permeability impregnated paper
which contains longitudinal drainage chan-
nels through which pore-water may escape
after passing through the paper from the
consolidating soil. The drains are installed
at predetermined spacings using a special
mandrel (Figs. 3 and 4). This method of
accelerating the consolidation of soft soils
SETTLEMENT ON INITIAL LOADING —DATE
has been widely used throughout the I

world, but especially in Europe, Japan and

in North America". /[/(/[/[g/[gJ
SETTLEMENT BETWEEN DATES I IL 2

Water testing and settlement records SETTLEMENT BETWEEN DATES 2 B 3

It is usualto test a storage tank after
erection to ensure:
(a) that it is water-tight, and Fig. 5. Typical settlement rings around tank periphery
30 Ground Engineering

Is
Fig. 6. Earthworks, and oil storage tank construction at Dalmeny, Scotland
Object of the instrumentation is to en-
able a comprehensive picture of the soil
behaviour to be obtained during the pro-
cess of tank loading. Where soil condi-
tions are relatively simple as for a raised
pad of compacted granular soil on compe-
tent ground as shown in Fig. 1(a), the
required instrumentation can correspond-
ingly be simple and may for example only
consist of settlement lugs welded on the
side of the tank around its periphery, say
at the eighth positions. This is considered
to be the minimum requirement to be pro-
vided during initial water-testing and eva-
luation of tank performance.
Where only peripheral tank settlements
are to be recorded these are measured dur-
ing initial filling and at regular intervals
thereafter. The readings thus taken may
be plotted in a variety of ways, one of the
most useful being indicated on Fig. 5 where
settlements are plotted on a radial basis
around the tank perimeter. Where settle-
ment rings are relatively close together
differential settlement is small compared
with when the rings are relatively far apart.
This method of plotting settlement sur-
veys has the advantage that a visual im-
pression of peripheral tank settlement is
immediately available. Fig. 5 gives a typi-
cal settlement diagram that can arise. It in-
dicates that the northern side of the tank
is settling considerably more than the
southern side and that the greater differen-
tial settlement between any pair of mea-
surement points is to the south-south-east
of the tank centre.
Dyke compound areas
The purpose of a dyke compound, or
bund wall area, is to retain spillage from
tanks and to prevent flooding and pollu-
tions of the region in the event of a tank
failure releasing vast quantities of product.
The dyking precautions to be adopted in
any instance will depend on the nature of
the commodity being stored.
For example underwriting requirements,
which will be briefly discussed in a subse-
quent section, lay down more stringent
rules for the storage of liquified petroleum
gases than they do for less volatile mat-
erials such as crude oil. Nevertheless dyke
compound areas should be properly de-
signed to ensure that they effectively re-
tain any spilled product. To this end peri-
pheral dykes and the compound floor
should be leak-proof.
Depending on the foundation solution
adopted it may be necessary to ensure
that the foundations, where these consist
of permeable material, are also leak-proof.
At Dalmeny, Scotland'he main founda-
tions for some 78m diameter floating roof
tanks consisted of compacted shale. To
prevent leakage of crude oil via the founda-
tions into underlying shale bedrock a 3mm
layer of glass reinforced plastic was
sprayed onto a polythene sheet covering
the tank pad areas. Fig. 6 gives a general
view of the site during the earthworks and
initial construction phase of the tanks.
Dykes should be provided with an im-
permeable core or surface seal where the
bulk of soil being used is not impermeable,
otherwise reinforced concrete dyke walls
should be employed. Care should be taken
in the choice of materials, where dykes are
to be built out of soil, to ensure that they
do not alter their properties with time.
For example where dykes are constructed
of compacted shales these can break
down under the influence of weathering to
virtually a clay material and dyke insta-
bility can occur where the dykes are high.
Also in freezing climates slope instability
can be induced by frost action on the sur-
face of clay slopes necessitating additional
protection measures.
Compound floor areas may easily be
rendered impermeable in the majority of
cases by providing up to 400mm of clay
soil fully remoulded and compacted. How-
ever, as with dyke walls, protection is
necessary, usually with granular fill to limit
shrinkage taking place in dry weather. This
could result in leakage in the event of spil-
lage, and softening and difficult traffic-
ability ensuing in wet weather.
The choice of materials for use in dyke
construction and the planning of measures
to prevent leakage from the compound
areas, such as around pipes passing
through compound walls, is often given
too little thought. Only trouble can ensue
where dykes are built of random material,
often in a non-compacted state, the com-
pound floor left untreated, and no provi-
sion made to seal off leakage that may
take place through pipe culverts.
The author is aware of one oil refinery
where over a period of fifty years vast
quantities of petroleum products had es-
caped from tank compounds and stored
themselves above the ground water table.
Fortunately the area was flat-lying and the
ground water virtually static and so no
movement of the petroleum products had
taken place to any extent outside the
immediate environs of the refinery. Re-
covery of the previously lost products
made a useful addition to refinery stocks
after re-treatment.
Underwriting considerations
The underwriting of steel storage tanks
varies considerably depending on (a) the
nature of the product, (b) the pollution
and fire risk in the event of tank failure,
(c) the country involved and its existing
legislation, and (d) the insurer. Thus no
general rules may be laid down on this im-
portant aspect relating to storage tank
planning, design and construction. From an
underwriting point of view as far as tank
compounds are concerned an area of risk
is any tank storage compound containing
one or more tanks which are bounded by a
common dyke system.
The following comments relate to the
storage of hydrocarbons. A prime require-
ment from an underwriting aspect is that
only one class of hydrocarbon shall be
stored in any one compound. Suggested
maximum storage capacity in any one area
of risk might be as follows:
Pressure tank storage 150 000 barrels
Refrigerated storage 300 000 barrels
Refined products 600 000 barrels
Boil-over products 900 000 barrels
Crude oil 900 000 barrels
A second requirement that is often made
is with respect to dyke height and limita-
tions are usually laid down to the maxi-
mum height that may be used. However
there is no reason why, if dykes are prop-
erly designed, the maximum height that is
acceptable from an underwriting aspect
should not be raised. At the present time a
limitation of 3-4m in height is often in
effect. Under special conditions, topo-
graphy may be taken into consideration in
spacing requirements of tanks and dykes.
With regard to storage capacity pro-
vided in a dyked enclosure, to safeguard
against the likelihood of spillage, the mini-
mum capacity normally laid down is equal
to that of the largest tank plus 10 per cent
of the capacity of all other tanks in the
same enclosure. Spacing and number of
tanks that may be incorporated into any
one enclosure is dependent on the product
to be stored and the tank capacities.
Detailed requirements of this aspect of
compound layout are dependent on the
underwriter. Similarly, minimum require-
ments for the layout of spill dykes, fire
hydrants, drainage, piping and fittings are
similarly specified.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank his col-
leagues at Edward L. Bateman Ltd., for
their helpful suggestions and constructive
comments during the preparation of this
article.
References
1. Legatt, A. J. and Bratchall, G. E.: "Submerged
foundations for 100 000 ton oil tanks". Pro-
ceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Part 1, May, 1973 and Discussion, November,
1973.
—
2. "Esso's giant oil tanks a question of more
haste, less speed". Ivew Civil Engineer, 28th
February, 1974.
3. "Bitumen slip layers for bearing piles".
Ground Engineering, November, 1971.
4. Penman, A. D. M. and Watson, G. H.:
"Foundations for torage tanks on reclaimed
land at Teesmouth." Proceedings of the Institu-
tion of Civil Engineers, May, 1967 and discus-
sion, April, 1968.
5. "Canvey settles on cardboard". Contract
Journal, February 7th, 1974.
6. "Paper drains go in fast on Quebec project".
Heavy Construction News, March 5th, 1973.
7. "Dalmeny tank farm gets dug in". Contract
Journal, March 28th, 1974.
July, 1976 31